Lesson 2.

1
Transport
Across
Membranes
Prepared by : Ma. Christine L. Velez
Learning Objectives
1. Explain transport mechanism in cells
(diffusion, osmosis, facilitated transport, active
transport).
 Transport Across
Membrane
1. The various organelles and structures
within a cell require a variety of
substances in order to carry out their
functions. In turn, they form products;
some useful and some not. Most of these
substance must pass in and out of the cell.

2. The movement of substances in and

out of a cell through the cell membrane
is termed transport across the
membrane. Although the thickness of the
cell membrane is only 5-10 nm, it is a
physical barrier to the movement of ions
and molecules.
 Transport Across
Membrane
3. (a) The cell membrane and other
membranes within the cell are all living
membranes that exhibit selective
permeability. A selectively permeable
membrane enables molecules of certain
substances to move across it freely while
excluding others.
(b) By responding to changing
environmental conditions or cellular
needs, a cell membrane may also be a
barrier to a substance at one time and
then actively promote its passage at
another.
 Transport Across
Membrane

4. The selective permeability of cell

membranes is due to the presence of the
phospholipid bilayer and proteins.

5. (a) Hydrophobic molecules such as carbon dioxide and oxygen can dissolve in the
phospholipid bilayer and move easily across the membrane. However, the same phospholipid
bilayer can prevent the transport of hydrophilic substances such as ions and even very small
polar molecules like water, glucose and other.
 Transport Across Membrane
6. (a) By regulating the movement of
substances in and out of a cell, the cell can
control its own internal ionic and molecular
composition, which can be very different
from the external environment. Substance
can move across the cell either passively by
physical processes or actively by
physiological processes.
(b) Movement of substances through physical processes such as diffusion, facilitated
diffusion and osmosis are termed passive transport, since these processes do not require
the input of metabolic energy by the cell.
(c) Movement of substances through physiological processes such as active transport
and bulk transport (exocytosis and endocytosis) require expenditure of energy by the cell.
 Transport Across Membrane
6. (a) By regulating the movement of
substances in and out of a cell, the cell can
control its own internal ionic and molecular
composition, which can be very different
from the external environment. Substance
can move across the cell either passively by
physical processes or actively by
physiological processes.
(b) Movement of substances through physical processes such as diffusion, facilitated
diffusion and osmosis are termed passive transport, since these processes do not require
the input of metabolic energy by the cell.
(c) Movement of substances through physiological processes such as active transport
and bulk transport (exocytosis and endocytosis) require expenditure of energy by the cell.
 Process Energy source Description Examples
Passive processes
• Physical processes
• Rate dependent on kinetic energy and concentration gradient of the diffusing particles.
(a) Simple diffusion Kinetic energy due to Net movement of particles (molecules of ions) from Movement of fats,
random molecular s region of greater concentration to a region of oxygen, carbon dioxide
motion of the lower concentration, that is, down the concentration through the lipid portion
diffusing particles gradient of the membrane and ions
through protein channels
under certain conditions

(b) Osmosis Kinetic energy due to Simple diffusion of water molecules from a region of Movement of water in
random molecular higher water potential to a region of lower water and out of cells via
motion of water potential through a selectively permeable membrane pores.
molecules membrane.

(c) Facilitated diffusion Kinetic energy due to Carrier protein in cell membrane accelerates Movement of glucose into
random molecular movement of substance down the concentration cells.
motion of the gradient. Apart from concentration gradient, the
diffusing particles rate of facilitated diffusion is also limited by the
number of carrier proteins available in the cell
membrane. Furthermore, since the structures of
carrier proteins are specific for certain types of
molecules, facilitated diffusion can be a very
selective process.
 Process Energy source Description Examples

Active processes
• Physiological processes
• Cellular energy in the form of ATP is used
(a) Active transport ATP Membrane carrier proteins in cell membrane • Pumping of sodium
(solute pumping) transport ions or molecules through the ions out of the cell
membrane against a concentration gradient. against concentration
Cells that perform a lot of active transport are gradient.
likely to have many mitochondria to provide • Movement of amino
energy for the processes. acids and most ions
across the membrane

(b) Bulk transport ATP Movement of large quantities of mineral into or Movement of water in
out of cells and out of cells via
membrane pores.

(i) Exocytosis Secretion or ejection of substances from a cell. • Secretion of digestive

The substances to be ejected is enclosed in a enzymes by
membranous vesicle, which then fuses with the pancreas, secretion
plasma membrane and ruptures, releasing the of neurotransmitters,
substance to the exterior. hormones and mucus
• Ejection of cell
wastes
 Process Energy source Description Examples
Active processes
• Physiological processes
• Cellular energy in the form of ATP is used

(b) Bulk transport

(ii) Endocytosis
• Phagocytosis ATP ‘Cell eating’. A large external particle (proteins, • White blood cells
bacteria, dead cell debris) is surrounded by a part (neutrophils and
of the cell membrane of the ingesting cell macrophages) ingest
(phagocyte); the encircle particle becomes invading bacteria.
enclosed in a membranous sac which is called a
food vacuole.

• Pinocytosis ATP ‘Cell drinking’ or bulk intake of liquid. Part of the • Occurs in most cells
plasma membrane encloses an external fluid to take in needed
droplet containing small-filled vesicle. solutes dissolved in
tissue fluid.
• Reabsorption of
proteins by proximal
tubules in nephrons
of kidney
Lesson 2.2
Passive
Transport
Learning Objectives
1. Explain the transport mechanism in passive
transport (diffusion, facilitated diffusion and
osmosis).
 Diffusion
1. (a) Diffusion is defined as the net
movement of particles (molecules or ions) of
a substance from a region of higher
concentration to a region of lower
concentration. The particles are said to be
moving down the concentration gradient.

(b) Diffusion will continue to occur as long

as a concentration gradient exits between the
two regions until equilibrium is achieved, that
is, when the particles have spread evenly
throughout the whole system.
 Diffusion
2. Diffusion can only take place when
particles are moving down a concentration
gradient. In order for molecules to move
against the concentration gradient, active
transport is necessary

3. Diffusion is the result of the random movement of individual molecules which produces a
net movement along its concentration gradient (from higher to a lower concentration area).
Therefore, any process that increases the rate of random movement of particles will
increase the rate of diffusion.

4. The rate of diffusion will be higher or faster when diffusion

 Diffusion
(a) takes place in gas compared to liquid
(b) takes place at a higher temperature
compared to a lower temperature
(c) involves small-sizes molecules rather
than large-sized molecules as smaller
molecules diffuse faster than larger ones
(d) occurs over a steep concentration gradient (a large difference in concentration between
two areas)
5. Uncharged, fat-soluble (lipophilic) molecules diffuses more rapidly through cell
membranes that water-soluble ones. Steroids hormones and dissolved respiratory gases
such as oxygen and carbon dioxide are neutral and fat-soluble and therefore, are able to
diffuse rapidly and freely across the cell membrane.
 Diffusion
6. (a) Water molecules are the major
molecules that move in and out of a cell.
Water molecules will move across a cell
membrane freely despite the fact that they
are polar and non-soluble in fat.

(b) This is due to the presence of tiny

pores (about 7-8 in diameter) in the cell
membrane. Each tiny pore is actually
hydrophilic channel lined by a group of 2-3
protein molecules that span the
membrane.
 Diffusion
(c) Any ions with diameters less than
water molecules will also pass through the
cell membrane freely.

7. Glucose, nucleic acids, amino acids, fatty acids, glycerol and proteins are not soluble in
lipids and are unable to pass readily through the phospholipid bilayer of cell membranes. As
these substances are much larger than water molecules, they are unable to pass through the
pores in the cell membrane. These substances are only able to pass through cell membranes
by a process called facilitated diffusion.
 Facilitated Diffusion
1. (a) Facilitated diffusion ( or facilitated
transport) is a process of diffusion
facilitated by transport proteins in the cell
membrane.
(b) Polar molecules and changed ions
dissolve in water but they cannot diffuse
freely across cell membrane due to the
hydrophobic nature of the phospholipids
that make up the lipid bilayers.
Only small non-polar molecules such as oxygen can diffuse easily across the membrane. All
small polar molecules are transported across membranes by proteins that form
transmembrane protein channels.
 Facilitated Diffusion
These channels are gated so they can open
and close, thus regulating the flow of ions
or small polar molecules. Larger molecules
are transported by transmembrane carrier
proteins (such as permeases) that change
their conformation as the molecules (for
example, glucose or amino acids) are
carried through. The molecules are moved
across the membrane as the carrier
proteins alternate between these two
conformations.

(c) The ability of carrier proteins to change shape is regulated by the binding and the
release of the transported molecules. Although net movement is always down a concentration
gradient, carrier proteins can actually transport molecules in either direction.
 Facilitated Diffusion
(d) Just like an enzyme that is specific for its substrate, a carrier protein is specific for the
solute it transports. It has a specific binding site which can be inhibited by substances that
resembles the normal substrate.
(e) Unlike enzymes, carrier proteins do not catalyzed chemical reactions. Their function is
to catalyze a physical process, that is the transport of a molecule across a membrane that
would otherwise be relatively impermeable to that molecule.
(f) Facilitated diffusion, like simple diffusion, is passive and does not involve any energy
expenditure by a cell.
2. However, apart from the involvement of transport proteins, there is another difference
between simple diffusion and facilitated diffusion.
Facilitated Diffusion
(a) When the rate of diffusion of a solute
into a cell is plotted against its extracellular
concentration, a maximum diffusion rate is
registered for facilitated diffusion. In other
words, facilitated diffusion shows saturation
at a higher solute concentration.
(b) There are many molecules of each
type of transport protein built into plasma
membrane. When all the binding sites of a
particular type of transport protein are
used up, the maximum facilitated diffusion
rate is achieved and the transport proteins
are said to be saturated.
 Facilitated Diffusion
(c) In simple diffusion, such a maximum rate is rarely observed. The rate of diffusion of the
solute in this case is directly proportional to the increase in extracellular concentration.
 Osmosis and Water Potential
1. Osmosis is defined as the net movement of
water molecules form a region of high water
potential (dilute solution) to a region of low
water potential (more concentration solution)
through a selectively permeable membrane.
2. (a) Water molecules have kinetic energy as
a result of their rapid random movement.
Some free-moving water molecules will collide
with the membrane creating a pressure called
water potential. Water potential is therefore a
measure of the kinetic energy of water
molecules.
 Osmosis and Water Potential

(b) The symbol for water potential is the

Greek letter, (psi).The unit for C is newton per
square meter (N ). One N is referred to as one
pascal (Pa). Since Pa is a very small unit, C is
usually expressed in larger units such as
kilopascal (kPa) or megapascal (Mpa). By
convention, pure water which has the highest
water potential is given a value of zero, that is
 Osmosis and Water Potential
3. (a) Water potential is also a measure of the
tendency for water molecules to leave one
location in favor of another. Consider a solution
with a higher water potential that is separated
from a solution with a lower water potential by
a selectively permeable membrane. More
water molecules will move from the region of
higher water potential to the region of lower
water potential.
(b) This movement will continue until the
water potential on both sides of the membrane
are equal. Although water molecules will
continue to move in both directions after
equalization there will be no net movement.
 Water will diffuse from a region of higher water potential to a
region of lower water potential

Solution Water Potential Direction of water diffusing

Pure water Higher water potential
Dilute sucrose solution
More concentrated sucrose Lower water potential
solution

4. (a) The addition of a solute to water has the effect of lowering the water potential, so
the water potential of a solution (sometimes called solute potential) or becomes
negative.
 Osmosis and Water Potential
(b) Solutes restrict the movement of water molecules,
lowering the kinetic energy and hence the water potential
of the solution. This is because for any solute to dissolve
in water, its particles need to attract and be surrounded
by a sphere of water molecules. This will reduce the
number of free water molecules available to bombard and
exert pressure on the membrane. Therefore, all solutions
will always have a lower water potential than pure water,
that is, , is less than 0 negative value).
(c) The effect of solute on the water potential of a
solution is inversely proportional to solute concentration.
The higher the amount of dissolved solute, the lower or
more negative its solute potential will become.
 Osmosis and Water Potential
Compartment A Compartment B Compartment A Compartment B

net water
movement

𝜓=−150 𝑘𝑃𝑎 𝜓=−350 𝑘𝑃𝑎 𝜓=−250 𝑘𝑃𝑎 𝜓=−250 𝑘𝑃𝑎

(a) During osmosis (b) At equilibrium after osmosis

5. (a) During osmosis

Water passes from compartment A to compartment B. A has a higher water potential than B
because A has more free water molecules which move randomly and hit the membrane. B
has lower water potential because there are fewer free water molecules.
 Osmosis and Water Potential
(b) After osmosis
Eventually, A and B will have the same water potential at equilibrium. At equilibrium, the
water potential of both compartments is -250 kPa (the average of the two solutions).
Water potential at equilibrium

− 500
¿
2
¿ − 250 𝑘𝑃𝑎
Water molecules still cross the membrane, but at equal rates in both directions. Thus, there
is no net movement of water molecules. At this point, osmosis will stop as both A and B
have the same water potential and water molecules will hit the membrane at equal rates
from both sides.
 Hypotonic, Hypertonic and Isotonic Solution
1. The term hypotonic, hypertonic and
isotonic can be used when comparing
solutions of different concentrations. The
greater the solute concentration, the
lower the water potential as solutes
restrict the free movement of water
molecules.
2. Solutions that contain equal numbers
of solute particles will have equal water
potential. Such solution are isotonic
solutions. There is no net movement of
water molecules between two isotonic
solutions separated by a selectively
permeable membrane.
 Hypotonic, Hypertonic and Isotonic Solution
3. A solution that contains less solute and therefore has a higher water potential is known
as hypotonic, while a solution that has more solute and a lower water potential is known as
hypertonic.
Tonicity of solutions, water potential and direction of net water movement
Concentration of Concentration of Tonicity Water Potential Direction of net
solute in solution A solute in solution B movement of water
More Less A hypertonic to B; B B higher than A From B to A
hypotonic A
Less More B hypertonic to A; A A higher than B From A to B
hypotonic to B
Same Same A and B are isotonic Same No net movement of
water molecules in
either direction
Hypotonic, Hypertonic and Isotonic Solution
Hypotonic solution lower
solute concentration;
less negative; higher
water potential

Hypertonic solution; higher solute

concentration; more negative; lower
water potential
 Hypotonic, Hypertonic and Isotonic Solution
The U-tube contain two heterotonic solutions separated by a selectively permeable
membrane. Since solutes decrease water potential, a hypotonic solution has a higher water
potential than a hypertonic solution. In osmosis, water molecules move through a
selectively permeable membrane from a hypotonic solution into a hypertonic solution until
the water potentials is equal on both sides of the membrane.
Animal Cells and Osmosis
1. Most unicellular organisms that live in fresh
water have to overcome the problem of water
diffusing into the cell through osmosis. This is
because the cytoplasm of such cells ( for example,
Paramecium) is much more hypertonic than the
water in its surrounding environment.
2. When excess water enters a cell, it will dilute
the contents of the cell to such an extent that the
normal activities of the cell will be disrupted.
Finally, it results in the rupture of the cell
membrane since animal cells do not have a cell
wall.
Animal Cells and Osmosis

3. For Paramecium, its cell membrane is

prevented from rupturing by the presence of
contractile vacuoles. This organelle collects water
from various parts of the cell and then pumps the
water out of the cell through rhythmic
contraction, thus keeping the volume of the cell
constant.
 Animal Cells and Osmosis
4. (a) In a hypotonic solution, there will be a net
flow of water into the erythrocyte by osmosis,
which is only limited by the protoplasm and the
very weak cell membrane. Therefore, water will
move into the cell continuously until the cell
Solution has lower water Solution has same water
ruptures, a process known as hemolysis.
potential than the cell contents; potential as cell contents; cell in
cell shrinks and becomes equilibrium
crenated (b) In an isotonic solution (such as 5.5%
sucrose solution or 0.9% NaCl solution), the
erythrocyte does not undergo any change in
shape as there will be no net flow of water in or
Solutions has a higher
water potential than cell
out of the cell. Therefore, all animals have tissue
contents; water enters
cell, cell swells and bursts
fluid that is isotonic with the cytoplasm of their
(hemolysis) cells.
 Animal Cells and Osmosis
(c) When placed in hypertonic solution, there will be a net outflow of water from the
erythrocyte into the solution causing the cell to shrink and wrinkle. The erythrocyte is said
to have undergone crenation.
 Plant Cell-Water Relationships
1. If plant cell is placed in a hypotonic solution, the
protoplast expands and the plasma membrane
stretches and exerts pressure against the cell wall.
However, plant cells will not rupture like animal cells
because they are restrained by their relatively tough
but elastic cell walls.

2. (a) Plant cells tend to concentrate relatively strong

solutions of mineral salts within their vacuoles. They
can also accumulate sugars, organic acids and amino
acids in the vacuoles. Consequently, the plant cell sap is
always hypertonic and water tends to move into plant
cells continuously.
 Plant Cell-Water Relationships
(c) (i) Turgor pressure is a positive value
and acts on the cell wall producing an equal
but opposite reaction called wall pressure.
Wall pressure is always a positive value when
the cell is turgid, and equal to 0 kPa when the
cell is flaccid.
(ii) Walls pressure has the tendency to
push water molecules out of the cell, thus
stopping the influx of water molecules. Plant
(iii) Only plant cells have . is a
physiologist now use the term pressure
measure of the wall pressure exerted by
potential denoted by , to describe wall
the rigid cell wall that tends to limit further
pressure.
water uptake by the plant cell.
 Plant Cell-Water Relationships
3. (a) Turgidity plays a very important role in
the support of non-woody, herbaceous plants.
Turgidity is always maintained in plant cells
since they generally exists in a hypotonic
medium.
(b) However, if a turgid plant cell is placed
in a hypertonic solution, there is a net outflow
of water by osmosis. This results in the
shrinking of the vacuole and protoplast in the 1. When the cell is 2. Under normal 3. When immersed in a
cell, causing the detachment and pulling away placed in a relatively
strong solution, water
conditions, the
protoplasm fills the
stronger (more
concentrated) solution,
of the plasma membrane from the cell wall. passes out of the cell
into the hypertonic
space within the cell
walls.
the cell loses even
larger amounts of
This phenomenon is known as plasmolysis. medium and the
plasma membrane
water and contacts still
further. The cell
contacts slightly.
becomes flaccid. A cell
in this condition is said
to be plasmolyzed.
 Plant Cell-Water Relationships
(c) Incipient plasmolysis is the term
used to described the condition of the
protoplast at the initial stage of
plasmolysis. If the cell is not plasmolyzed
for too long and the condition is not too
severe, this process can be reversed by
transferring the cell back into pure water.
Water will reenter the cell by osmosis.
This whole phenomenon is called
deplasmolysis.

4. The loss of turgor by plant cells may result in the wilting or drooping of leaves and stems.
 Plant Cell-Water Relationships
The effect of hypotonic, isotonic and hypertonic solutions on a plant cell

Hypotonic solution: net flow of water by
osmosis
Water enters the cell. The vacuole is filled
to its maximum capacity. The cell contents
push against the cell wall, making the cell
very rigid. The cell in this condition is said
to be turgid. However, there is no danger
of the cell bursting. The pressure exerted
by the cell wall against the cell contents
restricts the inflow of water.
Isotonic solution: no net flow of water
The cell neither gains nor loses water.
There is no observable change in the cell.
Hypertonic solution: net outflow of water
by osmosis
Water moves out of the cell. The vacuole
shrinks. The cell membrane pulls away
from the cell wall. The cell becomes flaccid
as the contents are no longer pushing
against the cell wall. The cell is
plasmolyzed.
 Plant Cell-Water Relationships
Plasmolysis
(a) Only occurs in plant cells.
(b) Takes place when the cell is placed in a hypertonic solution,
that is, when the external water potential is more negative than
the water potential of the cell.
(c) Occurs due to a net outflow of water from the cell. The cell
solution becomes increasingly concentrated as the volume of
cell solution decreases. Finally, the cytoplasm pulls away from
parts of the cell wall. However, contact within the cell wall is
maintained at points where there are cytoplasmic connections
with the neighboring cells. The cells become flaccid since the
cell contents are no longer pushing against the cell wall.
Hemolysis
(a) Only occurs in animal cells.
(b) Takes place when the cell is placed in a hypotonic solution,
that is, when the external water potential is less negative than
the water potential of the cell.
(c) Occurs due to a net inflow of water into the cell. The cell
bursts and disintegrates due to the pressure potential
generated.
 Plant Cell-Water Relationships
Plasmolysis Hemolysis
(d) The cell are said to be plasmolyzed. (d) The cells are said to have undergone lysis. If the cells
involved are red blood cells, it is called hemolysis.

(e) The shape of the cell remains unchanged since it has a rigid (e) The cell ruptures leaving the ruptured cell membrane or
cell wall. ‘ghost skin’ floating in the solution.

7. Whether or not water will move into a cell is dependent on the water potential of the
cell, . The water potential of a cell (sometimes denoted as ) is a measure of its ability to
absorb water through osmosis. Water potential can be determined from solute potential
and pressure potential using the water potential equation below.
Water potential of plant cell = Solute potential of cell solution + Pressure potential
(Net tendency of plant cell (negative value) (positive value)
To take up water by osmosis)
= +
 Plant Cell-Water Relationships
8. The term solute potential, (or ), is used to express the reduction of water potential
caused by the addition of a solute. The decrease in water potential is directly proportional to
the solute concentration. Pure water has a water potential of zero. As more solute is added,
the solute potential becomes more negative. This causes the water potential to decrease
also.

9. A plant cell is said to be at equilibrium when there is no net movement of water into the
cell. The cell is now fully turgid and has zero water potential (). The tendency for a plant cell
to draw water is just balanced by the pressure potential tending to oppose the entry of
water.
𝜓 𝑠 +𝜓 𝑝 =0
 Plant Cell-Water Relationships
10. In solving problems concerning the relationship of animal and plant cells to water, it is
necessary to remember the following.
(a) Water always moves from an area of higher water potential to one with lower water
potential.
(b) For two systems to be in equilibrium, they must have equal water potential.
(c) In most cases, the quantities of water entering and leaving plant cells are not
sufficient to significantly change their solute potential, through pressure potentials can
change significantly. The solute potential of plants cells is therefore, assumed to remain
constant in calculations.
(d) The water potential of an animal cell is determined primarily by its solute potential.
The effect of the cell membrane is usually so small that it is often ignored.
 Plant Cell-Water Relationships
For animal cells:

𝜓 𝑤 =𝜓 𝑠

Terminology used in cell-water relationships

New term used by plant physiologists Values Alternative terms still in use by animal
physiologist and in medicine
Water potential 0 to negative
(//)
Solute potential 0 to negative Osmotic pressure (positive)
(/)
Pressure potential 0 to positive Wall pressure (positive)
(/) Turgor pressure (positive)
(Turgor pressure is numerically equal to
wall pressure)
Lesson 2.3
Active
Transport
Learning Objectives
Explain the transport mechanism in active
transport.
Active Transport
1. In active transport, a cell uses energy to
import and export substances across the cell
membrane. This is carried out against the
concentration gradient to the substance, that
is, from a region of lower concentration to a
region of higher concentration.

2. Due to the requirement of energy to move

substances against the concentration
gradient, cells and tissues carrying out active
transport are characterized by
(a) the presence of numerous
mitochondria
 Active Transport
(b) a high concentration of ATP
(c) a high respiratory rate
3. (a) Since active transport can only occur in a living system that actively obtains energy
through respiration, factors such as temperature and oxygen concentration, that affect the
rate of respiration also affect the rate of active transport.
(b) Energy in cells originates from the hydrolysis of adenosine triphosphate (ATP),
provided by respiration in the mitochondria. Therefore, any substance or event that inhibits
ATP formation or blocks the usage of ATP can slow down or stop active transport from
taking place. For example, cyanide that stops the synthesis of ATP can also inhibit active
transport.
4. Most substance transported by active transport are polar substances that are larger than
1 nm (1 nm is the diameter of pores in cell membranes). Water molecules (diameter 0.3
nm) and ions with a diameter less than 1 nm can move across the membrane freely.
Active Transport
5. (a) Active transport involves transport
proteins located on the cell membrane called
‘pumps’. The pump molecules are globular
proteins that span the lipid bilayer.
(b) Unlike the transport proteins involved
in facilitated diffusion, those performing active
transport require energy. A solute molecule or
iron to be transported binds to the transport
protein. This binding stimulates
phosphorylation of the transport protein by
ATP, that is an ATP molecule transfer its
terminal phosphate group directly to the
transport protein, releasing chemical energy
stored in ATP during the process.
Active Transport
(c) Phosphorylation provides energy that
induces the transport protein to change its
shape (or conformation) in a manner that
moves the bound solute particles across the
membrane, where the solute molecule or ion
is then released.

(d) The release of the solute molecule or

ion causes dephosphorylation, that is, the
release of the phosphate group.
Dephosphorylation returns the transport
protein to its original shape and the cycle
repeats.
 Active Transport
(e) Most transport proteins are specific to a particular molecules, and this explains why
active transport is very selective. If the transport protein for a particular substance is not
present, the substance will not be transported.
(f) Different molecules or ions are transported across the membrane against their
concentration gradients at different rates.
6. Active transport is a feature of most living cells. Active transport takes place in the gut
where absorption takes place, in the active uptake of ions by plant roots, in the kidney
tubules where urine is formed and in nerve fibers where an impulse is propagated.
7. (a) An example of active transport is the sodium-potassium pump, which exists in all
membranes. The ‘pump’ actively removes sodium ions from cells while actively
accumulating potassium ions into the cells from their external environment.
 Active Transport
(b) Cells must contain high
concentrations of potassium ions () and
low concentrations of sodium ions () to
perform basic functions such as
maintaining their volume and synthesizing
proteins, as well as conducting more
specific activities, such as transmitting
nerve impulses and enabling lungs and
kidneys to function.

8. The entire process of active transport takes only a fraction of a second. Through this
mechanism, a cell is able to maintain a low sodium ion concentration and very high
potassium ion concentration within the cell.
 Active Transport

9. Immediately after a substance is taken

into a cell through active transport, it will
not be able to get out of the cell even in
the presence of a concentration gradient.
In this case, the pump proteins act as a
one-way valve and the plasma membrane
exhibits selective permeability.

10. When a cell dies, it cannot carry out active transport and its plasma membrane loses
selectively permeability. The concentrations of ions inside and outside the cell become equal
quickly due to diffusion.
Lesson 2.4
Bulk
Transport
Learning Objectives
Differentiate exocytosis and endocytosis.
 Bulk Transport
1. Larger molecules are often too big to
diffuse across the cell membrane or be
transported through a protein channel,
regardless of whether are hydrophobic
molecules. Instead, they are transported
inside membrane-bound vesicles that can
fuse with cell membranes in a process
called cytosis.

2. (a) Most cells carry out cytosis. Cytosis is a transport mechanism involving infolding
(invagination) and outfolding of a small portion of the cell membrane, leading to the
movement of large quantities of molecules or solids in and out of cells.
 Bulk Transport
3. Bulk transport can occur in either direction: into a cell (endocytosis) or out of a cell
(exocytosis).
 Endocytosis
1. There are two main forms of endocytosis:
phagocytosis and pinocytosis.

2. In phagocytosis (cellular eating), solid

substances (sometimes whole organisms) are
taken into a cell by invagination or infolding of
the cell membrane. A vacuole is formed, the
inner surface of which is derived from the outer
surface of the cell membrane. The vacuole
content is then digested after the vacuole fuses
with a lysosome containing hydrolytic enzymes.

3. Many unicellular organisms such as Amoeba, and certain white blood cells called
phagocytes are able to perform phagocytosis
 Endocytosis
4. (a) Pinocytosis (cellular drinking) is a similar
process except that it is used for the intake of
dissolved materials rather than solids.
(b) Tiny droplets of fluid are trapped by the folds
in the plasma membrane, which pinch off into the
cytosol as tiny vesicles.
(c) The liquid contents of these vesicles are then
slowly transferred into the cytosol; the vesicles
become progressively smaller.
 Exocytosis

1. Exocytosis appears to be
endocytosis in reverse. Vesicles and
vacuoles move to the cell
membrane, fuse with it and spill
their contents to the outside of the
cell. A cell uses exocytosis to export
bulky materials. For example,
certain cells in the pancreas that
manufacture the hormone insulin in
large quantities secrete it in bulk
into the bloodstream by exocytosis.
 Exocytosis
2. Exocytosis also serves to repair damaged areas of the plasma membrane by replenishing
the phospholipid bilayer.

3. Together, endocytosis and exocytosis provide a mechanism for rejuvenating the cell
membrane. Endocytosis and exocytosis occur continuously and yet the area of the cell
membrane remains fairly constant. Apparently, the addition of membrane by one process
offsets the loss of membrane by the other.
4. Like active transport, both endocytosis and exocytosis require energy. Energy, in the
form of ATP, is used in the movement of vesicles around the cell and fusion with, and
pinching off from the cell membrane.