Prelim

LABORATORY:
INTRODUCTION:
Bile is the yellowish-brown fluid secreted by the liver and discharged into the duodenum where it aids in
the emulsification of fats. It is a viscid fluid with an alkaline reaction. Its important constituents are bile
acids, bile pigments, inorganic salts and cholesterol.
The first step in fat digestion is to break the fat globules into small sizes so that the water – soluble
digestive enzymes can act on the globule surfaces. This process is called emulsification of the fat and it is
done under the influence of bile acids or salts. The carboxyl group of the bile salt is water soluble, whereas
the sterol portion is highly soluble in fat. Bile salts thus allow the formation of colloidal dispersions between
fat and water – soluble enzymes. This greatly decreases the interfacial tension of the fat breaking them into
minute particles thereby increasing the total surface area of the fat particle to be acted upon by digestive
enzymes.
Name: Date: September 7, 2021

AGLASI, Riza
BANGAAN, Mhay S.
CAMACHO, Lhiemz Denims L.
DELMENDO, Lawrece Paulene S.
GODDI, Jastene M.
LECITONA, Tricia Mae V.
I.
Date Assigned: August 16, 2021 Date submitted: September 8, 2021
ACTIVITY NO. 9
DIGESTION: BILE OBJECTIVES:

At the end of the laboratory session, you should be able to
1. describe correctly the physical and chemical properties of bile
2. research on the specific tests for the components of bile
3. trace properly how bile pigments are formed
MATERIALS
Refence material Pen/pencil
PROCEDURES AND OBSERVATIONS
Scoring rubric
For Procedures:
- 3 points is given for every short procedure done that requires an immediate written
observation o 2 points for correct downloaded
A Self-regulated Learning Module 1
picture with label o 1 point for the answer
- 1 point is given for items that has answers only
Physical properties
1. Research on the following physical properties of bile:
a. Color: Golden yellow
b. Odor: It has a not very strong smell
c. pH: 7-8.5
Test for the organic constituents. The following are tests used to determine the presence of organic
materials in bile. Read the instruction for each part and do what is asked.
Test for bile acids:

1. Should a test tube with bile is diluted with 0.5 mL of water, added with 5% sucrose solution and
eventually conc. Sulfuric acid, what is the possible result. Write it in the observation. Download a
photo of the positive result and attached it to your paper.
Observation:
• Red ring forms at the point of contact. Shaking makes the whole solution red. The bile and
sulfuric acid produced a cherry red color.
What is the name of this test?
• Pettenkofer’s test for sucrose
What is the principle behind this test?
• Bile salt will react with hydroxymethylenephurphural to form red solution.
Hydroxymethylenephurphural is formed of
sugar that dehydrated with sulphuric acid.
Test for Bile Pigments

1. Should a test tube with bile is diluted with 0.5 mL of water, placed in a filter paper in the middle of a
watch glass and then added with conc. Nitric acid, what is the possible result? Download a photo of
the possible result and attach it to your paper.
What are the colors produced?
• Green, Blue. Violet, Red, Reddish-Yellow and Brown in the center Name the bile
pigments responsible for the colors produced:
• Because of the oxidation of the bile pigments a red color is produced which is the
Bilirubin, a green color is produced which is the Biliverdin and a blue color is produced which is the
Bilicyanin What is the name of this test?
• Gmelin test
• Gmelin’s test is a specific test used for the qualitative detection of bile pigments in
urine. The bile pigments i.e bilirubin and biliverdin are almost entirely excreted through the bile by
the liver but in conditions like obstructive jaundice, where bile ducts get blocked, the bile pigments
start appearing in the urine. In a test tube, five milliliters of urine are progressively added to five
milliliters of pure nitric acid. If bile pigments are present, different colored rings appear between the
two layers as they oxidize to distinct chemical compounds. As an oxidizing agent, nitric acid is
employed. If bilirubin is present, blue, green, and violet rings appear. Because Gmelin's test is
insensitive, a positive result invariably indicates the presence of bile pigments; nevertheless, a
negative result does not rule out the existence of tiny amounts of bile pigments.
Test for bilirubin

1. Should a test tube with bile is diluted with 1 mL of water and added with barium chloride solution,
what is the possible result. Write your answer in the observation.
Observation:
• The positive result is a yellow solution with the formation of curdy white precipitate.
What is the rationalization behind this result?
• The rationale behind this result is BaCl added to this solution precipitates the sulphate radical
which is present in bile to form BaSO4
2. Should you filter the product obtained in procedure 1 and add Fouchet’s reagent to the filter paper
with precipitate, what is the possible result? Write it in the observation below and download a photo
of the positive result and attached it to your paper.
Observation:
• There is an immediate reaction that changed the color to blue green surrounding the drop
which means there is a presence of bilirubin. What is the name of this test?
• Fouchet’s test
• The oxidizing action of Fouchet's reagent converts the bile pigment to green biliverdin (if it
has been transported to the liver and reduced, it is referred to as bilirubin.). Colors range from
olive green to emerald green, depending on the concentration of bile pigment present.

Test for Cholesterol
Procedure A
1. Should a test tube with bile is dissolved with chloroform and added with conc. Sulfuric acid, what is
the possible result. Write it in the observation below and download a photo of the positive result and
attach it to your paper.
Observations:
• After dissolving cholesterol in a chloroform it would give a water-like solution. While adding the
concentrated sulfuric acid, changes in color is being observed from yellow to brick-red color
indicating the presence of cholesterol.
• Salkowski's Test
• This is known as sterols, wherein cholesterol as a derived lipid is a member of the group of
steroid. Imbalance in lipid metabolism causes major clinical problems like obesity and
atherosclerosis.
Procedure B
1. Should a test tube with bile is dissolved with chloroform and then added with acetic anhydride and
eventually sulfuric acid, what is the possible result. Write it in the observation below. Download a
photo of the positive result and attach it to your paper.
Observations:
• When the solution turns red or pink, then blue, and ultimately bluishgreen, it indicates a
favorable result.

• Liebermann - Burchard Test What is the principle behind this test?
• This test is a chemical estimation of cholesterol, in which the cholesterol reacts like a
conventional alcohol with strong concentrated acids, yielding colorful compounds as a result.
Acetic anhydride is employed as a solvent and as a dehydrating agent, while sulfuric acid is
utilized as a dehydrating and oxidizing agent.
Test for Inorganic constituents. The following is the step to make a fusion mixture to test the presence of
inorganic material in bile. Read through it to understand the concept.
1. In an evaporating dish, mix 2 g of Na2CO3 and 1 g of KNO3, this is your fusion mixture
2. Add 15 mL of bile to the fusion mixture
3. Heat strongly until the mixture is charred or burnt black.
➢ If the laboratory is equipped with a hood, you might consider doing this under it since the odor
could become obnoxious, otherwise you can use masks while heating
4. Cool it enough to be handled and add 10 mL of water
5. Filter and divide the filtrate into 3 equal parts and place separately in test tubes
6. Test for chlorides, phosphate ions and sulfate ions (refer to the experiment in saliva for the
procedures.) Write the possible result in the table below and download photo for each procedure and
OBSERVATIONS
IONS TEST REAGENTS RESULTS
Cl- Chloride ions Silver nitrate A white precipitate was formed.

PO4 -3 Phosphate ions Ammonium molydate Shows a canary yellow
precipitate
SO4 -2 Sulfate ions Hydrochloric acid, Forms Milky precipitate.

Barium Chloride
Aside from the ions tested, name 3 other ions found in bile.
 The three other ions that is found in bile are Potassium ions (K+), Sodium ions (Na+), and
Calcium ions (Ca2+).

Test for Chloride ions Test for Sulfate ion
Test for Phosphate ion

T s
QUESTIONS FOR
RESEARCH
Scoring Rubric
10 points for the whole research paper
o 10 – outstanding – no mistakes identified o 8 – excellent – 2 - 3
mistakes or missing concepts identified
o 6 – Good – 4 - 5 mistakes or missing concepts identified
o 4 – Fair – 6 -7 mistakes or missing
concepts identified
o 2 – Poor – 8 or more mistakes or missing concepts identified
o 0 – No research paper was submitted

1. How is bilirubin metabolized by the body? Use a flowchart to start your discussion.
2. What is the most important constituent of bile from the physiological point of view? Give at least four
(4) important functions of it.
• Bile contains bile salts, a major component in the digestion and absorption of fats and
liposoluble vitamins, as well as other enterohepatic circulation elements such as cholesterol
(Ch), the most important from a pathological standpoint.
• Bile salts are a key component of bile and are required by our bodies to break down fats,
facilitate digestion, absorb vitamins, and remove toxins. When we aren't using them, bile salts
are stored in our gallbladders.
3. Name the three (3) most abundant Bile acids in human. What is their importance in digestion?
The three most abundant Bile acids in human are the following:
• Chenodeoxycholic Acid - This bile acid helps lipids, nutrients, and the lipidsoluble vitamins to
be digested and absorbed. It also playsLearning
A Self-regulated a role inModule
the metabolism of human. 7
• Deoxycholic Acid - This bile acid also helps in digesting and absorbing lipids, nutrients, and the
lipid-soluble vitamins. Aside from this, it also emulsifies and solubilize the dietary cells in the
intestine and may interrupt the cell membrane in adipocytes and breaks down the fat cells in
that area.
• Cholic Acid – This bile acid stabilizes the production of bile acid of the body that helps in
digesting and absorbing fat.
4. What is the danger of excessive amount of cholesterol in the bile?

• When there is too much cholesterol in your bile, it produces crystals and subsequently hard
stones in your gallbladder which are known as gallstones.
5. What possible disease/s are associated with bile pigment abnormalities? Discuss one only.
• A condition that is linked with bile pigment abnormalities is jaundice. The buildup of bile
pigment causes jaundice, a yellowish coloring of the skin and mucous membranes. The
pigment is first noticed in the eyes, although the conventional name is misleading because
pathological examinations indicate that the majority of the pigment is deposited in the
conjunctiva, not the alveolar sclera. The face, mucous membranes, and finally the entire skin
become yellow or orange as jaundice develops and serum bilirubin levels rise. Digestion
References:
Mr. Linder's Biology. 2020. Urinalysis chemical test for chloride ions. Retrieved from
https://youtu.be/fXdxXevSLFU
Pajarito, D. 2020. Liebermann burchard test. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/DLhNN_YwCMk Mr. Linder's
Biology. 2020. Urinalysis chemical test for sulfate. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/MMPKDh9ssIA
Watson, S. (2020, April 03). The Effects of Cholesterol on the Body. Retrieved from
https://www.healthline.com/health/cholesterol/effects-on-body#Digestive-system Deoxycholic acid. (n.d.).
Retrieved September 7, 2021, from https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Deoxycholic-acid
Satchell, K. Kohli, R. (2018). Cholic Acid - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics. Retrieved September 7,
2021, from https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biologicalsciences/cholic-acid
Multum, C. (2020, November 2). Cholic acid. Retrieved September 7, 2021, from
https://www.drugs.com/mtm/cholic-acid.html
The Tutor (2021). Pettenkofer test II Bile salts in urine II. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=55VCM-ce-Sw
Amrita create (2015). Detection of Bile salt in Urine. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=qW8_6TxICS4
McGee (2017). Chapter 8 – Jaundice. Retrieved from
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780323392761000081 Young, B. (2018).
Everything you want to know about bile salts. Retrieved from
https://www.healthline.com/health/bile-salts
Mag (2013). Salkowski’s test: Part 2 (identification of cholesterol). Retrieved from
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uHDOzBzcDu8
Behar, J. (2013). Physiology and Pathophysiology of the biliary tract: The Gallbladder and
Sphincter of Oddi. Retrieved from https://www.hindawi.com/journals/isrn/2013/837630/
JCE Underwood.(1996). Flow Diagram of Metabolism Modified from General and Systematic Pathology.
Retrieve from https://www.liverpool.ac.uk/~trh/local_html/jaundice/flow_diagram_of_bilirubin_metabo.htm
Bangas, A. (2017). Gmelin’s test for bile pigments – its principle, reagent, and procedure.
Retrieved from https://medicalstudyzone.com/gmelins-test-for-bile-pigments/ Dayyal (2018).
Test for detection of Bilirubin in urine . Retrieved from
https://www.bioscience.com.pk/topics/pathology/clinical-pathology/item/823-test-fordetection-of-
bilirubin-in-urine
LABORATORY:
INTRODUCTION:
The plasma membrane of the cell is said to be selectively permeable, allowing water to
freely pass through while regulating the movement of solutes. The intracellular fluid and the
extracellular environment of the cell are aqueous solutions primarily composed of water and a
variety of dissolved solutes such as sugars, amino acids and ions. The difference in the
concentration of the solvent and solutes in and out of the cell determines their movement
across the cell membrane. In this activity, you will be able to demonstrate some of the basic
principles of membrane physiology.
All molecules and ions in the body fluids, including water molecules, are in constant
motion, each particle moving its own separate way. This continual movement of molecules
among each other in liquids or in gases is called diffusion. The rapidity with which molecule
diffuses from one point to another is less the greater is the molecular size, because large
particles are not impelled so intensely by collisions with other molecules
Names: Date: August 17, 2021

AGLASI, Riza
Date submitted: August 18, 2021
BANGAAN, Mhay S.
GODDI, Jastene M.
MANDAPAT, Raja Rane I.
OUANO, Edjesua G.
TAYAG, Patricia R.
Date Assigned: August 16, 2021
ACTIVITY NO. 2
MEMBRANE PHYSIOLOGY: FACTORS AFFECTING DIFFUSION OBJECTIVES

1. understand correctly the principles involved in diffusion
2. demonstrate diffusion confidently using simple procedures
3. appreciate completely the importance of the homeostasis of solutes and solvents in
and out of the cell
MATERIALS:
Food coloring (any color) distilled water
4 same size drinking glass pencil

Ruler coloring materials
Sucrose/Table sugar
Scoring rubric
For Procedures:
- 3 points is given for every short procedure done that requires an immediate written observation
o 2 points for doing the procedure correctly
o 1 point for the answer
- 1 point is given for items that do not require performing a procedure
For Rationalization
- 3 points is given for every rationalization made
o 3 – all concepts were mentioned and a clear rationalization was made
o 2 – one or 2 concepts were not mentioned and the rationalization is not clear
o 1 – 3 or more concepts were not mentioned and the rationalization is not clear
o 0 – no rationalization was made
For hypothesis/Generalization/Conclusions
- 3 points is given for every generalization or hypothesis made
o 3 – all concepts were mentioned and a clear hypothesis, generalization or conclusion was derived
from the activity
5 points are given for every graph made
o 5 – outstanding – the graph shows genuine effort on the part of the maker and all parts are
labelled with no misspelled words
o 4 – excellent – the graph shows above average effort on the part of the maker, 1 or 2 parts are
not labelled and with misspelled words
o 3 – Good – the graph shows average effort on the part of the maker, 3 to 4 parts are not labelled
and with misspelled words
o 2 – Fair – the graph shows below average effort on the part of the maker, 5 or more parts are not
labelled and with misspelled words
o 1 – Poor – the graph shows little effort on the part of the maker, and the illustration is not labelled
DIFFUSION
Diffusion is defined as the movement of molecules from a region of high concentration to a low
concentration without the assistance of a transport protein. Molecules are propelled by kinetic
energy (the energy of motion). The botanist, Robert Brown, was the first person to observe the
random movement of small particles which is now defined as the Brownian movement.
Several factors can influence the rate of diffusion. These include the steepness of the
concentration gradient, temperature, and size of the molecule. Molecules will move by diffusion
until they reach a state of dynamic equilibrium, equal movement of molecules in both
directions.
1. Diffusion through agar gel: Effect of Molecular weight

Agar is a carbohydrate derived from seaweed that will form a gel-like solid when mixed with
water, heated and cooled. Materials can diffuse through agar easily because there are water
channels with the matrix of carbohydrates. Should you use methylene blue and methyl red as
materials to determine the effect of molecular weight in diffusion though an agar gel, which
between the two will diffuse faster? Why?
In the diffusion of an agar gel with methylene blue and methyl red, the agar gel diffuses faster with the
methyl basing on the experiment performed. Potassium permanganate is approximately half the molecular

weight of Methylene blue and diffuses more rapidly compared to Methylene blue resulting to a slightly
larger radius for the Potassium Permanganate.
2. Diffusion: Effect of Temperature

a. Put ¾ full of hot water in a drinking glass.
b. In another drinking glass, put ¾ full of cold (not room temperature) water.
c. Place in a location where they can remain undisturbed for at least two minutes
d. Carefully place one small drop of food coloring (same color) on the surface of the water
in the center of each beaker. Care should be taken not to touch the drinking glass or
disturb the water when adding the food coloring. The water should be as still as
possible.
e. Observe the pattern of diffusion from the side.
f. Does the drinking glass differ?
YES
Describe what you see
The food color did spread faster in the drinking glass with hot water than in the
drinking glass with cold water. In the drinking glass with hot water, the color diffused
to almost all of the water, while in the drinking glass with cold water, the color barely
diffused.
g. Estimate the percent of water in the glass that is covered every 30 seconds for 5
minutes. Initially (time = 0 sec.) there will be 0% colored. Round your answers to
the nearest 10 percent (10%, 20%, 30%, etc.).
Time Rate of
Diffusion in %
Hot Water Cold Water
0s 0% 0%
30 s 60% 10%
1m 80% 10%
1.5 m 80% 20%
2m 80% 20%
2.5 m 80% 20%
3m 80% 20%
3.5 m 80% 30%
4m 80% 40%
4.5 m 90% 40%
5m 90% 40%
h. Prepare a graph using a graphing paper showing the effect of temperature on the rate
of diffusion. Label and place the appropriate legends in your graph. Pass this together
with the questions for research.
i. At which temperature did diffusion occur the fastest? Hot
j. What is the effect of temperature on the rate of diffusion?
The temperature caused the molecules to speed up and move around much faster.
Explain your answer.

The kinetic energy of the particles increases as the temperature rises. The particles
disperse more quickly as their motion increases. As a result, the rate at which fluid particles diffuse
is faster at higher temperatures than at lower temperatures.
k. Document your result and place it together in your questions for research. Label

Properly.

3. Diffusion: Effect of other Substances
a. Place ½ full of water into two drinking glass.
b. Dissolve completely 2 g (1/4 teaspoon) of sucrose or table sugar in one of the drinking
glasses.
c. Let the beakers stand for at least a minute or so undisturbed.
d. Place 1 drop of food coloring or ink (same color) simultaneously into the two beakers
being careful not to disturb it.
e. Let stand for five minutes
f. In which of the beakers did diffusion occur faster?
The beaker without sucrose has the faster diffusion.
g. What is the effect of the presence of other substances on the rate of diffusion?
The presence of other substance such as sucrose or table sugar in the solvent can affect the
density of water. This is because as the water becomes denser, the rate of diffusion of the food
coloring becomes slower.
Why is this so?

As the density of the solvent increases, the rate of diffusion decreases because the food color
substance would have the difficulty passing through a denser medium. Thus, the rate of diffusion in
the pure water is faster because it is less dense than the mixture of water and sucrose.
h. Document your result and place it together with your questions for research, label
it properly.
CLEAN-UP SUGGESTIONS
- The beakers/drinking glass containing the food coloring could be safely poured down the drain.
QUESTIONS FOR RESEARCH:
Scoring Rubric
o 10 – outstanding – no mistakes identified
o 8 – excellent – 2 - 3 mistakes or missing concepts identified
o 4 – Fair – 6 -7 mistakes or missing concepts identified
1. Describe how the chemical composition of the cell membrane regulates the entry and exit of
solute and solvent into and out of the cell.
The plasma membrane limits what flows from one side to the other by being selectively
permeable. The plasma membrane, which is made up of a phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins,
is selectively permeable to ions and organic molecules and controls the flow of substances in and out of
cells. A selectively permeable membrane allows water to pass freely while restricting the movement of
molecules, particularly big or charged ones. A plasma membrane protects the insides of cells, but its

primary purpose is to govern the flow of chemicals in and out of the cell. A protein channel which only
accommodates one type of molecule is the easiest way for a cell membrane to govern what goes in and
out. The cell may then regulate the passage of only water, salts, or hydrogen ions, which determine
whether a liquid is acidic or not acidic.
2. Differentiate the following

a. Facilitated diffusion via carrier proteins and facilitated diffusion via ion channels
Facilitated diffusion is the diffusion of solutes through transport proteins
in the plasma membrane. Facilitated diffusion is a type of passive transport. Water
channel proteins (aquaporins) allow water to diffuse across the membrane at a very fast
rate. Ion channel proteins allow ions to diffuse across the membrane.
b. Primary active transport and secondary active transport

Primary active transport is the utilization of ATP energy to move molecules across a
concentration gradient. Secondary active transport, on the other hand, is the movement
of two distinct molecules across a transport membrane without the need of ATP.
In primary active transport, a single molecule is transported whereas, secondary
active transport transports two types of molecules at the same time.
ATP provides energy for primary active transport. In secondary active transport,
the driving ion's concentration gradient supplies the energy for the driven ion/molecule
to travel against its concentration gradient.
c. Endocytosis, exocytosis and transcytosis

 Transcytosis is the movement of receptor-bound macromolecules
through the cell, employing both endocytosis and exocytosis. This occurs
most commonly in polarized cells, for instance, epithelial cells. The best
studied example is the absorption and transport of antibodies across the
epithelial lining of the gut.
 Endocytosis facilitates the uptake of small molecules, macromolecules,
suspended molecules, pathogens, etc. while transcytosis transports
various macromolecules such as enzymes, proteins, and antibodies.
 Exocytosis is the process by which a large number of molecules are
released; thus, it is a form of bulk transport. Exocytosis occurs via
secretory portals at the cell plasma membrane called porosomes.

Documentation:
(Diffusion: Effect of other Substances)

References:

Gleichmann, N. (2020). Endocytosis and Exocytosis: differences and similarities. Retrieved from
https://www.technologynetworks.com/immunology/articles/endocytosis-and-exocytosis-differences-and-
similarities-334059
Ho-Diep Dinh (n.d). How the plasma membrane controls what goes into and comes out of the cell. Retrieved from
https://education.seattlepi.com/plasma-membrane-controls-goes-comes-out-cell-6017.html
Lakna (2017). Difference between primary and secondary active transport. Retrieved from
https://pediaa.com/difference-between-primary-and-secondary-active-transport/
Libretexts. (2020, August 15). 5.2C: Diffusion. Biology LibreTexts.

https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Introductory_and_General_Biology/Book
%3A_General_Biology_(Boundless)/5%3A_Structure_and_Function_of_Plasma_Membranes/
5.2%3A_Passive_Transport/5.2C%3A_Diffusion?
fbclid=IwAR1YiXzg33bDLeCSdlTRjnK38KxHJnqL7bVNM_Ig335TAcxiCbvbhDDES2E.
Nguyen, D. (n.d.). How the plasma membrane controls what goes into and comes out of a cell. Retrieved from
https://sciencing.com/plasma-membrane-controls-goes-comes-out-cell-21442.html
OpenLearn (n.d.). Intracellular transport. Retrieved from https://www.open.edu/openlearn/science-maths-

technology/science/biology/intracellular-transport/content-section-2.6
Why do potassium permanganate and methylene blue diffuse at different rates? (n.d.). Retrieved from
https://askinglot.com/why-do-potassium-permanganate-and-methylene-blue-diffuse-at-different-rates.

LABOR
ATORY
INTRO
DUCTI
ON
Animal membranes, cellophane and collodion have pores with diameters of 7 angstrom.
Molecules with diameters of less than 7 angstrom can therefore easily pass through the pores
of these substances; but larger molecules like colloids are retained in the semi–permeable
materials. This is the basic principle of dialysis.
Colloids are aggregates of molecules with diameters ranging from 1micron (1 micrometer) to
100 microns (100 µm). These large molecules remain suspended in the solvent indefinitely.
Such a system is known as a colloidal dispersion or colloidal solution. The suspension of tiny
particles of one substance are called the dispersed phase and the medium where the particles
are dispersed is called the dispersion medium. The colloidal particles are unaffected by gravity.
There are two types of colloidal dispersion, the emulsoids and the suspensoids.
The protoplasm that makes up our cells is a complex colloid that comprises a dispersed phase
of proteins, fats, and other complex molecules in a continuous aqueous phase.
Name: Date: August 18, 2021

AGLASI, Riza
BANGAAN, Mhay S. Date submitted: August 25, 2021

GODDI, Jastene M.
OUANO, Edjesua G.
TAYAG, Patricia R.
ACTIVITY NO. 4
DIALYSIS
OBJECTIVES
1. understand fully the basic principles of dialysis using simple procedures
2. appreciate totally how dialysis occurs in the body
3. prepare correctly a simple set-up to demonstrate dialysis at home.
MATERIALS
Drinking glass Small bowl

Stirring rod 10% NaCl solution
String/rubber bands Starch solution
Betadine Distilled water
Cellophane Scissors
Scoring rubric
For Procedures:
- 3 points is given for every short procedure done that requires an immediate written observation
o 2 points for doing the procedure correctly
o 1 point for the answer
- 1 point is given for items that do not require performing a procedure
For Rationalization:
For hypothesis/Generalization/Conclusions:

o 3 – all concepts were mentioned and a clear hypothesis, generalization or conclusion was
derived from the activity
o 2 – one or 2 concepts were not mentioned and the hypothesis, generalization or conclusion
is not clear
o 1 – 3 or more concepts were not mentioned and the hypothesis, generalization or
conclusion is not clear
o 0 – no hypothesis, generalization or conclusion was made
THE SET-UP FOR DIALYSIS

1. Obtain a clean cellophane, cut according to size needed and place this atop a clean
and dry evaporating dish/ small bowl.
2. Pour 10 mL of the starch solution and 10 mL of 10% NaCl solution into the cellophane.
3. Gather the ends of the cellophane and tie with a string or rubber band. Make sure that
there are no holes from which the liquid inside can escape from.
4. Tie the cellophane on a pencil/pen and suspend this on a beaker containing distilled
water. The cellophane should be completely submerged but not touching any part of
the beaker/drinking glass. Adjust accordingly.
5. Have your instructor check the set-up (by sending a picture before proceeding to the
next step).
6. Let the set-up stand for 1 hour.
7. Document your set-up and submit this together with your questions for research.
Label the parts correctly.
8. After the required time, remove the cellophane from the beaker.
9. Punch a hole on one side of the cellophane and transfer its content to a clean and dry
beaker/drinking glass. Label this beaker as
A Self-regulated “A” Module
Learning 20
10. Save the water in the beaker/drinking glass used for dialysis and label this as “B”.
QUALITATIVE TEST FOR THE SOLUTION INSIDE THE CELLOPHANE
1. Prepare 2 small containers (perfume lid/medicine measuring cup/sauce dish) and

place 1 mL of the solution from beaker A into each container.
2. Label the tubes as containers 1 and 2
3. For container 1, should you add 10 drops of conc HNO3 and 1 mL of AgNO3 solution,
what will the result be? Download a picture and attach it to your report.
Observations
Basing on the experiment the test tube 1 containing 1ml of the
solution from beaker A upon adding 10 drops of Nitric acid the solution turned
into color rose pink or light pink but after adding the silver nitrate it turned into a
milky white solution.
4. For container 2, add a few drops of

betadine. Observations
Upon observing test tube 4, 2 drops of betadine were added together with
1ml solution from beaker B. After which, it was observed that the solution
turned out to color red or red-orange. It was then transferred or poured into the
evaporating dish and it was more observed of having a color reddish-black but
the red part was more watery than the black color.
QUALITATIVE TEST ON THE DIALYSATE
1. Prepare 2 small containers and place 1 mL of the solution from beaker B into each tube.
2. Label the tubes as containers 3 and 4.
3. For container 3, should you add 10 drops of conc HNO3 and 1 mL of AgNO3 solution,
what will happen? Research on the expected result for this procedure.
Observations
Container 3 turned into a thin white color upon adding 10drops of conc. HNO3
and 1ml of AgNO3. A white precipitate also formed at the bottom of the container.
4. For container 4, add a few drops of betadine.

Observations
Upon addition of the betadine, its golden-brown color took place in
the container 4. That is to say that betadine is soluble in water.
*Document all your results.
BASED ON THE RESULTS OBTAINED, ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS

1. Were there differences in the results obtained?
Yes
2. Which beaker/drinking glass gave a positive result for the presence of NaCl?
Beaker with AgNO3
3. Which beaker/drinking glass gave a positive result for the presence of starch?
Beaker with the presence of betadine
4. What could be the reason for the difference?
There's a difference since the reactions aren't the same, and NaCl and
starch contain distinct compounds, which is why the outcomes aren't the
same.
5. Which of the substances placed inside the cellophane is considered a crystalloid?
The 10% NaCl solution that is placed inside the cellophane is a crystalloid.
6. Which of the substances placed inside the cellophane is considered a colloid?
The starch solution in the cellophane is the one considered colloid.
7. What did you learn from this activity? Write down your answer on the space provided for
conclusions.
CONCLUSIONS
Through a simpler set-up, the conducted experiment was able to
apply the important procedures of how dialysis works and its importance
in the body. The starch solution mixed with the 10% NaCl solution works
as the fluid or blood
being put into a dialyzer and the cellophane acts as a filter that
eliminates excess waste materials, which mix up with the distilled water
forming the dialysate. In this process of dialysis, the fluid or the blood is
being cleaned up in a dialyzer, which acts as the artificial kidney acting as
the filter of unwanted substance.
CLEAN-UP SUGGESTIONS
- Solutions in beakers/drinking glass A and B can be poured safely down the drain
- The cellophane is considered as a solid waste and placed in the proper trash can
QUESTIONS FOR RESEARCH
Scoring Rubric

1. Differentiate between colloids and crystalloids
Colloids and crystalloids are used for fluid replacement when critical cases like
blood loss happens to ill people. There is no certainty of which one is better at its function but
each of which has its own distinctive characteristics. Crystalloids are salt solutions with small
molecules, which makes them easily move around when injected into the body. Colloids, on the
other hand, can be said to either be a man-made or natural compounds. Colloids have bigger
molecules than colloids by which they stay in the blood for longer before going to other parts of
the body. In cases of dialysis, colloids are separated from dissolved ions or molecules of small
dimensions, or crystalloids.
2. What is a dialysate?
There are cases where kidneys can no longer perform its function well, hence, a
treatment called hemodialysis takes place. In its process, blood is removed from the body and
filtered through a man-made membrane called a dialyzer, then the filtered blood is returned to
the body. The dialyzer has 2 sections, a part for blood and the other for dialysate. Dialysate is a
solution that consists both inorganic ions found in the body and glucose. The dialysate
concentration is a solution of pure water, electrolytes and salts. Its purpose is to pull toxins
from the blood into the dialysate. Once the concentration of wastes and dialysate create an
equal amount, the dialysis solution is then drained.
3. Is dialysis the same as osmosis? Explain your answer.

In its comparison, both have similarities and differences depending on which to
base in, whether in its feature, property, process, or principle. Both have similarities depending
on their features: (1) they both undergo diffusion, (2) a selective semipermeable membrane is
present, and (3) movement of molecules is similar that both go down towards another
concentration. There difference is that dialysis works specifically on the movement of molecules
in solutes while osmosis works on the movement of the solvent, water.
4. What is the physiological importance of dialysis?

As mentioned on the explanation for one of the previous questions, dialysate is
a physiologic solution that consists of both inorganic ions found in the body and glucose. The
dialysate concentration of sodium and chloride is usually physiologic, whereas the
concentration of magnesium and phosphorus is usually less than physiologic to allow for the
removal of these substances on dialysis. A bicarbonate concentration is said to be usually higher
than the physiologic concentration to allow for the treatment of metabolic process, common to
dialysis patients. On the process, the dialysate can be adjusted at a certain temperature to
assist with the volume removal. In the overall importance of dialysis, it keeps the body in
balance when the kidneys fail to do its function.
5. How does an artificial kidney work?

The dialyzer, or the artificial kidney, is the key to hemodialysis. Similar function
to a regular kidney, the dialyzer filters blood. It is a hollow plastic tube about a foot long and
three inches in diameter that contains many tiny filters. The two sections of this tube are
divided by a semipermeable membrane; one section is for dialysate and the other is for blood. A
semipermeable membrane has microscopic holes that allow only some substances to cross the
membrane. Because it is semipermeable, the membrane allows water and waste to pass
through, but not the blood cells. The dialysate flows through the dialyzer in a countercurrent
direction to maximize diffusion. After when the dialysate pulls toxins from the blood, the
concentration of the waste will have the same amount to that of the dialysate when it passes
through the semipermeable membrane. The dialyses solution, then, will be disposed of.

DOCUMENTATION:
SET UP FOR DIALYSIS

TEST TUBE 1 TEST TUBE 2

TEST TUBE 3 TEST TUBE 4
References:
De Leon, C. (2020). Activity 4: Dialysis. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RYEIo2nHTiU
Colloids or crystalloids for fluid replacement in critically people. (n.d.). Colloids and Crystalloids. Retrieved August 25, 2021,
from https://www.cochrane.org/CD000567/INJ_colloids-or-crystalloids-fluid-replacement-critically-people
Hemodialysis. (2021, June 1). National Kidney Foundation. https://www.kidney.org/atoz/content/hemodialysis
Molnar, C. (2015, May 14). 3.5 Passive Transport – Concepts of Biology – 1st Canadian Edition. Pressbooks.
https://opentextbc.ca/biology/chapter/3-5-passive-transport/
Hemodialysis. (n.d.). NephCure Kidney International ®. Retrieved August 25, 2021, from https://nephcure.org/hemodialysis/
LABORA
TORY
INTROD
UCTION:
All biological processes are greatly affected by the hydronium ion concentration in
the medium in which they occur. Hydronium ion concentration is commonly expressed in
terms of pH.
The maintenance of an optimum pH in the environment of an animal cell is vital to

the life of an organism. The control of pH essential for enzyme – catalyzed reactions is the
function of buffers.
A buffer is a mixture of weak acid and its conjugate base or a weak base and its
conjugate acid. PH of buffer solutions can be determined by using the Henderson – Hasselbach
equation.
Name: Date: August 25, 2021

AGLASI, Riza
BANGAAN, Mhay S. Date submitted: August 27, 2021

GODDI, Jastene M.
OUANO, Edjesua G.
TAYAG, Patricia R.
Activity No. 5
pH DETERMINATION
OBJECTIVES

1. identify the different indicators used to determine the pH of a solution accurately
2. use confidently different methods to determine the pH of a given solution
3. appreciate wholly the importance of knowing the pH of solution
MATERIALS: Reference Materials

PROCEDURES AND OBSERVATION
Scoring rubric
For Rationalization
- 3 points is given for every hypothesis, generalizations or conclusions made
o 3 – all concepts were mentioned and a clear hypothesis, generalization or conclusion was
derived from the activity
o 2 – one or 2 concepts were not mentioned and the hypothesis, generalization or conclusion
is not clear
o 1 – 3 or more concepts were not mentioned and the hypothesis, generalization or conclusion
is not clear
o 0 – no hypothesis was made
DETERMINATION OF pH VALUES USING CHEMICAL INDICATORS
1. What would be the color change of methyl red if placed in

acidic solution Red ? In a basic solution Yellow
2. What would be the color change of phenolphthalein if placed in an
acidic solution Colorless ?
In a basic solution Pink ?
3. What would be the color change of bromothymol blue if added to an
acidic solution Yellow ? In a basic solution Blue
4. What would be the expected color change if an acid is reacted with blue litmus paper?
Red
5. With red litmus paper? Red

6. What would be the expected color change if a base is reacted with blue litmus paper?
Blue
7. With red litmus paper? Blue
FILL-UP THE TABLE BELOW.
TEST METHYL PHENOLPHTHALEIN BROMOTHYMOL ACID LITMUS

SUBSTANCES RED BLUE OR PAPER
BASE
Calamansi Pink No changes Yellow Acid Blue to
juice red, red to
red
Coke Yellow Pink Blue Acid Blue to red,
red to red
Vinegar Red Transparent Yellow Acid Blue to red,
red to red
Antacid tablet Yellow Pink Blue green Base Blue to blue,
red to blue
1% Na2CO3 Yellow Magenta Blue Base Blue to blue,
red to blue
1. What is the principle behind the use of pH paper?

The pH paper is used to determine if a solution is acidic, basic, or
neutral. This is determined by dipping Learning
A Self-regulated part of the paper into a solution of
Module 28
interest and watching the color change. The packages that pH paper comes in
often includes a color-coded scale indicating the pH that something has when
the paper turns a certain color. The Ph paper is coated with this chemical gives
the property of a basic solution, it turns greenish-blue. In the presence of a
neutral solution, it turns light green.
2. What is the principle behind the use of pH meters?

A pH meter is an instrument that measures hydrogen-ion in solutions, also
indicates pH value (acidity or basicity). Its principle is the concentration of
hydrogen ions in the solution.
3. What is the principle behind the use of chemical indicators?
A chemical indicator's function is based on the fact that it reacts with water
to create the hydrogen cation H+ or the hydronium ion H3O+. The color of the
indicator molecule changes as a result of the reaction. Some indicators change
colors, while others change between colored and colorless states.
4. What are the limitations of using chemical indicators in determining the pH of a

given solution?
Using pH indicators has certain limitations. To notice the indicator's
color shift clearly, the test sample should be rather colorless. Furthermore,
the indicators are designed to monitor pH with a low degree of precision.
5. Name at least 5 household materials that can be used to determine the

approximate pH of substances and indicate their color change.
• Lemon Juice- the pH paper turns from blue to vivid red indicating that
lemon juice is acidic.
• Cleaning detergent- This contains a concentrated solution of sodium
bicarbonate. The pH paper turns a dark blue.
• Baking soda- red turned to dark blue
• Tomato- Blue to red
• Vinegar- Blue to red
Scoring Rubric
1. Discuss the Acid-Base Balance Mechanism of the human body.

Acid-base balance refers to the body's equilibrium between acidity and
alkalinity. Because even a slight deviation from the usual range can have serious
consequences for numerous organs, the acid-base balance of the blood is
meticulously monitored. The body uses a variety of methods to maintain the
acid-base balance in the blood.
2. Differentiate the following Acid-Base imbalances in terms of results in
Blood Gas Analysis and possible causes:
a. Metabolic Acidosis
- A rise in plasma acidity characterizes metabolic acidosis, a clinical disorder.
Metabolic acidosis should be regarded as a symptom of a more serious
condition. It is critical to recognize this underlying issue in order to begin
effective treatment. When the body produces too much acid, metabolic
acidosis develops. It can also happen if the kidneys are unable to excrete
enough acid from the body.
b. Respiratory Acidosis
- Respiratory acidosis is a dangerous medical condition in which the lungs are
unable to eliminate all of the carbon dioxide produced by the body's regular
metabolism. The blood becomes acidic, causing a variety of symptoms
ranging from tiredness to coma.
c. Metabolic Alkalosis
- The term "metabolic alkalosis" refers to a rise in the body's pH level above
7.45. A main increase in serum bicarbonate (HCO3-) concentration occurs as
a result of a loss of H+ from the body or a gain in HCO3-. Your body's capacity
to eliminate alkaline bicarbonate ions is hampered by diminished blood flow.
Failure of the heart, kidneys, or liver. Failure of a major organ, such as the
heart, kidneys, or liver, can result in metabolic alkalosis. Potassium levels are
depleted as a result of this.
d. Respiratory Alkalosis
- Excessive breathing causes respiratory alkalosis, which is characterized by a
low level of carbon dioxide in the blood. The most common cause of
respiratory alkalosis is hyperventilation. Over breathing is another term for
hyperventilation. When someone is hyperventilating, they breathe very
deeply or very quickly.
3. What is the importance of determining the pH of body fluids of individuals?

Body fluid regulation Because the efficiency of most chemical reactions
via enzyme proteins is dependent on fluid pH, pH is one of the most significant
physiological functions of homeostasis. In addition to proton excretion from the
cytosol to the extracellular space and eventually outside the body, several
buffering processes are used to maintain pH homeostasis in bodily fluids. When
organic acid production is increased or the buffering and excretion systems are
compromised, body fluid becomes acidic, due to impaired conditions.
4. You have a patient with urinary tract infection or UTI. Will it be useful to
determine the pH of the urine of your patient? Why?
Urine pH is a screening test necessary for diagnosing different

diseases specifically renal and respiratory diseases and metabolic disorders.
This measures the acidity and alkalinity of the urine of a person which makes
it useful when a patient has urinary tract infection. The normal values of pH
urine range from 4.5 to 8.0 and having a value higher than this indicates that
the urine of a person is more alkaline, and this could be a sign of a medical
condition which includes a urinary tract infection or UTI.

References:
Anne Marie Helmenstine, P. (n.d.). What Is a pH Indicator? Retrieved August 26, 2021, from
https://www.thoughtco.com/definition-of-ph-indicator-605499#:~:text=The principle behind the
function,between colored and colorless states.
Bio-resource (2015). How does pH Paper Work? Retrieved from
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pbVNcp9Fekw
Bitesize (n.d.). pH scale and indicators. Retrieved from
https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/zqd2bk7/revision/1
Hecht, M. (2020). Metabolic alkalosis. Retrieved from
https://www.healthline.com/health/metabolicalkalosis
Medlineplus.org. (n.d.). Respiratory Acidosis. Retrieved from
https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/000092.htm
Medlineplus.org. (n.d.). Respiratory Alkalosis. Retrieved from
https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/000111.htm
Nall, R. M. (2018, December 12). What is the normal pH range for urine? Medical News Today.
https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/323957#abnormal-ph-levels
O’connell, K. (2017). Respiratory Alkalosis. Retrieved from
https://www.healthline.com/health/respiratory-alkalosis
Singh, D. (2020). pH meter principle and working. Retrieved from https://www.laafon.com/ph-
meter-principleworking/
Staff, C. (2020). Measuring pH. Retrieved from
https://www.carolina.com/knowledge/2020/02/18/measuring-ph
Thomas, C. (2020). Metabolic Acidosis. Retrieved from
https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/242975-overview
Thomas, C. (2020). Metabolic Alkalosis. Retrieved from
https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/243160-overview
Unknown (n.d.). Acids and Bases. Retrieved from
https://www.edu.gov.mb.ca/k12/cur/science/found/gr12_chem/t5_appendices.pdf
Urine pH. (n.d.). UAPH. Retrieved August 26, 2021, from
https://www.rnceus.com/ua/uaph.html#:~:text=Urine
LABORATORY:
INTRODUCTION
Nucleic acids are the most fundamental constituent of a living cell. They generally
serve as the store houses and carriers of genetic information. There are two types of nucleic
acid: ribonucleic acid (RNA) and deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). All living organisms contain
DNA.
Within the nucleus of every cell are long strings of DNA, the code that holds all the
information needed to make and control every cell within a living organism. DNA, which stands
for deoxyribonucleic acid, resembles a long, spiraling ladder. It consists of just a few kinds of
atoms: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and phosphorus. Combinations of these atoms
form the sugar-phosphate backbone of the DNA — the sides of the ladder, in other words.
Other combinations of the atoms form the four bases: thymine (T), adenine (A),
cytosine (C), and guanine (G). These bases are the rungs of the DNA ladder. (It takes two bases
to form a rung — one for each side of the ladder.) A sugar molecule, a base, and a phosphate
molecule group together to make up a nucleotide. Nucleotides are abundant in the cell’s
nucleus.
Nucleotides are the units which, when linked sugar to phosphate, make up one side of a
DNA ladder.
During DNA replication, special enzymes move up along the DNA ladder, unzipping the
molecule as it moves along. New nucleotides move in to each side of the unzipped ladder. The
bases on these nucleotides are very particular about what they connect to. When the enzyme
has passed the end of the DNA, two identical molecules of DNA are left behind. Cytosine (C)
will “pair” to guanine (G), and adenine (A) will “pair” to thymine (T). How the bases are
arranged in the DNA is what determines the genetic code.
When the enzyme has passed the end of the DNA, two identical molecules of DNA are
left behind. Each contains one side of the original DNA and one side made of “new”
nucleotides. It is possible that mistakes were made along the way — in other words, that a
base pair in one DNA molecule doesn’t match the corresponding pair in the other molecule. On
average, one mistake may exist in every billion base pairs. That’s the same as typing out the
entire Encyclopedia Britannica five times and typing in a wrong letter only once!
Name: DELMENDO, Lawrece Paulene S.

AGLASI, Riza GODDI, Jastene M.
BANGAAN, Mhay S. LECITONA, Tricia Mae V.
A Self-regulated MANDAPAT,
Learning Module Raja Rane 33
OUANO, Edjesua G. Date: August 25, 2021
TAYAG, Patricia R.
Date submitted: August 27, 2021
Activity No. 6
CELL DIVISION AND DNA REPLICATION
OBJECTIVES
At The end of the laboratory session, you should be able to

1. Show the replication of DNA before cell division using paper templates for
the components of DNA nucleotides.
2. Explain how DNA replication in higher animals happen.
3. Enumerate the steps of mitosis and meiosis and relate to this to DNA replication
MATERIALS: reference materials, cut-outs of basic subunits of DNA, colors, markers,

scissors, tape or glue, paper and pencil
Scoring rubric
For Rationalization

o 0 – no rationalization
was made For
hypothesis/Generalization/Conclusions
o 3 – all concepts were mentioned and a clear hypothesis, generalization and conclusion
was derived from the activity
o 2 – one or 2 concepts were not mentioned and the hypothesis, generalization and
o 1 – 3 or more concepts were not mentioned and the hypothesis, generalization and
o 0 – no hypothesis, generalization or conclusion
was made 5 points is given for every illustration/documentation made
o 5 – outstanding – the illustration shows genuine effort on the part of the maker and all
parts are labelled with no misspelled words
o 4 – excellent – the illustration shows above average effort on the part of the maker, 1 or 2
parts are not labelled and with misspelled words
o 3 – Good – the illustration shows average effort on the part of the maker, 3 to 4 parts
are not labelled and with misspelled words
o 2 – Fair – the illustration shows below average effort on the part of the maker, 5 or more
parts are not labelled and with misspelled words
o 1 – Poor – the illustration shows little effort on the part of the maker, and the illustration
is not labelled
PART 1: ASSIGNMENT
Look for separate illustrations of mitosis and meiosis study them carefully and
attach the illustrations here.

MITOSIS

Reference: yourgenome.org (n.d.). What is mitosis. Retrieved from
https://www.yourgenome.org/facts/what-is-mitosis

MEIOSIS
Reference: yourgenome.org (n.d.). What is meiosis. Retrieved from

https://www.yourgenome.org/facts/what-is-meiosis

PART 2: DNA REPLICATION
LIFTED FROM: https://www.biologyjunction.com/dnareplication_lab.htm
Procedure:
1. Cut out all of the units needed to make the nucleotides from the handout provided.
2. Color code the Nitrogenous bases, phosphorus, and deoxyribose sugar as follows —
Adenine = red, Guanine = green, Thymine = yellow, Cytosine = blue, Phosphate = brown,
and Deoxyribose = purple.
3. Using the small squares and stars as guides, line up the bases, phosphates and sugars.
4. Now glue the appropriate parts together forming nucleotides.
5. Construct DNA model using the following sequence to form a row from top to bottom –
cytosine (topmost), thymine, guanine, and adenine (bottommost).
6. Let this arrangement represent the left half of your DNA molecule.
7. Complete the right side of the ladder by adding the complementary bases. You will have to
turn them upside down in order to make them fit.
8. Your finished model should look like a ladder.
9. To show replication, separate the left side from the right side, leaving a space of about 6-8
inches.
10. Use the remaining nucleotides to complete the molecule using the left side as the base.
11. Build a second DNA model by adding new nucleotides to the right half of the original piece
of the molecule.
12. Tape the nucleotides together to form 2 complete DNA ladders.
13. Document your work.

Scoring Rubric
1. Of the 4 bases, which other base does adenine most closely resemble?
Adenine is most similar to Thymine. Adenine and Thymine always bond as a pair in the
structure of DNA. The link between the building components of DNA strands is described as a base pair.
Each DNA molecule is made up of two strands, and DNA contains four nucleotides: A, C, T, and G. The
double helix is formed when each nucleotide on one side of the strand pairs with a specific nucleotide on
the other side of the strand.
2. List the 4 different nucleotides.

There are four different types of DNA nucleotides as there are four naturally occurring
nitrogenous bases: adenine (A), thymine (T), guanine (G), and cytosine (C).
3. Which 2 molecules of a nucleotide form the sides of a DNA ladder?

The deoxyribose sugar and the phosphate are the two molecules that make up the sides
of the DNA ladder.
4. If 30% of a DNA molecule is Adenine, what percent is Cytosine?
If 30% of Adenine is present, it would be reasonable to assume that 30% of Thymine will
be present, as the ratio between the two complementary nitrogenous bases will be roughly equal.
Therefore, that leaves us with 40% between Cytosine and Guanine. Since the ratio between them would
be equal, it gives us 20% of Cytosine and 20% of Guanine.
5. What does the term replication mean?

The process by which genetic material, a single-celled organism, or a virus
reproduces or makes a copy of itself.
6. What is another name for adenine and three phosphate molecules attached to it?
Adenine is also called adenosine 5'-triphosphate, or ATP. The three phosphate
groups that are attached to it are referred to as the alpha (α), beta (β), and, for the terminal
phosphate, gamma (γ). These three phosphate groups are linked to one another by two high-
energy bonds called phosphoanhydride bonds.
7. Describe tests for the following components of DNA

a. Deoxyribose- DNA can be identified chemically with the Disc, the diphenylamine test. Acidic conditions
convert deoxyribose to a molecule that binds with diphenylamine to form a blue complex. The intensity
of the blue color is proportional to the concentration of DNA. The Disc he’s test will detect the
deoxyribose of DNA and will not interact with the ribose in RNA.
b. Phosphate- A phosphate test is used to measure the level of phosphate blood. Phosphate tests are
very useful for measuring phosphate levels in malnourished people. A phosphate test can also be used to
check for a condition called ketoacidosis, which sometimes affects people with diabetes.
c. Purine- This test measures the amount of uric acid in your blood or urine. Uric acid is a normal waste
product that’s made when the body breaks down chemicals called purine. Purines are substances found
in your own cells and also in some foods. Foods with high levels of purines include liver, anchovies,
sardines, dried beans, and beer.
d. Pyrimidine- The pyrimidine in aqueous solution, is treated with bromine water, the excess bromine
removed by aeration, and a solution of barium hydroxide is added. A purple precipitate is formed.
8. Describe tests for the following components of RNA

A. Pentose
Bial’s test
-Bial’s test is used in testing the presence of pentoses. Orcinol, hydrochloric acid, and ferric chloride are
the components used in the test. If pentose is present, it will be dehydrated in able to form furfural and
react with the orcinol solution giving a substance in the color blue-green.

Tauber’s benzidine test
-Tauber’s benzidine is a color test in identifying the presence of pentose. A color of cherry-red is
produced when the sugar is heated with benzidine solution in glacial acetic acid.
B. Uracil
Wheeler-Johnson Test
-Wheeler-Johnson test is used for both cytosine and uracil. When the sample is treated with the bromine
water, the outcome will be in the color green and a color purple when a barium hydroxide is added.
9. Describe a way to isolate RNA from a sample. Include tests for the products of
hydrolysis
When separating RNA from a solution the simplest way is by adding

chloroform to the solution and by centrifuging the solution, after the process, it separates into
two phases which are the organic and aqueous phases. RNA is in the aqueous phase.
10. What is the “central dogma”, explain

The 'Central Dogma' is the process by which the instructions in DNA are converted into a
functional product. It describes the flow of genetic information in cells from DNA to messenger RNA
(mRNA) to protein. It states that genes specify the sequence of mRNA molecules, which in turn specify
the sequence of proteins.
11. Describe ways by which the cell prevents “mistakes” in DNA replication especially during
mitosis
DNA has the potential to cause major issues, such as cancer. During replication, these DNA
mistakes are common (although not always). It is critical for the cell to have a set of processes in
place to both avoid and fix these mistakes whenever they arise. Checkpoints in the cell cycle
help to avoid DNA damage. Each checkpoint serves a distinct and critical function in ensuring
that DNA is free of errors and that cells with DNA
errors are stopped from proliferating. The cell will not be able to finish the rest of the cell cycle
if a checkpoint is not passed.
References:

Eden (n.d.). Preventing and Repairing DNA mistakes during the cell cycle. Retrieved from
http://blog.cambridgecoaching.com/preventing-and-repairing-dna-mistakes-during-the-cell-cycle#
General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) Guidelines BYJU’S. (2021, March 22). BYJUS.
https://byjus.com/questions/what-is-bials-test/
Johnson, M. (2012). RNA extraction. Retrieved from https://www.labome.com/method/RNA-
Extraction.html
Lawrence C. Brody, Ph.D. (n.d.). Base pair. Retrieved from https://www.genome.gov/genetics-
glossary/Base-Pair
mvorganizing.org. (n.d.). Mvorganizing.Org. Retrieved August 26, 2021, from
https://www.mvorganizing.org/which-2-molecules-form-the-sides-backbone-of-the-dna-ladder/
Nucleic Acid: DNA extraction and Disc he’s Diphenylamine test, (nod) Retrieved September 11, 2020
from https://openlab.citytech.cuny.edu/bio-oer/chemistry/biologically-important-macromolecules/nucleic-
acids/nucleic-acids-dna-extraction-and-disches-diphenylamine-test-activity/
Phosphate Test, (September 21, 2018) Retrieved September 11, 2020 from
https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/phosphate-test/
Scitable by Nature Education (n.d.). The order of nucleotides in a gene is revealed by DNA Sequencing.
Retrieved from https://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/the-order-of-nucleotides-in-a-gene-6525806/
Soda Morris (2020) Retrieved September 11, 2020 from https://www.jbc.org/content/181/2/713.full.pdf
Tauber test. (n.d.). TheFreeDictionary.Com. Retrieved August 26, 2021, from
https://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Tauber+test
Unknown. (n.d.). ATP. Retrieved from https://www.nature.com/scitable/definition/atp-.
Unknown. (n.d.). Replication. Retrieved from https://www.thefreedictionary.com/replication
Uric acid test, (July 31, 2020) Retrieved September 11, 2020 from https://medlineplus.gov/lab-tests/uric-
acid-test/
VarsityTutors (n.d.). Dna and Rna Structure. Retrieved from https://www.varsitytutors.com/ap_biology-
help/dna-rna-and-proteins/dna-and-rna-structure?
Wheeler-Johnson test. (n.d.). TheFreeDictionary.Com. Retrieved August 26, 2021, from https://medical-
dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/Wheeler-Johnson+test
Wikipedia (2021). Hydrolysis. Retrieved from https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrolysis
Yourgenome.org. (n.d.). What is Central Dogma. Retrieved from
https://www.yourgenome.org/facts/what-is-the-central-dogma

LABORATORY:
INTRODUCTION
Enzymes are of fundamental importance in many of the chemical reactions, which takes place in living organisms.
When digestion occurs, enzymes released into the mouth, stomach and intestines catalyze reactions, which results in
the breakdown of large foodstuffs into building block molecules.
Enzymes are protein molecules and proteins have a characteristic three-dimensional structure called conformation. Any
environmental conditions that destroy the protein structure will also destroy tis enzyme activity.
The molecules upon which enzymes acts upon are called substrates. The part in the enzyme too which the substrate
attach to is called the active site. The active site is where the transformation of the substrate takes place to produce the
product.
Names: Date:
AGLASI, Riza Date submitted:
BANGAAN, Mhay S.
GODDI, Jastene M.
LECITONA, Tricia Mae V. MANDAPAT, Raja Rane I.
OUANO, Edjesua G.
TAYAG, Patricia R.
Date Assigned:
Activity No. 7
ENZYMES AND DIGESTION
OBJECTIVES:
At the end of the laboratory session, you should be able to:
A. demonstrate accurately how lipase digest fats in milk.

B. enumerate correctly the products of the hydrolysis of fats.

C. state appreciatively the importance of enzymes in digestion.
MATERIALS: Use reference materials and our previous lectures to help you arrive at the correct answer.
Marker pen, test tube rack, syringe without the needle, beakers (100 mL and 250 mL), thermometer, test tube,
glass rod, stop watch, water bath, Bunsen burner
CHEMICALS: Full cream milk, phenolphthalein, 5% lipase, 0.05M sodium carbonate, ice
PROCEDURES AND OBSERVATION
Scoring rubric
For Rationalization
- 3 points is given for every rationalization made o 3 – all concepts were mentioned and a clear rationalization was
made o 2 – one or 2 concepts were not mentioned and the rationalization is not clear o 1 – 3 or more
concepts were not mentioned and the rationalization is not clear o 0 – no rationalization was made
- 3 points is given for every hypothesis, generalizations or conclusions made o 3 – all concepts were mentioned
and a clear hypothesis, generalization and conclusion was derived from the activity

o 2 – one or 2 concepts were not mentioned and the hypothesis, generalization and conclusion is not clear

o 1 – 3 or more concepts were not mentioned and the hypothesis, generalization and conclusion is not clear
o 0 – no hypothesis was made
Phenolphthalein is an indicator that is pink in alkaline solutions of about pH10. When the pH drops below pH
8.3 phenolphthalein goes colorless. A solution of milk and lipase is made alkaline by the addition of sodium carbonate
and phenolphthalein will change from pink to colorless as the fat in milk is broken down.
PROCEDURE:
You will not perform the following procedure but will use it to answer the questions found below.
Preparation
1. Prepare a water bath with the following temperatures: 0C (use ice bath), 37C and 60C.
2. Place 2.5 mL of lipase in 3 separate test tube and put this in the three water baths prepared in procedure 1
Investigation
1. Label three test tubes with the temperature to be investigated.

2. Add five drops of phenolphthalein to the test tubes
3. Place 5mL of milk in each of the test tubes plus 7 mL of sodium carbonate solution
4. Place a thermometer in each of the test tube and place them in the corresponding water bath
• You may remove the thermometer once the contents of the test tube reaches the same temperature
as the water bath.
• At this point, there are two test tubes in your water bath, one containing the lipase, the other
containing the milk solution.
5. Using a clean pipet or syringe, measure 1 mL of the lipase from the 0C water bath and add this to the test tube
containing milk in the same water bath. Start the timer.
6. Do the same for the 37C and 60C
7. Using applicator sticks, stir the milk solution without removing them from the water bath until the pink color is
discharged.
8. Note the time it takes for the three test tubes to change in color.
Illustration:
- Draw the procedures above in a short bond paper with one-inch margin in all sides and label all the steps
properly.
- Scan your illustration and pass together with this manual.

Using the procedure above, answer the following questions using your reference materials.
1. Write the complete equation for the hydrolysis of fats.

2. When fats are hydrolyzed, what happens to the pH of the resulting solution?
• When fats undergo hydrolysis, the fatty acids are released and the resulting solution's acidity will increase.
3. After the hydrolysis of fats, which product will change the color of phenolphthalein from pink to colorless?
Explain your answer.
• When the lipase breaks down the fat in the milk, the fatty acids that is produced increase the acidity of the
solution, turning it from pink to colorless. In alkaline solutions with a pH of around 10, phenolphthalein is a
pink indicator. Phenolphthalein turns colorless when the pH falls below 8.3. As the fat in milk is broken
down to create fatty acids (and glycerol), the pH in this alkaline solution of milk, lipase, and
phenolphthalein changes from pink to colorless. Temperature has an impact on the time it takes for this
reaction to occur.
4. In which temperature do you think will yield the fastest result? Reason out your answer.
• Enzymes work at their fastest rate at an optimum temperature of 37oC. Temperatures higher than this, can
denature the enzyme (active site is deformed). Because 37°C causes the largest change in pH, the
maximum quantity of fatty acids is released from the triglycerides contained in the milk in the shortest
period of time. As a result, it is clear that the optimal temperature for lipase enzyme is 37°C.
5. What is the role of bile acids in the digestion of fats?
• The liver produces bile acids which aid in the digestion of fats. It is a major constituent of bile which is a
substance that function in emulsifying and breaking down dietary fats for absorption in the small intestine.
It aids the separation of dietary lipids and water, in which the lipid particles will be dissolved for lipase
action. The bile acids break down fats into fatty acids that is being absorbed into the blood and stores
energy.
6. If starch were to be hydrolyzed using amylase, what are the products that will be produced? Answer by writing
the complete word equation.
• HSAmy is a type of hydrolase that breaks down complex carbohydrates into simple sugars, like glucose or
maltose, by cleaving alpha-1,4-glucosidic bonds. Further breakdown of the starch is completed by
pancreatic amylase later in digestion. This enzyme has distinct components including a calcium ion,
chloride ion, and various amino acid residues that play critical roles in hydrolytic activity and substrate
binding. HSAmy can also bind to oral streptococci bacteria. This results in the bacteria either being
removed from or stored in the oral cavity. Storage and accumulation of the bacteria in the oral cavity
causes dental complications like plaque and tooth decay.

In the presence of amylase, a sample of starch will be hydrolyzed to shorter polysaccharides, dextrins,
maltose, and glucose. The extent of the hydrolysis depends on how long it is allowed to react – if the starch
is hydrolyzed completely, the resulting product is glucose.
7. What simple test can you use to detect the presence of the end product of the hydrolysis of starch using
amylase? Include the positive result.
• The extent of the hydrolysis depends on how long it is allowed to react – if the starch is hydrolyzed
completely, the resulting product is glucose. The test for the presence or absence of starch in the solutions
using iodine (I2). Iodine forms a blue to black complex with starch, but does not react with glucose. If
iodine is added to a glucose solution, the only color seen is the red or yellow color of the iodine. Therefore,
the faster the blue color of starch is lost, the faster the enzyme amylase is working. If the amylase is
inactivated, it can no longer hydrolyze starch, so the blue color of the starch-iodine complex will persist.
Test for the presence of glucose in the samples using Benedict’s reagent. When a blue solution of
Benedict’s reagent is added to a glucose solution, the color will change to green (at low glucose
concentrations) or reddish-orange (at higher glucose concentrations). Starch will not react with Benedict’s
reagent, so the solution will remain blue.
8. Starch is actually hydrolyzed in stages; enumerate the stages in chronological order.

Scoring Rubric

o 10 – outstanding – no mistakes identified o 8 – excellent – 2 - 3 mistakes or missing concepts
identified o 6 – Good – 4 - 5 mistakes or missing concepts identified
1. How is temperature related to enzyme activity?

• As the temperature rises, so does the activity of the enzyme, which speeds up the reaction. This also
means that as the temperature drops, so does activity. When enzymes are active, they can operate at a
variety of temperatures, but there are some temperatures where they perform best. The kinetic energy in
the substrate and enzyme molecules is perfect for the highest number of collisions at the optimum
temperature. The structure of the enzyme changes at high temperatures, rendering it non-complementary
to its specific substrate.
2. What is Q10 value in relation to enzyme activity?

• The temperature coefficient is defined by the Q10. The factor by which the rate of a reaction (R) rises for
every 10-degree increase in temperature (T) is explained by Q10. Q10 was found in most biological systems
in the range of 2-3. There are differences between species and during different developmental phases.
3. What do you think is the influence of temperature on the protein structure of the enzyme to affect its activity?
• Enzyme activity functions effectively within a certain temperature. The rate of enzyme activity increases as
the temperature of a reaction increases whereas a lower temperature slows the reaction down. A
continued increase in temperature, on the other hand, can cause an enzyme to lose its form or denature
and cease to function which can affect the enzyme activity.
4. How is pH related to enzyme activity?

• Enzymes are sensitive to pH. Changing the pH of its surroundings will also change the shape of the active
site of an enzyme. Changing the pH will affect the charges on the amino acid molecules. Amino acids that
attracted each other may no longer be. Extremes of pH also denature enzymes. The changes are usually,
though not always, permanent.
5. What do you think is the influence of pH on the protein structure of the enzyme to affect its activity?
• Bile acids are facial amphipathic that contain hydrophobic (lipid-soluble) and hydrophilic (polar) faces. Role
of bile acids in the digestion of fats:
a) emulsified lipid aggregates- the bile acids have detergent action on the particles of the dietary fat which
causes the break-down of fat that turns into microscopic droplets. Emulsification increases the surface
area of fats for which cannot access the inside of lipid droplets which is digestion by lipases.
b) solubilization and transport of lipids in an aqueous envt.- bile acids carries and solubilize by forming
micelles-aggregates of lipids (fatty acids, cholesterol) also absorbs and transports fat-soluble vitamins.
6. Explain the importance of enzymes in digestion.

• Digestive enzymes play a key role in breaking down the food you eat. These proteins speed up chemical
reactions that turn nutrients into substances that your digestive tract can absorb. Saliva has digestive
enzymes in it. They break down fats, proteins and carbohydrates.

References:
Bitesize. (n.d.). Factors affecting enzyme action. Retrieved from

https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/z9jrng8/revision/3
Enzymes review (article) | Enzymes. (n.d.). Retrieved August 31, 2021, from
https://www.khanacademy.org/science/high-school-biology/hs-energy-and-transport/hsenzymes/a/hs-
enzymes-review
Secretion of Bile and the Role of Bile Acids In Digestion. (n.d.). Retrieved August 31, 2021, from
http://www.vivo.colostate.edu/hbooks/pathphys/digestion/liver/bile.html
Experiment 10 – Enzymes. (n.d.).
Enzyme operating conditions - Proteins - National 5 Biology Revision. (n.d.). BBC Bitesize.
Retrieved August 31, 2021, from https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/zcr74qt/revision/4
Santhosh, L. (2019, March 2). The Effects of Temperature on Enzyme Activity and Biology.
Sciencing. https://sciencing.com/effects-temperature-enzyme-activity-biology-6049.html
Effect of temperature on oxygen consumption – Larvae Knowledge Incubator. (n.d.). Q10. Retrieved August 31,
2021, from https://lki.w.uib.no/respirometry/lab-report/layout-labreport/calculate-the-effect-of-
temperature-on-oxygen-consumption/
Bile Acids. (n.d.). Bile Acids. Retrieved August 31, 2021, from
http://www.vivo.colostate.edu/hbooks/pathphys/digestion/liver/bile.html&ved=2ahUKEwjO
1PbHpdvyAhWWBt4KHYvqDToQFnoECAQQAQ&authuser=3&usg=AOvVaw1sGXHuE
4bm0WvduZXY8GEP&cshid=1630416862271
Taylor, L. (n.d.). Hydrolysis of fats and oils. Retrieved from
https://www.york.ac.uk/org/seg/salters/ChemistryArchive/ResourceSheets/fathydrolysi s.pdf
Lucas, S. (n.d.). An investigation into how the volume of lipase affects the rate of the hydrolysis of lipids. Retrieved from
https://www.ucl.ac.uk/~zcapf71/lipase_littlelaptop%5B1%5D.pdf
SlideToDoc (n.d.). Starter a function of proteins learning intention learn.

Retrieved from
https://slidetodoc.com/starter-a-function-of-proteins-learning-intention-learn/ \
Lucas, S. (n.d.). An investigation into how the volume of lipase affects the rate of the hydrolysis of lipids.
Retrieved from
https://www.ucl.ac.uk/~zcapf71/lipase_littlelaptop%5B1%5D.pdf
LABORATORY:
INTRODUCTION:
Saliva is a mixture of the secretions of the numerous buccal glands. It is a colorless slightly opalescent fluid.
The composition varies with the relative proportion of the secretions of the different glands. The secretion of the
parotid is more watery, rich in ptyalin, while those of the submandibular and the sublingual are more viscid
containing more of mucin, a glycoprotein.
Names: Date: August 31, 2021

AGLASI, Riza Date submitted: September 3, 2021
BANGAAN, Mhay S.
GODDI, Jastene M.
OUANO, Edjesua G.
TAYAG, Patricia R.
ACTIVITY NO. 8 DIGESTION: SALIVA
OBJECTIVES:
1. identify correctly the inorganic and organic constituents of saliva

2. Research on the positive results of tests to detect the presence of organic and inorganic constituents
of saliva using qualitative procedures 3. Appreciate wholly the importance of saliva in digestion
MATERIALS:
Reference materials Pen/Pencil

Scoring rubric
For Procedures:
- 3 points is given for every short procedure done that requires an immediate written observation o 2
points for correct downloaded picture with label o 1 point for the answer
- 1 point is given for items that has answers only
Collection of Specimen. The following is the supposed to be step in collecting saliva to test for the presence of organic
and inorganic matter. You are advised to read through it to be able to appreciate the concept of the activity. You are
not required though to collect the said specimen since the activity will focus more on the expected result.
1. Collect 20 mL of saliva in a wide mouthed plastic vial and then cover until ready for use
Preparation of Mucin. The following is the supposed to be step in preparing the mucin which will be used to test for
the presence of organic matter in the saliva. Remember that in the lecture, it was mentioned that there are different
components of the digestive juices. The purpose of this activity is to check whether or not, the different organic and
inorganic matters are really present in the saliva. While the activity cannot be performed in your house, it’s still best
to be familiar with the procedure.
 Get 10 mL of saliva from your sample and place this in a 50 mL beaker

 Add 30 mL of cold 95% ethanol (you may place the reagent bottle of ethanol in a trough filled with ice). Stir

 Cover with parafilm and let stand until a distinct whitish mucoid precipitate is formed
 You may fish out the precipitate using an applicator stick or a Pasteur pipette or you may pour off the
supernatant liquid
 Place the precipitate on a watch glass and divide it into 4 parts
1. Biuret test. Should a test tube with mucin is added with NaOH and CuSO 4, what would be the possible result.
Download a photo of the positive result and attach it to your paper.
2. Millon’s test. Should a test tube with mucin is added with Millon’s reagent and heated in a water bath for
several minutes, what would be the possible result. Download a photo of the positive result and attach it to
your paper.
3. Molisch’s test. Should another test tube with mucin id added with Molisch’s reagent and concentrated
sulfuric acid, what would be the possible result. Download a photo of the positive result and attach it to your
paper.
4. Benedict’s test. If a test tube with mucin is added with Benedict’s reagent and heated in a boiling water bath
for 3-5 minutes, what would be the possible result. Download a photo of the positive result and attach it to
your paper.
Test for the Inorganic matters. The following procedure is done to prepare the saliva for tests of the presence of
inorganic matters.
 Place 10 mL of the remaining saliva in a 50 mL beaker

 Acidify with nitric acid and heat to boiling. Filter and save the filtrate.
1. Test for Chloride. Should a test tube with filtrate is added with nitric acid and silver nitrate, what would the
possible result be? Write your answer in the table below and download a photo of the positive result and
2. Test for Sulfate. Should a test tube with filtrate is added with conc. HCl and barium chloride solution, what
would the possible result be? Write your answer in the table below and download a photo of the positive
result and attach it to your paper.
3. Test for calcium ions. Should a test tube with filtrate is added with ammonium oxalate, what would the
4. Test for Nitrite. Should a test tube with filtrate is added with conc. Sulfuric acid, KI solution and starch
solution, what would the possible result be? Write your answer in the table below and download a photo of
the positive result and attach it to your paper.
5. Test for Thiocyanates. Should a test tube with filtrate is added with ferric chloride and conc. HCl, what would
the possible result be? Write your answer in the table below and download a photo of the positive result and
6. Test for Phosphates. Should a test tube with filtrate is added with ammonium molybdate, what would the
OBSERVATIONS Ion or Name of test or Reagent Result/ Conclusion component used

interpretation

Chloride ion Silver Nitrate The mixture of acqueous Chloride reacts with
Test/Silver Nitrate solution of the salt and silver nitrate to form a
the diluted nitric acid white precipitate of
silver chloride.
turned into white

solution upon addition
of the silver nitrate.
Sulfate ion Test for Independent A clear filtrate of Sulfate reacts with
Radicals/Barium chloride diluted HCl turned into barium chloride to form
a white solution upon a white precipitate of
addition of barium barium sulfate.
chloride.
Calcium ion Ammonium Oxalate A soluble calcium A white precipitate of
Test/Ammonium oxalate acetate formed from the calcium oxalate is
calcium carbonate and formed due to the
hot diluted acetic acid reaction of soluble
resulted into a white calcium acetate with
precipitate upon ammonium oxalate.
addition of the
ammonium oxalate.
Nitrite ion Starch-Iodide Test The mixture of the Nitrite reacts with
acqueous solution and potassium iodide and
diluted sulfuric acid dilute sulfuric acid to
turned into orange liberate iodine and the
solution when the liberated iodine reacts
potassium iodide was with starch to form a
added, then turned into blue-black complex.
blue black solution upon
addition of the starch
solution.
Thiocyanates Ferric Chloride A clear solution of Thiocyanates react with
thiocyanates and conc. ferric chloride to form a
HCl resulted to blood red blood red precipitate.
solution when the ferric
chloride was added.
Phosphate ion Test for Independent A clear solution of the Phosphate reacts with
Radicals/Ammonium salt and nitric acid concentrated
molybdate turned into a bright nitric acid and
yellow solution upon ammonium
addition of the molybdate forming a
ammonium molybdate yellow precipitate of
solution. ammonium phosphate
molybdate.

Scoring
Rubric 10 points for
the whole research paper
o 8 – excellent – 2 - 3 mistakes or missing concepts identified o 6 – Good
– 4 - 5 mistakes or missing concepts identified o 4 – Fair – 6 -7 mistakes or
missing concepts identified o 2 – Poor – 8 or more mistakes or missing concepts
identified
1. What is the importance of saliva in digestion?
• When you begin chewing, glands in your mouth and throat begin to secrete saliva. This process can start
with the sight or smell of food. The liquid aids digestion, moistens your mouth, reduces infections in the
mouth and throat, and helps protect your teeth and gums. It also fights germs in your mouth and
prevents bad breath.
2. Name the glands that produce saliva and describe the characteristics of the saliva they secrete
• The submandibular glands, sublingual glands, and parotid glands are the three pairs of salivary glands
responsible for saliva production. They're all exocrine glands with ducts. Each gland secretes a slightly
different substance. Serous saliva is a watery fluid rich in enzymes produced by the parotid glands.
Mucous saliva is a viscous secretion produced by the sublingual glands that contains no enzymes and a
substantial amount of mucus. Finally, the sub-mandibular glands secrete a mixture of serous and mucous
secretions.
3. Give the importance of each of the following constituents of saliva:

a. Chloride Ion: Cl – 1
• The fluid secretion process is initiated by the opening of Cl- channels in the apical membrane of salivary
gland acinar cells, but NaCl re-absorption is assumed to require the activation of Cl- channels in both the
apical and basolateral membranes of ductal cells.
b. Thiocyanate Ion? SCN – 1

• One of the most essential spectrophotometric reagents is thiocyanate. The reagent's accessibility and the
simplicity of thiocyanate techniques account for the reagent's widespread use in analytical laboratories.
Fe (III), Mo, W, Nb, Re, Co, U, and Ti are the most common elements measured using thiocyanate. Metals
are determined using thiocyanate in aqueous or aqueous-acetone media, or following extraction using
oxygen-containing solvents.
b. Mucin
• Mucins protect wet epithelial surfaces in the body, such as the gastrointestinal tract, female genital tract,
and respiratory tract, by acting as a barrier because of its gel layer that acts as a defense against

pathogens. There will be a significant impact on the health when the production of mucin is out of
control.
b. Ptyalin or Amylase
• Ptyalin and amylase is a primary enzyme in saliva which breaks down large carbohydrates (amylopectin or
amylose) that helps the body to digest that is for human body's key source of energy. It also has function
in our dental health that prevents starches from accumulating our teeth. It also produces pancreatic
amylase which breakdown starches in digestive process.
Documentation:
Positive result of Chloride Positive result of Sulfate Positive result of Calcium
Positive result of Nitrite Positive result of Thiocyanate Positive result of Phosphate

Positive result of Positive result of Positive result of Positive result of Biuret test
Millon’s test Molisch’s test Benedict’s test References:
Unknown. (n.d.). The digestive process: Digestion begins in the mouth. Retrieved from
https://www.altonmemorialhospital.org/Health-Library/View-
Content?contentTypeId=134&contentId=193#:~:text=Saliva%20contains%20speci al%20enzymes
%20that,lipase%2C%20which%20breaks%20down%20fats.
Melvin, J. E. (1999). Chloride channels and salivary gland function. PubMed.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10759422/
Frenkel, E.S., & Ribbeck, K. (2015, December 22). Salivary mucins in host defense and disease prevention. Retrieved
August 31, 2021, from
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC468 9954/
Secretion of Saliva - Modifications - Clinical Relevance. (2021, January 10). TeachMePhysiology.
https://teachmephysiology.com/gastrointestinal -system/mouth/saliva-secretion/
Salivary Amylase. (n.d.). ThoughtCo. Retrieved August 31, 2021, from https://www.thoughtco.com/salivary-amylase-
other-enzymes-in-saliva-
4586549&ved=2ahukewj36vm1snvyahuqqpuhhfkdbi0qfnoeca4qaq&authuser=3&usg=aovva
w3foi_winhe2ds8zl3yabrb&cshid=1630417888717
Zygmunt Marczenko, Maria Balcerzak (n.d.). Chapter 4 - Spectrophotometric reagents.
Retrieved from https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0926434500800681

Iron III Chloride Reaction With Potassium Thiocyanate (FeCl3 + KSCN). (2018, May 24).
Thiocyanate. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lEraxU3r1ko amritacreate. (n.d.). Chloride, Sulfate,
Calcium, Nitrite, Phosphate. Retrieved September 2, 2021, from https://www.youtube.com/user/amritacreate
Aryal, S. (2021, July 26). Biuret Test for Protein. Retrieved September 3, 2021, from https://microbenotes.com/biuret-
test-for-protein/
Medical Study Zone. (n.d.). Retrieved September 3, 2021, from https://medicalstudyzone.com/millons-test/
Namrata Chhabra. (n.d.). Qualitative tests for carbohydrates. Retrieved September 3, 2021, from
https://www.slideshare.net/namarta28/qualitative -tests-for-carbohydrates-35884145
Molisch Test-a group test for Carbohydrates. (2018, September 3). [Video file]. Retrieved from
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9kD9sRAf2TM
Name: Riza Aglasi Date: 8/11/2021
Mhay Bangaan
Lhiemz Camacho
Jastene Goddi
Raja Mandapat
Patricia Tayag
Tricia Lecitona
Jes Ouano
Date Assigned:8/11/2021 Date submitted: 8/11/2021_

Scoring Rubric

o10 –outstanding –no mistakes identified

o8 –excellent –2 -3 mistakes or missing concepts identified
o6 –Good –4 -5 mistakes or missing concepts identified
o4 –Fair –6 -7 mistakes or missing concepts identified
o2 –Poor –8 or more mistakes or missing concepts identified
o0 –No research paper was submitted
1.In a tabulated form, enumerate the parts of the cell, a brief description and its function.
Parts of a Cell Description Function
Cell membrane The outer structure of a cell Regulates the transport of
materials entering and exiting
the cell
Nuclear membrane A double membrane that Allows certain materials to
encloses the nucleus pass in and out of the cell
Nucleus A membrane-bound organelle It uses DNA to regulate cell
that contain the cell’s activities
chromosomes
Cytoplasm Thick solution that fills each Serves as the cell’s
cell and enclosed by the cell environment
membrane
Ribosomes Tiny, somewhat mitten-shaped Responsible for making
organelle occurring in great proteins for the cell
numbers
Lysosomes Appears as spherical bodies Responsible for recycling
worn out products
Golgi bodies Looks like a type sea weeds It packs and carry proteins
which is thin and wiggly
Endoplasmic Reticulum Network of membranes inside A place for cell reactions
a cell
Mitochondria A bean shaped structure It produces energy for the cell
known as the “Power house
of the cell”
https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/Cell-Membrane
https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/Nucleus#:~:text=A%20nucleus%20is%20a%20membrane,and%20out%20of%20the
%20nucleus.
https://www.nature.com/scitable/definition/cytoplasm-280/#:~:text=Cytoplasm%20is%20a%20thick%20solution,and%20outside%20of
%20the%20nucleus.
https://www.dictionary.com/browse/ribosome
https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/Endoplasmic-Reticulum-Smooth#:~:text=Endoplasmic%20reticulum%20is%20a
%20network,assembled%20at%20organelles%20called%20ribosomes.&text=Smooth%20endoplasmic%20reticulum%20lacks
%20ribosomes,substances%20needed%20by%20the%20cell.
2.Why is the mitochondrion called the “powerhouse of the cell”?

3.Why are lysosomes called the “suicide bag of the cell”?
4.Why are ribosomes called the “protein factories of the cell”?
5.Name an organ that is expected to have numerous Golgi bodies. Why?
6.Why do muscle cells contain numerous mitochondria?
7.What is the importance of this activity in relation to biochemistry?

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LABORATORY:

Name: Date: September 7, 2021

Date Assigned: August 16, 2021 Date submitted: September 8, 2021

DIGESTION: BILE OBJECTIVES:

PROCEDURES AND OBSERVATIONS

Test for bile acids:

Test for Bile Pigments

Test for bilirubin

A Self-regulated Learning Module 3

A Self-regulated Learning Module 4

IONS TEST REAGENTS RESULTS

Cl- Chloride ions Silver nitrate A white precipitate was formed.

SO4 -2 Sulfate ions Hydrochloric acid, Forms Milky precipitate.

A Self-regulated Learning Module 5

Test for Phosphate ion

A Self-regulated Learning Module 6

4. What is the danger of excessive amount of cholesterol in the bile?

Names: Date: August 17, 2021

Date Assigned: August 16, 2021

MEMBRANE PHYSIOLOGY: FACTORS AFFECTING DIFFUSION OBJECTIVES

At the end of the laboratory session, you should be able to

A Self-regulated Learning Module 10

PROCEDURES AND OBSERVATIONS

1. Diffusion through agar gel: Effect of Molecular weight

A Self-regulated Learning Module 11

2. Diffusion: Effect of Temperature

Explain your answer.

A Self-regulated Learning Module 12

A Self-regulated Learning Module 13

Why is this so?

QUESTIONS FOR RESEARCH:

A Self-regulated Learning Module 14

2. Differentiate the following

b. Primary active transport and secondary active transport

c. Endocytosis, exocytosis and transcytosis

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(Diffusion: Effect of other Substances)

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Libretexts. (2020, August 15). 5.2C: Diffusion. Biology LibreTexts.

OpenLearn (n.d.). Intracellular transport. Retrieved from https://www.open.edu/openlearn/science-maths-

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Name: Date: August 18, 2021

CAMACHO, Lhiemz Denims L.

Date Assigned: August 16, 2021

Drinking glass Small bowl

PROCEDURES AND OBSERVATIONS

- 3 points is given for every generalization or hypothesis made

THE SET-UP FOR DIALYSIS

QUALITATIVE TEST FOR THE SOLUTION INSIDE THE CELLOPHANE

1. Prepare 2 small containers (perfume lid/medicine measuring cup/sauce dish) and

4. For container 2, add a few drops of

QUALITATIVE TEST ON THE DIALYSATE

4. For container 4, add a few drops of betadine.

*Document all your results.

BASED ON THE RESULTS OBTAINED, ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS

QUESTIONS FOR RESEARCH

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3. Is dialysis the same as osmosis? Explain your answer.

4. What is the physiological importance of dialysis?

5. How does an artificial kidney work?

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SET UP FOR DIALYSIS

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