AMALGAM

An amalgam is an alloy containing mercury.

DENTAL AMALGAM
An alloy of mercury with silver, tin, copper, &
some times Zinc.

AMALGAMATION (Trituration)
Mixing of mercury with other metals.
Dental Caries

1 2

3 4
 5 6

7 88
 Uses
• Direct, permanent, posterior restorations
• Large restorations
• Core build up material
• Die Materials
 Classification

Based on Copper content

Low copper High copper or

or Copper enriched alloys
Conventional alloys contains greater than 6%
contains less than 6% of Copper.
of Copper.
Classification of High Copper alloys

High Copper Alloys

Admixed alloys
(Low copper+Spherical alloys)

Uni/Single Composition alloys

 Lathe-cut v.s. Spherical

Irregular or Lathe-cut Spherical

Composition of low copper alloys
Ingredient Wt %

Silver 67 – 74

Tin 25 – 27

Copper 0–6

Zinc 0-2
Composition of Admixed high
copper alloys
Ingredient Wt %

Silver 69

Tin 17

Copper 13

Zinc 1
Composition of Unicompositional
High Copper alloys

Ingredient Wt %

Silver 40 – 60

Copper 13 – 30

Tin 17
 Functions of each ingredient
Ingredie Increase Decrease
nt
Silver Strength, setting expansion, creep
reactivity with mercury
Tin Creep, Contraction, Rate of Strength,
Amalgamation Hardness &
speed of Setting
Copper Hardness, strength, setting
expansion, and tarnish.
Zinc Delayed expansion, & corrosion.
Acts as an Oxide scavenger
 Symbols of Phases

Phases in Amalgam Alloys and Set Formula

Dental Amalgams
γ Ag3Sn
γ 1 Ag2Hg3
γ 2 Sn7-8 Hg
β Ag4Sn (silver-rich)
ε Cu3Sn
η Cu6Sn5
Silver-copper eutectic Ag-Cu
Setting reaction of low Cu alloys

Ag3Sn (γ ) + Hg

Ag2Hg3 ( γ 1) + Sn7-8Hg(γ 2)+ unreacted γ

particles
 Setting reaction of low Cu alloys
• When a powder (Ag3Sn, γ ) is triturated, the
Ag and Sn in the outer portion of the particles
dissolve into Hg (mercury).
• Hg also diffuses into the alloy particles.
– Solubility for Ag = 0.035 wt%, for Sn = 0.6 wt%
 Setting reaction of low Cu alloys
• When the solubility is exceeded, crystals of
two binary metallic compounds precipitate
into the mercury.
– Ag2Hg3 compound (γ 1) precipitates first.
– Sn7-8Hg compound (γ 2) precipitates later.
As the remaining mercury dissolves the alloy
particles, γ 1 and γ 2 crystals grow.
 Setting reaction of low Cu alloys
• As the mercury disappears, the amalgam hardens.
Particles become covered with newly formed crystals,
mostly γ 1.

• Unconsumed particles (smaller after being partly

dissolved) are surrounded and bound together by solid
γ 1 and γ 2 phases

trituration condensable, carvable harden, no longer

workable
 Microstructure of low Cu alloys
• A typical low-copper
amalgam is a composite
in which the unconsumed
particles are embedded in
γ 1 and γ 2 phases.

P = β and γ Ag-Sn
G1 = γ 1 (Ag2Hg3)
E = ε (Cu3Sn)G2 = γ 2 (Sn7-8 Hg)
 Low-copper Alloys
• Physical properties
1. γ -phase  strongest,
2. γ 2 phase  weakest
3. Hardness: γ > γ 1 >>> γ 2

4. γ 2  poor corrosion resistance.

This phase has to be eliminated to increase

strength and corrosion resistance.
 High copper Alloys
• Introduced in 1977.
• Importance:

– Elimination of γ 2 phase
 High-Cu: Admixed Alloys (1)
• Spherical silver-copper (Ag-
Cu) eutectic alloy particles
are added to lathe-cut low-
copper amalgam alloy
particles.

• The final powder is

composed of two kinds of
particles.  “admixed”

• Ag-Cu particles act as strong

fillers, strengthening the
amalgam matrix.
High-Cu: Admixed Alloys (2)
• Silver-Copper eutectic alloy

• 71.9 wt% Ag, 28.1 wt% Cu

 Setting Reaction of High-Cu: Admixed Alloys
First:
Ag3Sn (γ ) + Ag-Cu (eutectic) + Hg

γ 1 + γ 2 + unreacted alloy of both types of particles

Later:
Sn7–8 Hg + Ag – Cu  Cu6Sn5 + Ag2Hg3
γ 2 Eu η γ 1
 Setting Reaction of High-Cu: Admixed Alloys
• Ag dissolves into the Hg from
the Ag-Cu alloy particles.

• Both Ag and Sn dissolve into

Hg form the G1 & G2 alloy
particles. (same as in low-Cu alloy)

• Sn in solution diffuses to the

surface of Ag-Cu alloy particles
and reacts with the Cu to form
the η phase (Cu6Sn5) (therefore,
the Sn7-8Hg or γ 2 is eliminated)
 Setting Reaction of High-Cu: Admixed
Alloys
• A layer of η forms around
unconsumed Ag-Cu particles.

∀ γ 1 phase is the matrix.

Microstructure:
• The final structure composes
of the γ phase, Ag-Cu
particles, ε particles, γ 1
matrix, and η reaction layers.
 High-Cu: Admixed Alloys
∀ γ 2 has been eliminated in this reaction,
being replaced by η .
• The effectiveness in eliminating γ 2
depends on percent of copper-containing
particles.
(net copper concentration of > 12% in
alloy powder)
High-Cu: Single-composition Alloys
• Each particle has the same chemical
composition.

• Major components: Ag-Cu-Sn

Setting Reaction of Unicomposition Alloys

Alloy particles (Ag-Sn-Cu) + Hg

γ 1 + η + unreacted alloy particles

High-Cu: Single-composition Alloys
• Phases found in each γ 1
single-composition alloy
particle are β (Ag-Sn), γ
(Ag3Sn), and ε (Cu3Sn).
∀ η
η crystals are found as
meshes of rod crystals at
the surfaces of alloy
particles (P), as well as P
dispersed in the matrix.
 Properties of Amalgam
Strength

It is a brittle material.

Strong in compression

Weaker in tension & Shear.

Creep
• It is defined as time dependent plastic deformation
under static or dynamic loads.
• According to ADA specification number 1 the creep
should be less than 3%.
• But low copper alloys have a creep value of 0.8 to
8%.
• High copper alloys have a creep value between 0.1
to 0.4%.
 Creep
Determination of creep
• A cylindrical sample of 4 mm diameter and 8 mm
height is prepared, preserved for 7 days at 370C and
then subjected to a static load of 36 N.

• The percentage decrease in the height in 3 hrs, in

between the ends of 1 hour and 4 hours is taken as
creep.

• Conventional alloy > Admixed alloy > Uni composition

alloy
Dimensional changes
• Expansion or contraction.

• Expansion leads to amalgam fracture or

dislodgement from cavity, hyper occlusion,
and Pulpal pain.

• Contraction leads to marginal leakage and

secondary caries.
Contraction Expansion
Dimensional changes
Expansion
• After amalgamation, initially the γ1 crystals formed
will start to grow in due time which push each other
and causes expansion and this continues until the
mass becomes rigid.

Contraction
• Due to inadequate mercury, which required for later
reaction i.e.; growth of crystals and condensation.
 Delayed Expansion
• Delayed expansion is a 4% as more
expansion taking place in zinc containing
alloys after a period of 3-7 days.

• This is due to moisture contamination during

manipulation.

Zn + H2O  ZnO + H2
36
 Tarnish & Corrosion
Tarnish
 It is a process by which metal surface is dulled in
brightness or discolored through the formation of
chemical film such as Sulphide and an oxide.

Corrosion
 It is a process in which deterioration of a metal is
caused by reaction with its environment.
 Tarnish & Corrosion
• It is mainly due to γ2 phase, which acts as
anode due to more active electro chemical
nature and other phases act as cathode and
saliva acts as a medium.
• Corrosion products (oxides and chlorides of Sn)
will be released in to the interfacial space
between restoration and tooth structure that
prevents the microleakage, called as self-
sealing ability of amalgam.
Corrosion products
 Marginal leakage
• The initial marginal leakage of Amalgam
restoration reduces with the time.

Reason:
Corrosion products seals the marginal gap
between the restoration & the tooth.

Corrosion products
 Toxicity
• Mercury is toxic. Other symptoms
• Fatigue,
• Mercury should not be • Weakness,
exposed to the atmosphere. • Headache,
• Dizziness,
• Can discolor the tooth. • Renal disorder.
R o o m A i r : H u m a n R e s

0 s e c 3 2 µ g / m ³

5 0 0 m L

0 µ g / m ³
R o o m A i r : H u m a n R e s

2 ½ s e c 3 2 µ g / m ³

5 0 0 m L

3 2 µ g / m ³
Manipulation of Amalgam
1. Selection of Alloy
2. Proportioning
3. Trituration
4. Condensation
5. Trimming & Carving
6. Polishing
1. Selection of Alloy
• Composition

• Particle size

• Particle Shape

• Presence or absence of
Zinc
1. Selection of Alloy
Composition Effect of Particle size
• When hardness is Small Particle
needed – Cu containing • Rapid hardening.
alloys. • Greater strength.
• Gives smoother surface.
• When fast setting is
required – Spherical alloy Large Particle
powders. • Rough surface.
• Tendency to corrosion.
• Pulled out of the surface
during carving.
1. Selection of Alloy
Particle shape

Lathe cut/Irregular particles Spherical Particles

• Have more surface area  • Requires less mercury
more mercury is needed
(42%).
(50%).

• Need high condensation • Need less condensation

pressure. pressure.
1. Selection of Alloy

Presence or absence of Zn

• Presence of Zn Leads to delayed expansion

(3 to 5 days).
2. Proportioning
• It is the ratio of the amount (by weight) of alloy
to mercury used for a particular technique.

Ideal proportioning
• Lathe cut – 1:1 (50:50)
• Spherical alloy – 40:60
2. Proportioning
Squeeze dried technique:
• A gauge cloth is taken and the mix is placed on it and
squeezed to remove excess mercury.

Eame’s technique or minimum mercury technique:

• In this technique the actual volume of mercury taken is
regulated i.e.; in the ratio of 1:1.

Condensation technique or increasing dryness tech:

• The mix is condensed to remove excess mercury,
which comes to surface.
3. Trituration

• it is a process in which both mercury and

alloy powders are mixed to get a plastic
mix.

• Objective: The objective is to remove the

oxide layer formed on the particles so that
mercury can react with powder.
3. Trituration

• Trituration is done in either mortar & Pestle

or in an amalgamator/triturator.

• 2 types.
– Hand Trituration
– Mechanical Trituration
3. Trituration
Hand trituration
• It is done with mortar
and pestle.

• The inner surface of

mortar is roughened to
increase friction.

• A pestle is a glass/ceramic
rod with a round end.
3. Trituration
Mechanical Trituration
• Mechanical amalgamators are
used.

• The amalgamators are

devices with an automatic
controlled timer and speed
control device and work by
either vibratory or
oscillatory movements.

Advantages of mechanical trituration

• Shortens mixing time.
• Most standardized and accurate procedure.
4. Condensation
• Condensation is a process of packing a plastic mass of
amalgam in to a prepared cavity by force under pressure.

Aims
• Good marginal adaptability.

• Good bonding between incremental layers of amalgam.

• Removal of excess mercury.

• To increase the density of mix hence optimum mechanical

properties & also decrease porosities & voids.
4. Condensation

Carriers

• After mixing, amalgam mix should be condensed as

soon as possible to achieve,

1. Proper adaptation to the cavity walls.

2. Elimination of excess mercury.

3. Bonding between amalgam increments.

4. Optimum strength.
4. Condensation

Condensation of plastic mass Condensed restoration

5. Carving

• Carving is done to reproduce tooth anatomy

for occlusal benefits.

• Carving is done after hearing amalgam cry

i.e.; scrapping or ringing sound, which
indicates initial set.

• Over carving and under carving should be

avoided.
Finishing and polishing

• Finishing and polishing is done after 24 hours

by using wet abrasives such as pumice.

• Care should be taken to avoid high

temperatures.
 Copper Amalgam
• Used as filling material in deciduous teeth.

• Have antibacterial effect due to the presence of Cu.

• Supplied in the form of pellets.

Mercury – 60 to 70%
Copper – 30 to 40%
 Copper Amalgam
Manipulation
• The pellets/tablets are heated until droplets
of mercury are appeared.
• Later triturated & condensed into a cavity.

Disadvantages
• Poor Hg hygiene associated with its use.