BASE METAL ALLOYS

ANJALI DHULL
PG STUDENT
DEPT. OF CONS.AND ENDODONTICS
 CONTENTS

 Introduction
 Historical perceptive of alloys
 Definition of alloy
 Applications
 Various Classifications
 Desirable properties
 Functional mechanical properties
 Cobalt chromium alloys
• Composition
• Applications
• Functional and mechanical properties
 Nickle chromium alloys
• Composition
• Applications
• Properties
 Titanium alloys
• Composition
• Applications
• Properties
• Phases
 Stainless steel alloys
 Harmful effects of different metals
• Lead
• Nickel
• Beryllium
• Cobalt
 Conclusion
 References
INTRODUCTION
 HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE ON
DENTAL CASTING ALLOYS

 1907: THE LOST WAX PROCESS

In 1907, Taggart described a method of making gold inlays using

the lost wax technique. It led to the casting of onlays, crowns,
multiple-unit fixed dental prostheses (FDPs), and frameworks for
removable partial dentures.
1932: CLASSIFICATION OF GOLD-BASED
CASTING ALLOYS

The dental materials group at the National Bureau of Standards

(now National Institute of Standards and Technology)
evaluated the properties of alloys being used and classified
them by their Vickers hardness number (VHN): type I (soft,
VHN, 50 to 90), type II (medium, VHN, 90 to 120), type III
(hard, VHN, 120 to 150), and type IV (extra hard, VHN 150
and above).
1933: COBALT-CHROMIUM AND NICKEL-CHROMIUM
ALLOYS

The advantages of cobalt-chromium and nickel-chromium alloys

are their lighter weight, greater stiffness (elastic modulus), greater
strength, and reduced cost. For these reasons, they have largely
replaced gold-based alloys for making removable partial dentures.
The rapidly fluctuating escalating price of gold between 1980 and
2012 has made them logical alternatives to gold alloys for FDPs.

1959:PORCELAIN-FUSED-TO-METAL PROSTHESES
1971: THE END OF THE BRETTON WOODS SYSTEM

1976: THE MEDICAL AND DENTAL DEVICES ACT

1996: THE EUROPEAN MEDICAL DEVICES

DIRECTIVE

1998: THE CLEAN AIR ACTS

 DEFINITION OF ALLOY

 A mixture of two or more metals and/or non

metal is called an alloy.
“A mixture of two or more metals or metalloids that are
mutually soluble in the molten state; distinguished as
binary, ternary, quaternary, etc., Depending on the
number of metals within the mixture; alloying elements
are added to alter the hardness, strength, and toughness
of a metallic element, thus obtaining properties not
found in a pure metal”

-GPT 9
DENTAL APPLICATIONS

1.COBALT-CHROMIUM ALLOYS ( Vitalium & Nobilium).

Partial Denture Framework
Porcelain Metal Restorations

2.NICKEL-CHROMIUM ALLOYS (Ticonium).

Partial Denture Framework
Crowns & Bridges
Porcelain Metal Restorations.
3.TITANIUM AND TITANIUM ALLOYS
Crowns, Bridges, Partial Dentures, Implants

4.WROUGHT STAINLESS STEEL ALLOYS

Endodontic Instruments , Orthodontic Brackets
Preformed Crowns
 GENERAL REQUIREMENTS OF
DENTAL ALLOYS

The metals and alloys used as substitutes for gold alloys in dental
appliances must possess certain minimal fundamental
characteristics:
 Should not produce harmful toxicologic or allergic effects in
the patient or the operator.
 Should provide resistance to corrosion and physical changes
when in the oral fluids.
 The physical and mechanical properties, such as thermal
conductivity, melting temperature, coefficient of thermal
expansion, and strength should all be satisfactory.

 Fabrication should be plentiful, relatively inexpensive.

 Readily available
 CLASSIFICATION

ALLOY CLASSIFICATION BY NOBLE METAL CONTENT(1984)

Three categories:
 High Noble (HN)
 Noble (N)
 Predominantly Base Metal (Pb)
ALLOY CLASSIFICATION BY MECHANICAL
PROPERTIES:

• Low

• Medium

• Hard

• Extra hard
ALLOY CLASSIFICATION BY DENTAL APPLICATIONS:

 Single-tooth fixed restorations

 Multiple-unit fixed restorations

 Thin removable partial dentures

 DOMINANT PHASE SYSTEM

Single Phase Peritectic Phase

Eutectic Phase Intermetallic Phase

Five base metals alloy systems used in dentistry:

1. Stainless steels
2. Nickel-chrome alloys
3. Cobalt chromium alloys
4. Titanium alloys
5. Super-elastic nickel-titanium alloys
DESIRABLE PROPERTIES OF
DENTAL CASTING ALLOYS

BIOCOMPATIBILITY
TARNISH AND CORROSION RESISTANCE
THERMAL PROPERTIES
STRENGTH REQUIREMENTS
FABRICATION OF CAST PROSTHESES AND
FRAMEWORKS
PORCELAIN BONDING
ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS
FUNCTIONAL MECHANICAL
PROPERTIES OF CASTING ALLOYS

 The strength of an alloy is an important factor in ensuring

that the prosthesis for which it is used will serve its intended
functions effectively, safely, and for a reasonable time.
 In a general sense, mechanical properties are the measured
responses of materials under an applied force or distribution
of forces, such as elastic deformation, plastic deformation, or
a combination of both.
ELASTIC MODULUS
YIELD STRENGTH
YIELD STRENGTH
DUCTILITY
HARDNESS
HARDNESS
FATIGUE RESISTANCE
 Cobalt Chromium And Nickel
Chromium Alloys

Alloy classes of Ni-Cr alloys:

(1)Ni High-Cr (16%–27% Cr)
(2)High-Mo (O6% Mo),
(3) Ni-Cr
(4) Ni-Cr-Be (beryllium added) alloys.
Be is added to enhance castability by lowering the melting range
of the alloy and also as a grain refiner
 Cobalt Chromium And Nickel
Chromium Alloys

 Ever since cobalt-chromium casting alloys became available

for cast removable partial-denture restorations, they have
continued to increase in popularity. It was estimated as early
as 1949 that more than 80% of all partial-denture appliances
were cast from cobalt-chromium alloys.
 By 1969, more than 87% of all partial-denture appliances
made in this country were cast from some type of base-metal
alloy. Currently, almost all the metal frameworks of partial-
denture appliances are made from cobalt-chromium or
nickel chromium alloys.
ANSI/ADA SPECIFICATION NO. 14

According to ANSI/ADA Specification No. 14 (IS0 6871),

the weight of chromium should be no less than 20%, and the
total weight of chromium, cobalt, and nickel should be no
less than 85%.
 Nickel-Chromium Alloy

Most common base metal alloy used in metal-ceramic

prostheses.

COMPOSITION
• Nickel-61.5-77.5%
• Chromium-12.8-22%
• Molybdnum-4-14%
• Aluminium-0-4%
• Iron-0-5%
• Beryllium-0-2%
Functions of Various Alloying Elements
Chromium

Cobalt

Molybdenum

Aluminium

Beryllium
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
• Yield strength-260-830MPa

• Hardness-178-380VHN

• Tensile strength-400-1200MPa

• Modulus of elasticity-150-210GPa

• Elongation percentage-8-28%
Cobalt-Chromium Alloy

COMPOSITION
 COBALT-52-58%
 CHROMIUM-15-28%
 TUNGSTEN-10-14%
 OTHER TRACES:
Ga(0-7%), Ru(0-6%), Fe(0-1%), Cu(0-1%),
Nb(0-3%), Ta(0-1%)
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
• Yield strength-460-640 MPa

• Hardness-330-465 VHN

• Tensile strength-550-820 MPa

• Modulus of elasticity-145-220 GPa

• Elongation percentage-6-15%
ADVANTAGES VS DISADVANTAGES
OF Co-Cr alloys
HOW TO INCREASE THE
HARDNESS OF COBALT BASE
ALLOYS

?
MICROSTRUCTURE OF CAST BASE-
METAL ALLOYS
The microstructure of a commercial cobaltchromium alloy is illustrated in
Fig. 16-1. In Fig.
16-1, A, the carbides are continuous along the
grain boundaries. Such a structure is obtained
when the metal is cast as soon as it is completely
melted. In this condition, the cast alloy possesses
low elongation values with a good and clean
surface. Carbides that are spherical and discontinuous,
like islands, are shown in Fig. 16-1, B.
Such a structure can be obtained if the alloy is
heated about 100" C above its normal melting
temperature; this results in a casting with good
elongation values but with a very poor surface
because of an increased reaction with the investment.
The surface is so poor that the casting
cannot be used in dentistry.
Dark eutectoid areas, which are lamellar in
nature, are shown in Fig. 16-1, C. Such a structure
is responsible for very low elongation values but
a good and clean casting. From these three examples,
it is clear that microstructure can strongly
affect physical and mechanical properties.
The microstructure of Ni-Cr alloys is strongly dependent
on alloy composition. Alloys containing Be form an interdendritic
NiBe phase, as shown in Fig 16-1, D. In fact, during normal
metallographic procedures involving acid etching of alloy
specimens, the NiBe phase is dissolved; what is seen in the figure is
the void area left behind. The susceptibility of the NiBe phase to
acid attack has been taken advantage of in developing resinbonded
retainers. The retainer may be etched in selected areas, where a
composite-like luting agent can then mechanically adhere to the
retainer after curing. Alloys not containing Be have complicated,
multiphase microstructures such as that shown in
Figure 16-1, E. The precipitates dispersed within
the matrix include complex carbides, and, in
alloys where Nb is present, Mo-Nb-Si compounds.
All these precipitates are relatively unaffected
by the heat treatments the alloys are
subjected to during the porcelain firing procedures,
although the loss of elements due to oxidation
of the alloy surface may be sufficiently
great to change the stability of some phases,
which then re-dissolve in the alloy matrix.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

1.Melting Temperature
2.Density
The average density of cast base metal alloys is between 7 and 8
g/cm3.

Density is of some importance in bulky maxillary appliances, in

which the force of gravity causes the relative weight of the
casting to place additional forces on the supporting teeth.

With certain appliances, therefore, the reduction of weight

resulting from the lower density of the cast base-metal alloys
can be considered an advantage.
 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

YIELD STRENGTH

 It is believed that dental alloys should have yield strengths of

at least 415 MPa to withstand permanent deformation when
used as partial-denture clasps

 Base-metal dental alloys have yield strengths greater than 600

mpa.
Tensile Strength

 The ultimate tensile strength of cast base-metal alloys is less

influenced by variations in specimen preparation and test
conditions than are some other properties, such as elongation.

 Ultimate tensile strength of cast base-metal dental alloys is

greater than 800 mpa.
 Manipulation of Base Metal Alloys

 Since the fusion temperatures of Ni-Cr and Co-Cr alloys are in

the range of 1150 °C to 1500 °C, an acetylene-oxygen flame or
an electrical induction heating source is required for melting
these alloys.

 The investment mold should be made of either phosphate- or

silicate-bonded investment material, which maintains its surface
integrity at the casting temperature of base metal alloys.

 The density of a base metal alloy is about half that of a gold-

based alloy.
TITANIUM AND TITANIUM
ALLOYS

 The use of commercially pure titanium (CP Ti) and

titanium alloys for dental applications has increased
significantly since a description of its applications was
first reported in 1977.
 Titanium is considered the most biocompatible metal used
for dental restorations produced with prostheses.
 PROPERTIES
• Titanium has a high melting point (1668 °C)

• High rate of oxidation above 900 °C.

• It requires a special casting machine with arc-melting capability

and an argon atmosphere along with a casting investment
consisting of oxides, such as MgO, ZrO2, or Y2O3, which are
more stable than titanium oxide, to ensure acceptable
castability.

• The Vickers hardness of cast is nearly 200 to approximately

650
Titanium Alloys
 CP Ti undergoes an allotropic transformation from a hexagonal
close-packed crystal structure (α phase) at 882 °C to a stronger
and more ductile body-centered crystal structure (β phase).

 By incorporating α and/or β microstructural stabilizers, four

possible types of titanium alloys can be produced: α, near-α, α-
β, and β.
 Alpha alloys will form no beta phase on cooling and may contain
α stabilizers.

 Near-alpha alloys will form a limited amount of beta phase on

cooling by alloying with a small percentage of β stabilizers.

 Alpha-beta alloys are metastable and contain some combination

of α and β stabilizers. This group of alloys is heat treatable and
will contain α phase at room temperature

The most widely used titanium alloy in dentistry and for

general commercial applications is Ti-6Al-4V (Ti-10.2Al-3.6V
in atomic percent), which is an α-β alloy.
 Manipulation of Titanium Alloys

An argon/arc with a non consumable tungsten electrode or high-

frequency induction is used for melting titanium alloys in an argon or
helium atmosphere.

Crucibles are made of copper, magnesia, or carbon. Centrifugal force,

casting pressure difference, and gas pressure have been used to force
the molten-metal flow into the mold.

Castability indices for CP Ti, when cast with centrifugal force, are
comparable to those of traditionally cast Ni-Cr and gold alloys.
 STAINLESS STEEL

In 1926, the 18-8 18% chromium (Cr)-8% nickel (Ni)austenitic

stainless steel was introduced because it was stronger and more
corrosion-resistant in saline environments. Later that same year,
Strauss patented a variation of this 18-8 steel that added 2% to
4% molybdenum (Mo) and made it even more resistant in acidic
and chloride environments. The carbon content of this 18Cr-8Ni-
Mo alloy was later lowered to 0.08%, and the alloy became
known as 316 stainless steel. The major austenitic stainless steels
used in dentistry today are still the same 18-8 (302 and 304) and
316 alloy.
STAINLESS STEEL ALLOYS

 Steel is an iron-carbon alloy. The term stainless steel is

applied to alloys of iron and carbon that contain
chromium, nickel, manganese, and perhaps other metals
to improve properties and give the stainless quality to
the steel.
 These alloys differ in composition from the cobalt-
chromium, nickel-chromium, and titanium casting
alloys.
ADVANTAGES OF STAINLESS STEEL
• Heat and Corrosion Resistance.

• Ductile and Can Be Cold Worked.

• Can Be Easily Welded.

• Hardened by Cold Working.

• Can Be Stabilized Against Corrosion. • Hardened by Cold

Working.
• • Can Be Stabilized Against Corrosion.
COMPOSITION
• Several broad classifications of stainless steel are generally
recognized.
• The various groups are referred to as ferritic, martensitic, and
austenitic, and they have different compositions, properties,and
applications.

Austenitic steel most commonly used in dentistry

(18-8 stainless steel)
FUNCTION OF ALLOYING ELEMENTS

1. Chromium

2. Carbon
-Sensitization

3. Molybdenum
 STAINLESS STEEL ENDODONTIC
INSTRUMENTS

The most common instruments are the K type of root canal

files and reamers.

These are manufactured by machining a stainless steel wire

into a pyramidal blank, either square or triangular in cross
section, and then twisting the blank to form a spiral cutting
edge.
K-FILE
H-File
PROPERTIES
• Endodontic files need to be able to follow a curved path.
• Wear of a file does not appear to affect its cutting ability.
Sterilization by dry heat or salt has no effect on the cutting
ability of stainless steel files, but autoclave sterilization
causes a reduction.
• Irrigants such as sodium hypochlorite, hydrogen peroxide,
and EDTA-urea cause a reduction in cutting ability, whereas a
saline irrigant does not cause a reduction.

These solutions, excluding saline, also corrode stainless steel at

room temperature. Therefore, irrigants should be rinsed from the
instruments as soon as possible after use.
 NICKEL-TITANIUM ENDODONTIC
INSTRUMENTS

The alloys used in nickel-titanium root canal instruments

contain about 56% Ni and 44% Ti by weight, which calculate
to be 50% of each by atoms.

NOTE:
The modulus of ni-ti austenite is 120 Gpa, and that of
martensite is 50 Gpa. This effect results in what is termed
super-elasticity.

When the stress decreases, springback occurs without

permanent deformation and a return to the austenitic phase.
Comparision Of NiTi And Stainless Steel
ATOMIC STRUCTURE OF NiTi
Endodontic stainless steel K files are used with a 90-
degree clockwise rotation and withdrawal. If the tip of
a file becomes bound in a root canal, why should care
be taken not to rotate it much in the counterclockwise
direction?
 FACT:-
The first manual and mechanical rotary files were
formed from straight piano wire that had flats
grounds on its sides and twisted to result in the
configuration of file still used today.

Carbon steel Stainless steel NiTi instruments

Harmful Effects Of Metals
NICKEL

Uptake of too large quantities leads to following:

 Lung embolism
 Respiratory failure
 Asthma and chronic bronchitis
 Allergic reactions as skin rashes
BERYLLIUM
COBALT
LEAD
 CONCLUSION

There have been many developments in the areas of nonprecious or

base metals used for dental restorations and implants in the last
century. The wide array of materials available allows the clinician to
choose the material and thus properties for the desired application.
Titanium and Co-Cr materials in general provide superior corrosion
resistance, especially for longterm exposure to the oral environment,
whereas stainless steel and Ni-Ti materials provide substantial ductility
and adequate corrosion resistance needed for other applications. With
new materials continuing to emerge from most of these alloy systems,
the future looks to present an even wider range of available material
properties available to the clinician.
REFERENCES

 Anusavice Philip’s science of dental materials: 11th edition

 Restorative dental materials by Craig’s: 7th edition
 Applied dental materials by john.F.Mc Cabe: 9 th edn.
 Materials used in dentistry: S.Mahalaxmi
 Base Metal Alloys Used for Dental Restorations and
Implants: Michael Roach
 Dental casting alloys: Patel B, Mantri V
THANK YOU