The Use of “Democracy” as an Adjective in

-Myanmar Newspaper English-

NANG SENG HONG
Introduction

The nature of the human beings is to look for a better life and individual welfare.
They believe that a stable government and a system of political rights can lead them to
safety and prosperity, to a “good society”. Democracy tends to be a system of choice,
because people can choose to vote and elect their representatives. This is a system of
government employed by 63 percent of the world’s countries. However, democracy
has still not become established in 31 out of the more than 120 countries in the world.1

History and Background

Burma was a British colony and got independence in 1948. After independence,
Burma was a parliamentary democracy and a relatively rich country for the world of at
that time. Due to reasons of internal struggle, Nay Win led a military coup and came to
power in 1962. Nay Win’s military government ran the country with socialist economic
policies. Burma suffered due to lost human rights and faced economic crisis. Nation-
wide demonstrations were held in 1988 in support of Burma becoming a democratic
country. The military under the name of their State Law and Order Restoration
Council (SLORC) killed nearly 3,000 demonstrators, but promised the country they
would establish a democratic government. The military junta changed the name
“Burma” to “Myanmar” in 1989. The National League of Democracy (NLD) led by
Aung San Suu Kyi got over 80% votes in a 1990 election but SLORC refused to
accept these results. Aung San Suu Kyi was put under strict house arrest in 1989 and
thousands of political prisoners were arrested and sent to jail.2

Under the authority of the military, a National Convention was held in 1993. The
military junta did not accept any suggestions from the NLD and tightly controlled the
National Convention. The NLD announced that this constitution would not represent
for people or minorities and boycotted the National Convention, which stopped
functioning in 1996. Nevertheless, SLORC created a New Constitution without any
interference by its few elected members.

Under internal and external pressure, SLORC renamed itself the State Peace and
Development Council (SPDC) in 1997 and began the implementation of what they
claim will be a 7-step road map to democracy. The military junta has been facing
pressure to release political prisoners and move toward national reconciliation from the
UN and the major Western powers. The SPDC increased fuel prices in August 2007,
which resulted in Buddhist monks leading peaceful marches with the people and calling
for a solution to the problems of the humanitarian crises at hand. Nevertheless, the
military junta crackdown was violent, with the shooting, beating and arresting of many
monks.

The world criticized the violent crackdown and the EU decided to extend their
sanctions against the military junta. However, the military junta announced that, the
constitution being completed, a referendum would be held in May 2008 and a new
multi-party democratic election would be held in 2010. The SPDC refused to accept
the result of the 1990 election and ignored the world’s suggestion to make a dialog
with pro-democracy groups and minorities or to move towards national reconciliation.
In stead, they affirmed that their 7-step Road Map would soon be complete.

Research Question

Because of the difficulties facing the establishment of democracy in Myanmar, in this

paper I would like to explore how the military defines the meaning of democracy and
how this could relate to the establishment of a democratic government in Myanmar.

Methodology

All media in Myanmar are under the strict control of the military junta. For the
purpose of this research, I investigated the term of democracy and morphologically
related words from the one daily English newspaper published in Myanmar called the
“The New Light of Myanmar” (NLM). This newspaper was established in 1914, but is
now used by the military junta to promote their doctrines both internally and
externally. Another reason for using this newspaper was that the NLM includes articles
outlining the government’s desires, policies, and political, economic, social objectives.
If, we can analyze the term of democracy and it collocations carefully, we would
discover what the military image of democracy might be and what the chances are of a
democratic government being established in Myanmar.

Selection of Materials

May, June and July of 2008 were a very sensitive period in the history of Myanmar.
Nearly one week before the military’s referendum on a constitution was to be held,
Cyclone Nargis hit Myanmar and approximately 133,000 people perished, with another
2.4 million people losing their property and becoming homeless.3 Nevertheless, the
military not only ignored international requests to delay the referendum but refused to
accept aid also. They controlled the issuance of visas for UN staff and journalists who
intended to observe the referendum.

The disaster areas had been emptied and the referendum lacked international
approval, but the military junta announced that this constitution was ratified and
promulgated by 98.12 of those who voted. The world criticized the referendum as not
being either free and fair and because voting for a new constitution was deemed more
important than the lives of the cyclone victims. With many thousands of helpless
survivors being ignored, the military neglected humanitarian problems to solidify
power only. Seeking release from this pressure, the military tried to prove that they
were promoting democratic government, and, through NLM articles, tried to present
to the world their ideals and assumptions concerning democracy.

The issues of the NLM, published in English for May, June and July of 2008 were
downloaded from the internet at URL http://www.myanmargeneva.org/newseng-
printE.htm. The data from the digitized versions were downloaded as PDF files and
Adobe Reader was used to track the context in which democracy and morphologically
related words were used. The sentences so found with democracy and democracy-
related words were copied and pasted to a separate word document.

Analysis of the Data

First, sentences containing democracy were separated according to whether

democracy was a noun or an adjective. If a noun appeared, sorting was done according
to whether democracy appeared by itself or was together with another adjective. If
democracy was presented in a positive context, I ranked its use as being positive, but if
the context was problematic, I considered the use to be negative. If it was presented in
neither a good nor a bad context, I considered its use to be neutral. A collocation
search was then done and I noted whether the words which collocated were nouns or
adjectives. The data represents a three-month period.

Results

Table 1 – Democracy as a noun

Context May June July

Positive 1 7 2
Negative 4 34 24
Neutral 5 26 23
Total 10 67 49

Democracy appeared as a noun with a positive meaning one time in May, seven
times in June and two times in July. Negative meanings were 4, 34 and 24 times and
neutral meanings were 5, 26, 23 times in May, June, and July. Immediately below you
can find positive, negative, and neutral examples:

(1) "That is a giant step for transition to democracy to satisfy the people’s desire" or
“Do not make the goal of democracy far away from the people”. (Lu thit (Padauk
Mya, NLM 31/7/2008 7, line 8);

(2) "When I read news stories that in consequence of too much democracy freedom,
cases of shooting spree took place in schools and many children lost their lives in the
events, the news about rapacious George Soroz,[…and other examples…]. I feel that
as for our country with fine cultural traditions, such democracy is like a gift of chicken
that is given when bird flu is spreading." (Hlaing Bwa (Parami) “My knowledge of
democracy”NLM 13/7/2008:6, line 61,72)
(3) "Whatever it may be, the two parties give priority to the national interest and
work together with the sense of democracy (Kyaw Min Lu (Shwepyitha) “Let’s
nurture the sapling of democracy (2)” NLM 21/6/2008:7, line 104)

Table 2 – Democracy as an adjective

Context May June July

Positive 11 48 37
Negative 3 17 18
Neutral 7 30 18
Total 21 95 73

As an adjective, there was use of democracy in a positive context 11 times in May,

48 times in June and 37 times in July. It was note-worthy that the use in a negative
context was less at 3, 17, 18 times respectively and in a neutral context were 7, 30
and 18 times in May, June and July. Representative examples are: (1) "Therefore, I
would say this constitution guarantees national races all possible democracy rights.
(Soe Mya Kyaw “The most appropriate constitution, (3) ”NLM 9/5/2008: 4, line 89),
(2) "We have to bear in mind that democracy practice can improve slowly according
to how much the people are mature in view and knowledge. (Soe Mya Kyaw “The
most appropriate constitution” NLM 7/5/2008:11, line 114)," and (3) "So, we have to
understand and accept the evolution process of democracy practice. (Soe Mya Kyaw
“The most appropriate constitution”NLM 7/5/2008: 11, line 113)"

Table 3 – Democratic

Context May June July

Positive 27 2 51
Negative 0 7 10
Neutral 4 6 11
Total 31 15 72

Concerning the use of democratic appeared with positive context 27 times in May,
2 times in June and 51 times in July. There were no negative context in May, but 7
times in June and 10 time in July. It appeared in neutral context 4, 6, 11 times in May,
June and July. Respectively, examples of positive, negative and neutral use are: (1)
The State Peace and Development Council has been working hand in hand with the
people for the emergence of a modern developed discipline-flourishing democratic
nation. (Anon “Myanmar holds referendum for emergence of modern developed
discipline-flourishing democratic nation”NLM 11/5/2008: 6, line 8); (2) Anti-
government politicians who are said to be those respect democracy cannot accept the
very democratic practice. (Lu Thit “Do not make the goal of democracy far away
from the people” NLM 31/7/2008:6, line 11); and, (3) The most democratic way is to
respect and fulfill the wishes of the majority of the people. (U Pyap Kyaw “Let’s
march forward along the path to democracy paved by the people” NLM 26/6/2008: 7,
l,18)
Table 4 – Democratic nation

Context May June July

Positive 4 2 1
Negative 0 1 0
Neutral 4 2 2
Total 8 5 3

Uses of term democratic nation were specifically investigated for this period, as the
phrase stood out in comparison with other uses of democratic. It appeared itself total
of 8 times in May, 5 times in June and 3 times in July. Positive context appeared 4, 2,
1 times in May, June and July. No mention for negative context in May and July but
only one time in June. Neutral context appeared 4, 2, 2 times in May, June and July.
Positive, negative and neutral examples are: (1) Only then, will it be possible for us to
get the most discipline-flourishing and developed democratic nation. (Anon “The
most appropriate constitution...”NLM 9/5/2008: 5, line 92); (2) In Myanmar that has
been in the process of transforming itself into a democratic nation through the seven-
step Road Map, since the government issued Announcement No 1/2008 for the
approval of the State constitution, which was adopted by the National Convention,
NLD had provoked and persuaded the people in collusion with the four western
media groups to vote ‘No’ for the constitution and to disrupt the process of the
referendum. (Aung Ze Min “Why did Myanmar people unanimously vote for State
constitution?” NLM 17/6/2008:7, line 55); and (3) Now workers and peasants hand in
hand with national people are making endeavors for building a new democratic nation.
(Anon “Boost production for development of industrial sector” NLM 1/5/2008: 2,
line 7)

5. Democrat was also investigated. There was no mention made of the word,
democrat, in May and June. There was only one appearance in July and this in a
neutral context. The sole example was as follows: National democrats who favors
(sic!) national interest should employ national politics and national vision objectively
in reviewing the concept. (Maung Cetana (B.A Bed) “Destination of pessimists”NLM
15/7/2008: 6, line 27)

6. Discussion

Democracy appeared as an adjective more than as a noun in the NLM. When it

appeared as a noun, it was in a negative context more often than a positive or neutral
context. The ratio of negative use to positive was roughly six to one (62 times in a
negative context versus 10 times in a positive context). The ratio of positive context
use as an adjective was roughly three times higher than negative context use (96 times
in a positive context versus 38 times in a negative context).

The contributors of NLM presented democracy as being representative of an alien

culture and their writings provide concrete evidence for their being uncomfortable with
the idea of democracy. The following example will illustrate the attitude of the military
attitude towards democracy as it is expressed by NLM writers:

“When I read news stories that in consequence of too much democracy

freedom, cases of shooting spree took place in schools and many children
lost their lives in the events, the news about rapacious George Soroz,
[…and other examples…]. I feel that as for our country with fine cultural
traditions, such democracy is like a gift of chicken that is given when bird
flu is spreading.” (Hlaing Bwa (Parami), NLM, 13/7/2008, page 6, line 61)

Significantly, we can see in this comparison of democracy to an agent of

contagion that there is also a recognition of the fact that Myanmar, from the
viewpoint of the military, is not yet politically stable and also the fear that
democracy would further destabilize the situation for the military. Elsewhere
democracy was seen as necessary and it was recognized that "Furthermore, our
people greatly want democracy.” (Lu Thit (Padauk Mya), NLM, 16/6/2008,
page 7, line 129)

The general message conveyed by the NLM was that democracy was a prevalent in
the outside world, but that Myanmar was unique and it would seem difficult to accept
or promote in Myanmar without modification. In fact, when democracy was used as
an adjective and in the neutral contexts, this can be found clearly stated as follows:

In reality, it is because they do not understand the difference between the

historical background for democracy transition of other countries and that of
Myanmar. (Maung Cetana (B.A Bed), NLM, 15/7/2008, 6, line 108)

Obviously, for the military government, democracy activists or democracy movements

are equated with saboteurs and terrorists. The Democracy Party (the primary
opposition party) also invariably appeared in a negative context as can be seen in the
following examples:

(1) “It has praised terrorists and saboteurs as democracy activists, showing its
intrigue putting danger to the nation.” (Anon., NLM, 4/6/2008, page 6, line
101)

(2) “If they claimed themselves to be public party or democracy party

although they are committing such crimes, their policy will be in contrary
to that of the people.” (U Pyay Kyaw, NLM, 26/6/2008, page 7, line 97)

Nevertheless, when democracy was used as an adjective, it appeared positive contexts

far more frequently than negative contexts. Moreover, when it was used in the phrase
democracy nation, it was almost entirely in a positive context.

“In fact, in pursuance of the seven-step Road Map to build a discipline-

flourishing democracy nation, the government is dealing with anti-
government groups and persons with great patience in order to achieve
national reconsolidation.” (Soe Mya Kyaw, NLM, 11/6/2008, page 4,
column l, line 89)
In fact, democratic nation appeared 16 times (10 times in positive context, in
neutral context 5 times and only 1 time in negative context) in May, June and
July in 2008. Interestingly, it attracted adjectives such as developed, modern or
peaceful and collocated frequently with the phrase discipline-flourishing, for
which there was no negative usage.

Discipline-flourishing, in particular, seemed to represent and reflect the

world-view of the military government, a view in which professional soldiers had
an essential function in creating the discipline necessary for a stable society to
develop. That contrasted with the apparent junta fear that democracy was
something unrestrained and easily destructive in the context of Myanmar.
Evidence for this was:

“In conclusion, the minister urged the literary workers to inculcate the
people with correct outlook and knowledge, to safeguard the national
interest, to discharge the duties bestowed by history in efforts for
emergence of a modern, developed discipline-flourishing democratic nation
and to realize the objectives of the association.” (Anon , NLM, 29/6/2008,
page 9, line 153)
The most striking discovery was that, democrat appeared only time during the
three-month period under study and that was in a neutral context. Quite
obviously, the significance of this lies in the fact that the government do not see
any difference between themselves and the leaders of the democracy movement,
the hidden assumption of the military being that there are no democrats in any
political grouping in Myanmar at present and, that given the opportunity, the
opposition would act exactly as the military is at present.

Briefly put, the choice of words found in the NLM reflect military policy and
its negative viewpoint of Western-style democracy. Writers were often
anonymous but, even when not, they can be seen to use government inspired
code words which promote military intent and which serve to paint the activities
of other political groups as criminal and/or subject to restraint.

7. Conclusion

Democracy can be understood to exist when all citizens have an equal right to vote
and elect a government and where majority rule applies, as can be seen in American
and British dictionaries. Nevertheless, there is no native Burmese term for democracy
which can be found in any Burmese-English dictionary. This is further reinforced by
the fact that there are eight major national groups and 135 distinct ethnic minorities in
Myanmar³. Each ethnic group has its own language, though the official language used
in Myanmar is that of the ruling Myanmar ethnic group. It goes without saying that the
understanding of democracy must necessarily vary between these ethnic groups.
Minority nationalities do not normally have the opportunity to publish written works in
their own languages and the military regime has made no perceivable effort to promote
the languages of the various ethnic groups of Myanmar.

The idea of Democracy is an uncomfortable one for the military junta to accept. It
always emphasizes that democracy should be modified or restrained and, to that effect,
words such as process, transition, developing often collocated. Obviously, in response
to this fear, the representative phrase, discipline-flourishing democracy, was created.
It seems, for the time being, to have become a slogan of sorts for the military leaders
who find themselves under pressure.

The explanation of democracy in the context of NLM is slippery and inextricably

with the lack of agreed-upon definitions. Unfortunately, as mentioned above, it is by
no means clear how the various Burmese ethnic groups define the meaning of
democracy. Moreover, there is no Burmese-Burmese dictionary, nor similar
dictionaries for the minority languages. This, as much as the political factors involved,
has allowed the government to put the democracy icon Aung San Suu Kyi under
detention and to label any pro-democracy activities as being criminal and the work of
saboteurs. In stead, the goal of the government is to establish a democratic
government in Myanmar under the control of the military junta which can be
considered as a contradiction in terms. Nevertheless, the prospect in sight at present is
that neither will Western standards of democracy be employed by the government nor
will democratic values in take root in Myanmar as people expect in western countries.

After parliamentary democracy was lost, the various ethnic groups took their guns
and have fought for their human rights since 1962. Neither the 1947 nor the1974
constitution could maintain state stability and peace. The 1988 and 2007 revolutions
showed that the rule of the military was rejected. It should be emphasized that the
ethnic rebel troops though out recent Burmese history have been challenging the
military to create a system of political rights which would guarantee their safety and
prosperity. Rather than new elections, the regime currently in power would do well to
release its more than 2,000 political prisoners, cease attacks on ethnic minorities, and
genuinely engage with the National League of Democracy (NLD), the opposition's
political umbrella, as the NLD is a more representative mirror of the Burmese people
as a whole. What should be done and what is actually happening are, however,
different matters. The military junta currently robs the freedom of Burmese people and
coerces them on a daily basis to participate in a flawed political process. Nevertheless,
it may be expected that the various Burmese ethnic groups will continue to give their
lives and struggle to achieve the democratic values which are necessary to guarantee
both their prosperity and human dignity.
NOTES:
1. Martin et al., p3.
2. A biography of Aung San Suu Kyi, Burma Camping UK. Daw Aung San Suu Kyi
and Myanmar's political prisoners, Amnesty International.
3. Tehran Times, p6.

ONLINE RESOURCES:

Compact Oxford English Dictionary,

http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/democracy?view=uk

Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English,

http://www.ldoceonline.com/dictionary/democracy

Webster’s Student Dictionary, http://www.wordcentral.com/cgi-bin/student?

book=Student&va=democracy

http://www.ldoceonline.com/dictionary/democracy

REFERENCES:

AFP, Tehran Times International Daily, May 28, 2008,

Martin Lipset Seymour and M.Lakin Jason (2004), "The Democratic Century" the
University of Okalahoma Press, Norman, USA.

Nang Seng Hong (2009), "Representations of Stability, Peace and Tranquility In "The
New Light of Myanmar" Foreign Language journal, Daitou Bunka University, Vol.38

U Win Tin (9/9/2009), "An 'Election' Burma's People Don't Need" The Washington
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&gclid=CNGBiMbYzZwCFUwwpAodQ
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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_Light_of_Myanmar