Professional Documents
Culture Documents
in Community Setting
Compiled by
S.Rengasamy
S.Rengasamy –Conflict in Community Setting (Part I)
Contents
Conflict in community Settings ............................................................................................................... 4
What is community conflict? ................................................................................................................... 5
Box: What is community? ....................................................................................................................... 5
Box: Community organizers & Conflict ................................................................................................... 5
What is Conflict ...................................................................................................................................... 6
Definitions .............................................................................................................................................. 6
1.............................................................................................................................................................. 6
Box: Stages & Signs of Conflict .............................................................................................................. 6
2.............................................................................................................................................................. 6
3.............................................................................................................................................................. 6
4.............................................................................................................................................................. 7
5.............................................................................................................................................................. 7
6.............................................................................................................................................................. 7
7.............................................................................................................................................................. 7
8.............................................................................................................................................................. 7
Box: Types of Conflict ............................................................................................................................ 7
Table: Five Types of Conflict .................................................................................................................. 8
Box: Conflict Staircase ............................................................................................................................ 8
A.Types of Conflict ................................................................................................................................. 9
B. Types of Conflict ................................................................................................................................ 9
Box: What do we mean by conflict .......................................................................................................... 9
C. Types of Conflict ................................................................................................................................ 9
Box: Conflict Stages & Types of community Disputes ........................................................................... 11
Types of Community Disputes............................................................................................................... 11
Dia: Levels of conflict ........................................................................................................................... 12
Box: Conflict is ever-changing: Stages of conflict .................................................................................. 13
D.Types of conflict ................................................................................................................................ 14
Box: Consequences of conflict............................................................................................................... 14
E. Types of conflict: .............................................................................................................................. 14
Box: Understanding Conflict as a Strategy in Social Change .................................................................. 15
Different kinds of conflict. ..................................................................................................................... 15
Understanding Conflict as a Strategy in Social Change .......................................................................... 15
Competition & Conflict ......................................................................................................................... 16
Box: Casual Pathway of Conflict over Natural Resources -& Fresh water Conflicts ............................... 17
Consequences of conflict ....................................................................................................................... 18
Positive and Negative Conflict............................................................................................................... 18
Types of conflicts arising in Natural Resource Management .................................................................. 19
Box: How is conflict resolution different than the legal approach? ......................................................... 19
Common development pressures fuelling conflict .................................................................................. 20
Community situations where conflict resolution may be useful .............................................................. 20
Box: Model Conflict Analysis Mapping ................................................................................................. 20
Box: Types of conflict ........................................................................................................................... 21
Box: Conflict mapping & Community Conflict ...................................................................................... 22
Conflict - Careers and education ............................................................................................................ 22
Box Examples of Types of conflicts arising in Natural Resource Management. ...................................... 23
What are community-based conflicts?.................................................................................................... 24
Why to resolve Conflicts ....................................................................................................................... 26
Different types of strategies in approaching to Conflicts ........................................................................ 26
Diagram: Conflict Management ............................................................................................................ 27
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S.Rengasamy –Conflict in Community Setting (Part I)
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S.Rengasamy –Conflict in Community Setting (Part I)
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S.Rengasamy –Conflict in Community Setting (Part I)
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S.Rengasamy –Conflict in Community Setting (Part I)
to different uses. None of this is likely to happen without conflict. The feelings and emotions, the
hopes and aspirations, the anger and the frustration that the changes bring up will often be
carried into your organization and affect your work. It can show up in disagreements between
organizations and in disagreements within organizations. This is not anyone‟s fault: it is what
happens in any highly charged change situation. Our task is to learn from it… not to pretend it
isn‟t there, or just hope that it will go away
What is Conflict
The potential for conflict exists whenever and wherever people have contact. As people are
organized into groups to seek a common goal, the probability of conflict greatly increases. Since
only the most serious conflicts make headlines, conflict has a negative connotation for many
people. All conflicts are not the same. We face conflicts on all levels. We have disagreements
with family, friends, and co-workers. "Conflicts are rarely resolved easily. Most conflicts are
managed as individuals work out differences...."
Individuals may dislike certain people with whom they come into frequent contact, but may
tolerate their behavior on a day-to-day basis until a situation arises where strong feelings are at
issue. Such situations almost inevitably turn up, sooner or later, within any long term community
project or program. Conflict can occur within groups (intra-group conflict) or among groups
(inter-group conflict).
'CONFLICT ENTREPRENEURS', stand to
gain a great deal of power and
Definitions wealth from instability and conflict.
1
Conflict. Conflict is usually defined as a social situation in which incompatible goals and
activities occur between two or more parties (individuals or groups) who hold antagonistic
feelings towards each other and attempt to control each other.
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S.Rengasamy –Conflict in Community Setting (Part I)
Conflict occurs when an individual is motivated to make two or more mutually incompatible
responses.
5
Conflict is a tension between two or more entities (individuals, groups or larger organizations),
which arise from incompatibility of actual or larger responses.
6
Conflict is the energy that builds up when individuals or groups of people pursue incompatible
goals in their drive to meet their needs and interests
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Conflict is a perceived divergence of interests or the belief that the current aspirations of the
parties cannot be simultaneously met
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Conflict is defined in many ways. The Latin word conflictus, a striking together with force
implies disagreement, discord, and friction among members of a group; interaction where words,
emotions, and actions strike together to produce disruptive effects. Conflict is an unavoidable
outgrowth of group life, for by entering into relations with others we must negotiate and
renegotiate our undertakings and our outcomes
Box: Types of Conflict
• Clarify perceptions
• Control emotions through procedures
• Block negative behavior by changing structure
• Encourage problem solving attitudes
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The more our lives overlap with others, the more likely it is that there will at times be conflicts.
So one can identify different types of conflicts.
A.Types of Conflict
There are different ways to classify the conflict based on the need to intervene. Some are
A. Three basic types of conflict: task conflict, interpersonal conflict, and procedural conflict.
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Intergroup conflict- An overt expression of tensions between goals or concerns of one group
or those of another group. There are opposing interests, group boundaries or group differences
involved. The conflict is directly or indirectly related to culture group identities. Sources of this
type conflict includes: Competing Goals; Competition of Resources; Cultural Differences; Power
Discrepancies; Assimilation vs. Preservation of micro cultural identity.
Affects
Affects Affects Affects
Transforming structures
& processes
Livelihood infrastructure Livelihood
assets of a strategies
state/government institution
particular • agriculture
household/ kinship networks
group/ markets Influencing
• labour
Affects engagement
community/ civic institutions • trade
with
population traditional authority • migration
private sector • smuggling
ethnic institutions • predation and
Relative power /
wealth / religious institutions asset- stripping
Vulnerability / laws • external aid
poverty of
Affects policies
particular determining/ achieving
and access to culture
household/ group
/ community / ethnic & religious identity
population conflict and violence Livelihood outcomes
war economy • income
F= financial assets displacement • food security
H= human assets Determines environmental degradation • health and education
and impacts
N= natural assets asset transfer • economic vulnerability
of/significance of
P= physical assets aid inputs • political vulnerability
S= social assets foreign investment • vulnerability to violence
Pol= political assets
militarization • use of natural resources
foreign intervention
trading
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S.Rengasamy –Conflict in Community Setting (Part I)
Types of Community
Disputes
Small Claims - property
damage, accidents, vandalism,
small debts, harassment, etc.
Neighbor problems - such as
noise, pet, neighbor relations,
parking, etc.
Domestic problems - involving
family members, friends, or
roommates.
Juvenile disputes - conflicts
between youth, as well as
between youth and adults,
schools, merchants, or the law.
Consumer/merchant -
product or service satisfaction.
Landlord/tenant - security
deposits, repairs, damages, etc.
Worksite - employer/employee,
among workers.
Property division - personal or
business relationships disputes.
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Intragroup Conflict: This type of conflict is conflict between the group members. There are
two types of conflict:
Relationship conflict-Relationship conflict exists when there are interpersonal incompatibilities
among group members, which typically includes tension, animosity, and annoyance among
members within a group.
Task conflict-Exists when there are disagreements among group members about the content of
the tasks being performed, including differences in viewpoints, ideas, and opinions.
Dia: Levels of conflict
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CONFLICT STAGES
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D.Types of conflict
economic conflict, power conflict, value conflict –
Conflict due to personality clashes, conflict due to different needs, roles, goals, interest.
different needs,
Economic Conflict:
It arises due to competing motives to obtain scarce resources. Each
group wants to maximize its gain at the cost of other party. Economic
conflict will not be resolved by improving communication, but by
difficult and detailed negotiations among the parties.
Power Conflict:
Power conflict arises when each party wishes to maximize the
influence it has. This type of conflict usually ends in a victory for one
party and a defeat for another, or in a standoff that involves a
continuing state of tension. The crucial issue is not resource scarcity
or differences in basic values, but simply a question of control and
related matters such as pride, recognition and future material rewards
that power may bring.
Value Conflict:
It involves incompatible principles and practices that people believe
in- their ideology, religion, political system and culture. E.g. Marxist Vs Capitalist, Religious
conversion etc.Since the value conflicts lie at the very heart of a person / peoples identity, they
are extremely difficult to resolve.
Most conflict involve a mixture of realistic economic, power or value differences as well as
unrealistic ingredient of misperception and miscommunication. Usually a conflict may begin
from one source but broaden to include other elements.
Box: Consequences of conflict
E. Types of conflict:
Personality clashes:
It occurs when two people who have to see each other frequently cause negative feelings and
reactions in one another. Often these people share common goals, but they cannot get along. E.g.
he hurts me
Different needs:
Roles: Role expectation can cause conflict
Goals: lack of clarity or disagreement about the goals of the program
Conflict of interest: e.g. higher wages
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Saul Alinsky was one of the major advocates of using conflict to achieve group goals. His basic
strategy was to organize community and neighborhood groups to "establish a creative tension within
the establishment". Whether the tension was creative or not, tension was frequently "created".
Those who utilize the conflict approach may use disruptive tactics to call attention to their position.
These tactics may range from non-violent protests - boycotts and sit-ins - to violence.
Community development professionals appear to be divided on the use of conflict. Some community
development workers feels: "Conflict itself...of some kind or degree is a major determinant of change
and far from moving to avoid or immediately dissolve it, it may often be entirely appropriate even to
stimulate it." Many reject conflict because they feel that decisions reached through community
consensus and cooperation is the best method to achieve social change. Conflict, it is argued, may
stimulate participation in the decision making process but provide only a temporary stimulus and
prevent the development of a permanent foundation for participation. Many individuals who find
conflict distasteful may be repelled states that although benefits often accrue when conflict is properly
used, there are risks involved in using conflict in community organizations. Nonviolent conflict may
turn violent, and conflict may produce unexpected results. Conflict may also result in the identification
of the wrong "enemy." As Robinson and Clifford (1974) notes, "Alinsky demonstrated that his
approach would bring change. Sometimes his methods generated great unrest and created much
stress within communities. At other times, significant advances and social change occurred."
While many community development workers may not promote the use of conflict to bring about
change, it is necessary to understand how it may be used by groups in order to deal with conflict
situations more effectively when they arise.
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Competition implies an opposition in the goals of the interdependent parties such that the
probability of goal attainment for one decreases as the probability of other increases.
Aggression is a form of behavior intended to inflict injury to a person
or object.
Conflict Theory. A theory that views community and society as an
arena in which various groups compete to attain maximum gain for
themselves.
Conflict (or alienation) approach. A theory of society, which argues
that fundamental tensions or built in contradictions exist between the
powerful and the powerless – and these problems, can be resolved only through radical changes
in society.
Conflict handling modes / conflict resolution. Settlement of disputes that are mutually
satisfactory and that receive a long-term commitment from both the parties.
If there is a possibility to enjoy social justice without recourse to physical violence in any society then
there will be less conflict in that society. Systems that handle conflict openly and productively can
maximize the benefits while reducing the conflicts
One has to examine both the goals and the means of conflict in order to judge its acceptability.
Functional Vs Dysfunctional Conflict
Positive Vs Negative Conflict
Competition & Conflict
Competition Conflict
No direct action of one party to interfere with the ongoing Conflict interferes
activities of another e.g. track and field events
Competition occurs within a set of agreed upon rules. There is no agreed upon rules. All is
E.g.hockey fair in conflict
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Box: Casual Pathway of Conflict over Natural Resources -& Fresh water Conflicts
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Consequences of conflict
Widespread, deadly violence now affects nearly 60 percent of the countries. While conflict can be an
inherent and legitimate part of social and political life, in many places the costs and consequences of
violent conflict, extremism, and state failure have become unacceptly high. By the year 2000, internal
conflict and repression had generated 14.5 million asylum seekers worldwide and nearly 25 million
persons were displaced within their own countries. Child soldiers, gender-specific atrocities, extremist
ideologies, and the targeting of aid workers are all part of "new war" scenarios. Violent conflict also
dramatically disrupts development. It discourages investment, destroys human and physical capital,
undermines the institutions needed for political and economic reform, redirects resources to non-
productive uses, and causes a dramatic deterioration in the quality of life.
Conflict is an inherent and legitimate part of social and political life. Democratic institutions, for
example, are not meant to eliminate conflict, they are designed to manage it and channel it in
productive directions.
Also, conflict is often a precursor to positive change, and one certainly should not try to avoid all
conflict if in so doing we eliminate protests that lead to democratic elections, or positive changes
status of women, or increased economic growth, or more sound environmental practices.
While there are many different causes of conflict, there is an emerging consensus that certain broad
clusters or categories of causes need to be in place for conflict to emerge. These are:
1) Causes that fuel incentives or motives for participation in violence;
2) Causes that facilitate the mobilization and expansion of violence;
3) Causes found at the level of state and social capacity to manage and respond to violence; and
4) Regional or international causes. If all of these are in place, there are also likely to be windows of
vulnerability — moments when events such as highly contested elections, natural disasters,
economic shocks, or riots — can trigger the outbreak of full-scale violence.
Positive and Negative Conflict
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Types of Conflict
* Community conflict * diplomatic conflict * economic conflict * emotional conflict*
environmental resources conflict * external conflict * group conflict* ideological conflict
* international conflict * interpersonal conflict * inter societal conflict * Intrastate conflict
(for example: civil wars, election campaigns) * intrapersonal conflict * organizational conflict*
intra-societal conflict * military conflict* religious-based conflict * workplace conflict * data
conflict* relationship conflict * racial conflict
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Community Conflict
The potential for community conflict exists
whenever and wherever people have contact.
Communities faces increasing community
conflicts due to the cultural, linguistic and
ethnic diversity associated with its changing
population. Communities and government
services are being redefined and, at the same
time, neighbors are facing unfamiliar lifestyles
in their neighborhoods. Stresses caused by
economic or social change can impact
community resources, leaving groups feeling
that they are being denied government
services at the expense of other groups. Law
enforcement, schools and local government
officials are increasingly affected by resulting
tensions and need to be prepared when serious
conflict erupts.
Community conflict also can occur when
individuals or groups perceive or experience
discriminatory behavior directed at them by an
agency or its representative, by members of
another group, or by members of their own
group. For example, a high-profile case of
police misconduct, an incident of violence on a
college campus, a hate crime or case of
discrimination can polarize a community. All of
these events can produce stress on community
residents, often resulting in disagreements
over what should be done to solve these
problems. This stress can even lead to open
conflict within the community.
Several universities offer programs of study pertaining to conflict management. The Cornell
University ILR School houses the Scheinman Institute on Conflict Resolution, which offers
undergraduate, graduate, and professional training on conflict resolution.
Furthermore, the Pax Ludens Foundation based in the Netherlands is an organization that puts
together conflict resolution simulations set in an International Relations scenario to help students
learn about the intricacies of where conflict emerges in the world of international politics.
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Conflict resolution is a growing area of interest in UK pedagogy, with teachers and students both
encouraged to learn about the mechanisms which lead people towards aggressive actions, and
those which lead them towards peaceful resolution.
In many schools in the UK, conflict resolution has now become an integral part of the SEAL
(Social and Emotional Aspects of Learning) programme, chiming, as it does, with the SEAL
principles of developing social skills and an understanding of one‟s own feelings.
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What are community-based conflicts? groups over resource ownership, rights and
(Example. Natural Resources) responsibilities.
People normally use resources like forests, water, Community-based conflicts (natural resource) are
common property resources and land, and want to often very complex. There are usually many causes
manage them in different ways. Knowing about and many interconnected issues, making it hard to
these different uses and management can help to identify the key issues in the conflict.
inform successful management so that everyone It is sometimes helpful to think of conflict as
benefits as much as possible. However, such having the following three elements:
differences can also lead to conflict when: People: how people think about and relate to the
there is competition over material goods, conflict; their feelings, emotions and perceptions
economic benefits, property or power; of the problems and of the other people
parties believe that their needs cannot be met; involved;
parties perceive that their values, needs or Process: the way decisions are made, and how
interests are under threat. people feel about this. The decision-making
Sometimes it is best to monitor a conflict without process is often overlooked as a key cause of
intervening. Such conflicts are problematic, but are conflict. However, resentment, feelings of being
unlikely to become disputes and are not treated unfairly and a sense of powerlessness
dangerous. At other times, however, if a conflict is are often rooted in this area.
ignored, or attempts to manage it fail, it can grow Problems: the specific issues and differences
into a dispute or some other form of confrontation. among the people, groups and agencies
A dispute occurs when a conflict over a specific involved. These often include different values,
issue or event becomes public. A dispute can be a incompatible interests and needs, or concrete
fight, an appeal to authorities, or a court case. The differences regarding the use, distribution or
difference between disputes and conflict is accessibility of scarce resources. They are often
important. All disputes reflect conflict, but not all referred to as the "root causes" of conflict, about
conflicts develop into disputes. which people tend to take clear and strong
Some conflicts may develop into disputes quickly. positions.
Others remain latent for a long time until triggered There are several factors that lead to conflicts
or aggravated by something new, such as a Growing competition over natural resources
development project or the arrival of outside Natural resources are increasingly subject to
interests. intense competition. In most cases, several factors
Community-based conflicts may occur at the local are responsible for this, including:
level, but often involve regional, national or even demographic change (e.g. population growth,
global actors. They range from conflicts among migration and urbanization);
local men and women over the use of land, to market pressures (e.g. increased
conflicts among communities disputing control over commercialization, intensification and
common resources, or fishers disagreeing about privatization of local economies, growing
the devices used for fishing. Community-level integration of national and global economies,
conflict might involve government agencies, economic reforms);
domestic and multinational businesses, politicians, Environmental changes that force people
international development agencies and non- to alter their livelihood strategies (e.g.
governmental organizations (NGOs). floods, recurrent droughts, altered river flows,
A dispute may also break out at different levels. At changes in wildlife migration).
one level, the main issue could be access to or However, increased competition is not always the
control over the resources that people depend on. only cause of conflict. Four important conditions
At another, the dispute could relate to more deeply influence how access to resources could become
rooted issues such as recognition, rights, identity contested. These are:
or the ability to participate. the scarcity of a natural resource;
The intensity of conflict also varies greatly - from the extent to which the supply is shared by two
confusion and frustration among members of a or more groups;
community about poorly communicated the relative power of those groups;
development policies, to violent clashes among
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the degree of dependence on this particular when they are acknowledged legally, so State law
resource, or the ease of access to alternative may continue to come into conflict with custom.
sources. Different authorities using different rules can then
Of course, increased demand for resources can make decisions that are contradictory - one
result in responses other than conflict. For decision in customary law, another in statute law.
example, it can lead to agricultural intensification Socio-economic change fuelling conflict
(using fertilizer, terracing, irrigation, multiple When society and the economy undergo change, it
cropping, stall-feeding livestock, tree planting, is not surprising if the interests and needs of the
etc), increased reliance on non-farm/off-farm community also change. Economic development
income, or increased commercialization of often increases pressures on natural resources,
production. These new adaptations may in turn and this can trigger conflict or make existing
generate conflicts, as resource use patterns are conflicts worse. The following are some examples:
altered. Introduction of new technologies, synthetic
Structural causes of conflict fertilizers, agricultural mechanization or
Established organizations and patterns govern how permanent irrigation
the law works, how education and health services Commercialization of common property
are provided, and how women and men, old and resources:
young people live as families and communities. Migration
These could be described as the way in which Perverse incentives:
society is organized or structured. Conflicts are Policies, programmes and projects (Natural
often underpinned by this structure. resource management) as sources of conflict
A conflict may involve one issue - for example, a New policies of decentralization, devolution and
boundary dispute between two villages. This collaborative management increase the decision-
could be addressed by local people using making power and influence of local communities,
customary law. But if someone wants to use State households and individuals. Such policies
law, the conflict becomes more complicated. A encourage communities to become more involved
structural conflict may arise because customary in decisions affecting their own livelihoods and the
law and State law are organized differently; one resources on which those livelihoods are based.
is local and the other national. State law is usually Although such policies are helpful for sustainable
stronger, and the conflict may then move from a livelihoods, the successful introduction of greater
boundary dispute to one about people's rights and power sharing among different groups is often
identity. challenging.
Deeper, structural issues such as this often have Policies, programmes and projects themselves can
roots in long-standing conditions, such as the way serve as sources or arenas of conflict, even though
in which wealth or power is produced, distributed their intention is to reduce conflicts or improve
or controlled in society. Broader social, political, livelihoods. Reasons include the following (FAO,
economic or legal frameworks within a society may 2000):
be perceived as unjust, ineffective or exclusionary. Policies imposed without local participation:
This makes it harder to solve the problem. Poor stakeholder identification and consultation:
Structural conflicts often lie dormant until Uncoordinated planning:
awakened by other factors. Inadequate or poor information sharing:
Conflicts between official/statutory and customary Limited institutional capacity:
tenure systems cause major concern. Even if the Inadequate monitoring and evaluation of
great majority of rural people obtain their rights to programmes:
land through customary means, local land tenure Lack of effective mechanisms for conflict
arrangements often have an uncertain or insecure management:
position within national policy frameworks.
Customary land rights often remain unclear, even
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Step 2: Determine
management strategy.
Collaboration Compromise
Competition Accommodation
Avoidance
Step 3: Pre-negotiation
Initiation Assessment
Ground rules and agenda
Organization Joint fact-
finding
Step 4: Negotiation.
Interests, Options,Written
agreement
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Step 5: Post-negotiation.
Ratification Implementation
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Continuum of conflict
management approach
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S.Rengasamy-Conflict Resolution in Community Settings (Part II)
Conflict resolution is a range of processes aimed at alleviating or eliminating sources of conflict. The term "conflict
resolution" is sometimes used interchangeably with the term dispute resolution or alternative dispute resolution. Processes
of conflict resolution generally include negotiation, mediation and diplomacy. The processes of arbitration, litigation are
usually described with the term dispute resolution, although some refer to them as "conflict resolution." Processes of
mediation and arbitration are often referred to as alternative dispute resolution.
Conflict management refers to the long-term management of intractable conflicts. It is the label for the variety of ways by
which people handle grievances — standing up for what they consider to be right and against what they consider to be
wrong. Those ways include such diverse phenomena as gossip, ridicule, lynching, terrorism, warfare, feuding, genocide, law,
mediation, and avoidance. Which forms of conflict management will be used in any given situation can be somewhat
predicted and explained by the social structure. Conflict management is often considered to be distinct from conflict
resolution
Negotiation is a dialogue intended to resolve disputes, to produce an agreement upon courses of action, to bargain for
individual or collective advantage, or to craft outcomes to satisfy various interests. It is the primary method of alternative
dispute resolution. Negotiation occurs in business, non-profit organizations, government branches, legal proceedings, among
nations and in personal situations such as marriage, divorce, parenting, and everyday life. The study of the subject is called
negotiation theory. Those who work in negotiation professionally are called negotiators. Professional negotiators are often
specialized, such as union negotiators, leverage buyout negotiators, peace negotiators, hostage negotiators or may work
under other titles, such as diplomats, legislators or brokers.
Mediation, a form of alternative dispute resolution (ADR) or "appropriate dispute resolution", aims to assist two (or more)
disputants in reaching an agreement. The parties themselves determine the conditions of any settlements reached— rather
than accepting something imposed by a third party. The disputes may involve (as parties) states, organizations, communities,
individuals or other representatives with a vested interest in the outcome.
Advocacy is the pursuit of influencing outcomes — including public-policy and resource allocation decisions within political,
economic, and social systems and institutions — that directly affect people’s current lives.
Advocacy can be seen as a deliberate process of speaking out on issues of concern in order to exert some influence on behalf
of ideas or persons. Based on this definition, Cohen states that “ideologues of all persuasions advocate” to bring a change in
people’s lives. However, advocacy has many interpretations depending on the issue at stake, which can be different from this
initial value-neutral definition.
Diplomacy is the employment of tact to gain strategic advantage or to find mutually acceptable solutions to a common
challenge, one set of tools being the phrasing of statements in a non-confrontational or polite manner.
Activism, in a general sense, can be described as intentional action to bring about social or political change. This action is in
support of, or opposition to, one side of an often controversial argument.
The word "activism" is often used synonymously with protest or dissent, but activism can stem from any number of political
orientations and take a wide range of forms, from writing letters to newspapers or politicians, political campaigning,
economic activism (such as boycotts or preferentially patronizing preferred businesses), rallies, blogging and street marches,
strikes, both work stoppages and hunger strikes, or even guerrilla tactics.
In some cases, activism has nothing to do with protest or confrontation: for instance, some religious, feminist or
vegetarian/vegan activists try to persuade people to change their behavior directly, rather than persuade governments to
change laws. The cooperative movement seeks to build new institutions which conform to cooperative principles, and
generally does not lobby or protest politically.
Critical pedagogy is a teaching approach that attempts to help students question and challenge domination, and the beliefs
and practices that dominate. In other words, it is a theory and practice of helping students achieve critical consciousness.
Critical pedagogue Ira Shor defines critical pedagogy as "Habits of thought, reading, writing, and speaking which go beneath
surface meaning, first impressions, dominant myths, official pronouncements, traditional clichés, received wisdom, and mere
opinions, to understand the deep meaning, root causes, social context, ideology, and personal consequences of any action,
event, object, process, organization, experience, text, subject matter, policy, mass media, or discourse."
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Encourage participation by community members, and Have been supplanted by courts and administrative laws.
respect local values and customs. Are challenged by the increasing heterogeneity of
Are more accessible because of their low cost, their communities resulting from cultural change, population
flexibility in scheduling and procedures, and their use of movements and other factors that erode the social
the local language. relationships supporting customary conflict management.
Encourage decision-making based on collaboration, with There may also be long-standing problems of access on
consensus emerging from wide-ranging discussions, the basis of gender, class, caste or other considerations.
often fostering local reconciliation. Often cannot accommodate conflict among communities
Contribute to processes of community empowerment. or between a community and the State.
Informal and even formal leaders may serve as Local leaders may use their authority to pursue their own
conciliators, mediators, negotiators or arbitrators. self-interest, or that of their affiliated social groups or
Long-held public legitimacy provides a sense of local clients.
ownership of both the process and its outcomes. Decisions and processes may not be written down for
future reference.
Strengths and limitations of national legal systems
Use of official legal systems strengthens the rule of State Are often inaccessible to the poor, women, marginalized
law, empowers civil society and fosters environmental groups and remote communities because of cost,
accountability. distance, language barriers, political obstacles, illiteracy
Are officially established with supposedly well-defined and discrimination.
procedures. May not consider indigenous knowledge, local institutions
Take national and international concerns and issues into and long-term community needs in decision-making.
consideration. May involve judicial and technical specialists who lack the
Involve judicial and technical specialists in decision- expertise, skills and orientation required for participatory
making. natural resource management.
Where there are extreme power imbalances among the Use procedures that are generally adversarial and
disputants, national legal systems may better protect the produce win - lose outcomes.
rights of less powerful parties because decisions are Provide only limited participation in decision-making for
legally binding. conflict parties.
Decisions are impartial, based on the merits of the case, It may become more difficult to reach impartial decisions
and with all parties having equity before the law. if there is a lack of judicial independence, corruption
among State agents, or an elite group that dominates
legal processes.
Use the highly specialized language of educated elite
groups, favoring business and government disputants
over ordinary people and communities.
Strengths and limitations of alternative conflict resolution methods
Can help overcome obstacles to participatory conflict Often fail to address structural inequalities, and may
management that are inherent in legislative, serve to perpetuate or exacerbate power imbalances.
administrative, judicial and even customary approaches. May encounter difficulties in getting all stakeholders to
Promote conflict management by building on shared the bargaining table.
interests and finding points of agreement. May not be able to overcome power differentials among
Involve processes that resemble those already existing in stakeholders, so vulnerable groups such as the poor,
most local conflict management systems, including women and indigenous people remain marginalized.
flexible, low-cost access. May result in decisions that are not legally binding.
Foster a sense of ownership in implementation of the May lead some practitioners to use methods developed
solution process. in other contexts and cultures without adapting them to
Emphasize capacity building within communities so that local contexts.
local people become more effective facilitators,
communicators, planners and managers of conflict.
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S.Rengasamy-Conflict Resolution in Community Settings (Part II)
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S.Rengasamy-Conflict Resolution in Community Settings (Part II)
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S.Rengasamy-Conflict Resolution in Community Settings (Part II)
Table: Basic Causes, Causes that Escalate and Institutional Capacity to handle conflict
BASIC CAUSES OF CONFLICT •Do elites compete over the control of valuable
1. ETHNIC AND RELIGIOUS DIVISIONS natural resources (both renewable and non-renewable), scarce
•Is the relationship between ethnic/religious groups or not?
characterized by dominance, potential dominance, or high levels •Are certain resources (such as land) used as a tool in political
of fragmentation? competition?
•Where do these groups live and in what numbers? Are they 4. DEMOGRAPHIC TRENDS
concentrated in regional pockets or dispersed? If they are •Do population growth rates differ across distinct, adjacent
concentrated, do they form a majority or a minority in the area? communities?
•What is the history of relations between groups? Is there a •Are there other factors (e.g. economic migration) that are
pattern of systematic discrimination or have relations been tipping the demographic balance toward one group?
relatively peaceful and inclusive? •Is the rural population expanding? If so, is there access to land
•Do other divides, for example political exclusion or economic or are there other safety valves for population pressures (e.g.
inequality, reinforce ethnic divisions? migration to adjacent states/economic opportunity in urban
•Are there elites who face an economic or political incentive to centers)?
mobilize violence along ethnic lines? CONFLICT ASSESSMENT FRAMEWORK
•Is extremist ethnic or religious rhetoric increasing? Are elites •What are rates of urbanization? Is the urban population
beginning to create or promote ethnic 'myths'? expanding in a period of economic growth or decline?
2. ECONOMIC CAUSES •What is the size of the youth cohort relative to the adult
•Is the economy (of the country/region) growing, stagnant, or population?
declining? By what percent? •Are there particular areas (urban centers, distinct regions)
•Is the country (or region) low income? where the youth cohort is disproportionately large?
•Are there large socio-economic disparities? Do these reinforce •Are young people radicalizing? If so, around what issues? If
other lines of division, such as ethnicity? not, what is keeping this from happening?
•Is the economy heavily dependent on primary commodities? •Are there rapid increases in young, educated professionals who
Are these commodities easily 'lootable'? have no opportunities for political or economic advancement?
•Is economic power tied to political power? 5. INTERACTION EFFECTS
•How pervasive is corruption or patronage? Does it flow along •Are there many incentives for violence (both greed and
ethnic or other lines of division? grievance) or only a few?
•If there is a large informal economy, is it legal or illegal (i.e. •Are they longstanding and chronic or of fairly recent origin?
based on drugs, trafficking in humans)? •Do incentives for violence overlap and reinforce each other or
3. ENVIRONMENTAL CAUSES cut across lines of division? For example, does access to
•Are there major resource scarcities? economic opportunity overlap with ethnic difference or cut
•What are the primary causes of scarcity? across ethnic difference?
•Has scarcity led to resource capture? •Is there an alignment between grievance and greed? Are elites
•Has scarcity led to population transfers? with a political or economic incentive to mobilize violence well-
•Do the effects of scarcity (resource capture, population positioned to tap into a strong grievance?
transfers) reinforce other divides (ethnic, religious, economic)
and/or generate competition between groups?
CAUSES THAT ESCALATE CONFLICTS
II. MOBILIZATION: ACCESS TO CONFLICT RESOURCES •Are resources available through government corruption or
1. ORGANIZATIONAL RESOURCES patronage networks?
•Do organizational structures bridge or reinforce differences in a •Can sufficient resources be gained through smuggling,
society? For example, are civil society groups mono-ethnic or kidnapping, banditry or other activities on the black or gray
multi-ethnic? market?
•Are there well-established ethnic or religious associations that 3. HUMAN RESOURCES
could be used to mobilize violence? • Is there a population of ready recruits (e.g. unemployed
•Have these structures stepped in to provide important services, young men in urban or semi-urban areas) available to actors
such as access to employment or education, in the context of a motivated to engage in violence?
weak state? 4. GENERAL QUESTIONS
•How closely do organizational resources (e.g. ethnic groups or • Do groups with incentives for violence have access to all
patronage networks) align with incentives for violence? conflict resources organizational, financial, and human - or only
•If incentives and organizations are aligned, are these a few?
organizations capable of monitoring group behavior and • What level of resources do groups have and what level do
punishing 'defectors' from group goals? they need to achieve their goals? Is there a match?
2. FINANCIAL RESOURCES This section is intended to help the conflict assessment team
•Are groups with an incentive to mobilize violence affiliated with diagnose the conflict 'problem' in particular country context.
foreign support groups (e.g. diaspora, foreign governments, • Where do these resources come from (e.g. natural resources,
transnational religious or ethnic groups) that could provide corruption/patron-age networks, diasporas, foreign recruits,
funding? local/international sources) and what does this imply about ease
•Can those motivated to engage in violence obtain control of of access and sustainability?
"lootable" primary commodities?
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S.Rengasamy-Conflict Resolution in Community Settings (Part II)
III. INSTITUTIONAL CAPACITY AND RESPONSE •Do government institutions/civil society groups effectively
1. REGIME TYPE AND LEGITIMACY monitor and enforce financial transparency and accountability?
•Is the regime democratic, authoritarian, or mixed? •Is the government able to exert economic control over the
•How long has it existed in its current form? territory of the state or are there large pockets of autonomous
•Is it in a period of transition or erosion? economic activity?
•Are there generally accepted rules for political competition? •Does government policy encourage a good match between
•What is the overall level of respect for national authorities? available skills and the demands of the market?
2. INCLUSION/EXCLUSION •Do state economic policies favor one group at the expense of
•Do government policies favor one group over another? For another?
example, are government services provided equally across •Are local governments able to encourage local economic
different ethnic or religious groups, are exclusive language growth and investment and respond to local economic
policies in place? problems?
•Has the collapse or erosion of state institutions led groups to •Do grassroots and/or national institutions constructively
turn to more immediate forms of identity for survival? engage underrepresented and marginalized groups in economic
•Do civil society groups reinforce or bridge lines of division? development activities?
•How robust are multi-ethnic or multi-religious organizations? • Do government programs constructively engage potential
Do they have a mass base (e.g. trade unions, business recruits, such as unemployed youth?
associations) or are they limited to a narrow elite layer? 5. NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
•How are issues of ethnicity/religion taught in schools? •Does government policy seek to improve the sustainable
•Does the press promote ethnic or religious intolerance? management of natural resources?
3. RULE OF LAW/PROVISION OF SECURITY •Are there institutions in place that effectively mediate
•How strong is the judicial system? competing claims to natural resources such as land or water?
•Are civil and political freedoms respected? •Do local/national elites earn significant off-budget income from
•Are other basic human rights respected? the exploitation of natural resources?
•Does unlawful state violence exist? •Do government institutions effectively regulate trade in
•Does civilian power control the security sector? "lootable" commodities?
•Is the government able to exercise effective control over its •Are natural resources viewed by state elites as a useful tool or
territory prize in a larger political competition?
•Does the security sector (police/ justice sector) effectively and •Are state institutions able to respond to environmental shocks
impartially settle disputes between groups or is there a or natural disasters?
perception of bias? 6. DEMOGRAPHIC FACTORS
•To what extent is the security sector involved in 'shadow' •Are government policies causing demographic shifts, for
economic activity? example through govern-ment-sponsored transmigration or
•Do government institutions effectively regulate legal arms trade agricultural programs?
and prevent illegal arms trades or do they participate in it? •Are government institutions able to respond to new demands
4. ECONOMIC GOVERNANCE created by demographic change? For example, are voting rights
•Does economic policy encourage economic growth or impose tied to place of residence or birth (meaning will uprooted
obstacles? populations be able to voice demands through political
•Is policy conducive to macro-economic stability? channels)?
•How pervasive is corruption in state institutions?
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S.Rengasamy-Conflict Resolution in Community Settings (Part II)
Negotiation
In trying to solve certain problems, Community Organizations often find it necessary to negotiate
with other parties. “Negotiation is an attempt to hold discussion with
those who evidence varying degrees of resistance, in the hope of
ultimately arriving at an agreement. This is the essence (i.e.
arriving at an agreement through discussion) and the end point of
the negotiating process. In this context a negotiant is anyone whom the
community organization is trying to influence. A negotiant can be
undecided, neutral or hostile.
E.g. Strike by the govt. staff. Activism against lock up deaths.
Negotiation is the process of searching for an agreement that satisfies various parties. An
agreement may be reached either through barter or through real negotiation. A barter allows only
one party - the party in a position of power - to "win"; the other party is forced to accept
something of lesser value. A real negotiation implies a "win-win" situation, in which all parties
are satisfied.
The common element in all these examples is that the
community organization attempts to hold discussions with
those who evidence varying degrees of resistance in the hope
of ultimately arriving at an agreement. Thus negotiation
implies a conflict and the promotion of a cause or certain
interests.
Problems in Negotiation:
Many community organizations do not always heave within
their capacity the power to gain success to decision- makers.
Unlike in industrial negotiation, community groups lacking
power frequently find themselves prevented from the
negotiation process. So community organizations have to
develop their position and power that allows them to sit at the
negotiating table
To gain access to negotiations and enhance their bargaining
positions, community organizations use a variety of tactics.
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S.Rengasamy-Conflict Resolution in Community Settings (Part II)
6. Threatening:
Negotiation often involves a degree of threat.
The fact that rewards can be with held or
punishment inflicted constitutes a threat.
E.g. – Threat of a Lawsuit.
Threats to withdraw support or boycott.
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References
1. www.usaid.gov
1. A. Community-Based Development in Conflict-Affected Areas Guide
1. B. Conducting a conflict assessment
1. C. Livelihoods & conflict
1. D. Conflict-Related Publications http://www.usaid.gov/our_work/cross-
cutting_programs/conflict/publications/index.html
2. Community Conflict: A Resource Pack. The Tavistock Institute www.tavinstitute.org
3. Overseas Development Institute www.odi.org.uk
3. A. Community Development and Local Conflict: A Resource Document for Practitioners in
the Extractive Sector
3. B. Conflict Management in Community-Based Natural Resource Projects: Experiences from
Fiji and Papua New Guinea
3. C. Power, livelihoods and conflict: case studies in political economy analysis for humanitarian
action
4. Alternative dispute resolution http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternative_dispute_resolution
5. Conflict http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conflict
6. Frequently Asked Questions about Conflict Resolution http://www.acrnet.org/
7. Negotiation and mediation techniques for natural resource management
http://www.fao.org/docrep/008/a0032e/a0032e04.htm
8. Conflict Management In Community Organizations Ohio State University Fact Sheet
http://ohioline.osu.edu/cd-fact/index.html
9.Managing Conflict A Guide for Watershed Partnerships
http://www2.ctic.purdue.edu/KYW/nwn/nwn.html
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