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Define Anatomy
Anatomy studies the structure of the body
parts and their relationship to one another
Describe the main focus of Physiology The operation of major organ systems –
focussing on events at the
cellular/molecular level.
Name the different levels of structural Chemical level, Cellular Level, Tissue
organization Level, Organ Level and Organismal
Level.
What are their relationships to each other? Chemical Level: Atoms, building blocks,
molecules eg H20 and Proteins
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Nervous: PNS, CNS (Nerves, Spinal
Cord, Brain – Electrical control system,
responds to internal and external stimuli)
Describe the anatomical position and its The body is erect with feet slightly apart,
importance for terminology palms facing outwards, thumbs pointing
away from the body
Gives a standard reference point for
body position.
Define directional terms as they relate to Superior (cranial): Towards the head or
the body upper part of the structure
Inferior (caudal): Away from the head or
upper part of a structure
Ventral (anterior): Towards to the front of
the body; in front of
Dorsal (posterior): Towards the back of
the body; behind.
Medial: Towards the midline of the body;
on the inner side of
Lateral: Away from the midline of the
body; on the outer side of
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Proximal: Closer to the origin of the body
part, or point of attachment of a limb to
the body trunk
Distal: Farther from the origin of a body
part; or the point of attachment of a limb
to the trunk
Intermediate: Between a more medial and
more lateral structure
Superficial (external): toward or at the
body surface
Deep (internal): Away from the body
surface.
Define the regional terms of the body Axil: Main axis of our body – head, neck,
trunk
Appendicular: Appendages (limbs)
Photocopy page 14
Describe the body cavities and their Dorsal: Protects the nervous system and
relationships to one another consists of two smaller cavities, the
cranial cavity (superior to the ventral
cavity) and the spinal cavity (caudal to the
ventral cavity). sits on top of the ventral
cavity
Ventral: Anterior body cavity consisting of
two smaller cavities, thoracic and
abdominopelvic
Thoracic cavity splits into the superior
mediastinum, pleural cavity, pericardial
cavity (which is within the mediastinum)
The abdominal cavity attaches to the
pelvic cavity
Name other body cavities oral and digestive cavity, Nasal cavity,
orbital cavity, middle ear cavity, synovial
joint cavity
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What are their relationships to each other? They are all continuous multicellular
sheets composed of at least two tissue
types
Name the organs they are associated with Serous = Hollow organs, Muscous =
Exposed cavities, Cutaneous = Skin
Homeostasis
Describe the mechanics of negative the output of the system shuts off the
feedback initial stimulus or reduces its intensity
mechanics as above (seesaw action)
Arthrology
Define a joint Site where two articular bones meet
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Synchondrosis (immoviable joint between
the first rib and the manubrium of the
sternum), Symphyses (intervertibral
joints)
Name six types of synovial joints and an Plane (carpels), hinge (elbow),
example of each pivot(radias and ulna), condyloid (wrist),
saddle (thumb), ball and socket (sholder)
List the three factors that stablise synovial Articular surfaces – large surfaces and
joints deep sockets
Ligaments – prevent undesirable
movement
Muscle tone – stabilize
Myology
Describe Skeletal muscle striated, many nuclei, elongated cell, and
is controlled voluntarily
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Stability of joints
Generating heat
Outline the 4 common patterns of fascicle Parallel – the long axis of the fascicle
arrangements runs with the long axis of the muscle
Convergent – muscle has a broad origin
and the fascicles converge towards a
single tendon
Circular – Fascicles arranged in
concentric ring
Pennate – Fascicles are short and they
attach obliquely to a central tendon
(appear feather-like) that runs the length
of the muscle
What is the function of the antagonist Reverse or oppose the action of another
muscle
Agonist
What is the function of the synergist aid a prime mover by effecting the same
direction, stabilizing joints or prevents
undesirable movement
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Define action Potential Polarized resting state, -70 mV, hits -55
then depolarization is self propagating
Peak of +30mV. Depolarization changes
the membrane to become more
permeable to NA, re-polarization
decreases NA permeability and increases
K permeability through sodium potassium
pump.
Define motor units A motor neuron and all the muscle cells it
stimulates
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Describe the events occurring in the three Latent period – preparatory vents
main phases happening
Period of contraction – muscles tense
and may shorten
Period of relaxation – muscle tension
declines and muscles resume their
resting length
Outline the three different pathways for Aerobic – 95% of ATP usage. occurs in
providing muscle energy (ATP) the mitochondria via the breakdown of
glucose
Coupled reaction of creatine
phosphate - creatine phosphate that is
stored in muscles is tapped until the other
pathways become available
Anaerobic metabolism - Catabolism of
the blood glucose or glycogen breakdown
which is stored in the muscle
Define and outline oxygen debt The volume of O2 required after exercise
to replenish stores of O2, ATP, Creatine
Phosphate and glycogen plus oxidize the
lactic acid formed during exercise.
Define and outline Muscle fatigue When your muscle has run of of ATP and
can no longer move – different from
mental fatigue
Describe the three types of skeletal Slow oxidative fibers (slow – endurance
muscle fibers activities – aerobic)
Fast oxidative fibers (intermediate –
walking - Aerobic)
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Fast glycolytic fibers (fast – short term
intense work eg hitting a baseball –
Anaerobic - Glycolysis)
Describe the factors that influence force, Force – Number of muscle fibers
velocity and duration of muscle contraction stimulated, size of muscle fibers
stimulated, frequency of stimulation and
degree of muscle stretch
Velocity – Muscle fiber type (slow or fast
fibers)
Duration – Load and recruitment (how
many units are working together)
Compare the gross microscopic anatomy Skeletal: Long striated and multinucleate
of smooth muscle and skeletal muscle Sr developed, good CT. Have T Tubules
and sarcomeres
Smooth: Spindle shaped, uninucleate
and have no striations, SR is poorly
developed, arranged in sheets and have
poor CT. T Tubules are absent,
sarcomeres are not present
The Blood
Describe the physical characteristics of the Sticky, opaque, metallic taste, O2 rich is
blood bright red, O2 poor is dark red, viscous.
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Describe the production of Erythrocytes Produced in the red bone marrow from
the stem cell hemocytoblast once
committed it goes through 5 stages to
become a RBC at the end stages it ejects
its nucleus
Describe the production of Leukocytes Made in the red bone marrow from the
stem cell Hemocytoblast that then
becomes either a myeloid stem cell or a
lymphoid stem cell. Once committed the
Myeloid stem cell goes through 5 stages,
the lymphoid 4 stages
Describe the production of Platelets Formed in the red bone marrow, stem cell
is hemocytoblast which once committed
becomes a megakaryocytes that break up
into the smaller platelets
Cardiovascular
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Name the four heart chambers Left atrium, right atrium, left ventricle,
right ventricle
Describe the structure and outline the Small protruding appendages called the
function of the right atrium auricles. Two Vena cava enter here, this
accepts low O2 blood
Describe the structure and outline the The internal walls are marked by irregular
function of the right ventricle ridges called trabeculae carne and
conelike papillary muscles. Accepts blood
from the RA and pumps it up to the
pulmonary trunk
Describe the structure and outline the Small protruding appendages called the
function of the left atrium auricles. 4 pulmonary arteries from the
lungs discharge O2 rich blood here.
Describe the structure and outline the The internal walls are marked by irregular
function of the left ventricle ridges called trabeculae carne and
conelike papillary muscles. the LV Pumps
blood into the aorta
Name and outline the general route from O2 poor blood enters through the 2 Vena
the blood through the heart Cava into the Left Atrium which then
drains down to the left ventricle. This is
them pumped up through the pulmonary
trunk through the lung and is drained as
O2 rich blood by the 4 pulmonary arteries
into the Right Atrium. This then drains
down into the right ventricle that then
pumps the blood up into the aorta and
back out into the body
Outline the major coronary vessels and Aorta – has blood pumped into it from the
their distribution Right Ventricle
Vena Cava (2 – superior and inferior)
drain into the left atrium
4 Pulmonary Veins – drain into the right
atrium
1 Pulmonary trunk – has blood pumped
into it from the Left Ventricle
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Name the mechanism of heart valves Collagen cords anchor the valves to stop
blowing inside out for the atricentricular
valves or semilunar valve.
What factors regulate stroke volume and Degree of stretch of the heart muscle by
heart rate venous return (preload), exercise,
hormones, ions,
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Name the three main layers of the blood Viens and Arteries have 1. Tunica
vessels intima,2. Tunica Media, 3. Tunica externa.
Capillaries though only have Tunica
intima only
Describe the structure of capillary beds Very thin walled vessels with clefts which
aid in the exchange between the blood
and interstitial fluid. Flows for capillary
beds are through the arteriole to the
venule (called microcirculation). The beds
consists of two types of vessels –
vascular shunt (short vessel connecting
directly to the arteriole) and true
capillaries
Describe the function of capillary beds Exchange of nutrients, wastes and gases
between the blood and interstitial fluid.
Describe the difference between an open Open: has a beginning and an end – the
and closed circuit system fluid levels can change as fluids are
allowed in
Closed: In a loop, no beginning no end –
no change in fluid levels
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Name and give the location of the major Aorta, Subclavian Artery, Femoral Artery,
arteries in the trunk The brachial Artery,Coronary artery, Iliac
artery.
Describe the structure of the Hepatic Triangular cross grid branching from the
portal cystic vein and near the liver – between
two capillary beds
Describe the function of the Hepatic portal Takes blood from the digestive organs to
the liver
Name the position of major structures Jugular vein, subclavian vein, axillary
(veins/arteries) within the thorax vein, antebrachial vein, basilic vein, radial
vein, cephalic vein, superior venacava
vein
Lymphatic System
Describe the function of lymphatic vessels one way system in which lymph flows
towards the heart starting from blind
ended lymphatic capillaries. Empty into
ducts at the subclavian vein and jugular
vein
Describe the source of lymph fluid that has been leaked from the blood
vascular system into the interstitial fluid/
stomach in the form of chyle from the
lacteals
Describe the transport of Lymph back to Skeletal muscle, pressure changes in the
the heart thorax, contraction of smooth muscle
around it, back-flow prevented by valves
and contraction of the lymphatic vessel
Outline the structure of Lymph Nodes and Each lymph node has a fibrous capsule, a
draw cortex and a medulla. It contains both
diffuse and dense reticular tissue. Lymph
nodes cluster along lymphatic vessels.
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Outline the function of the lymph node Filter of lymph and helps activate the
immune system. The cortex contains
mostly lymphocytes which act in immune
responses. The medulla contains
macrophages, which engulf and destroy
bacteria, viruses and other foreign debris
as well as lymphocytes and plasma cells
Cells
Describe the generalized cell and list the Cells are generally composed of carbon,
three main parts of the cell with their hydrogen, O2, and trace elements. They
general function all have the same basic parts and end
goal
Plasma membrane: Fragile barrier to the
outer boundary of the cell
Cytoplasm: Intercellular fluid packed with
organelles/small structures
Nucleus: Control center of activities
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Lipid Bi layer contains lipids, cholesterol
and H20. Glycoprotein sucks in H20 and
is good for cushioning, Glycocalyx – cell
recognizing marker
What is the function of a gap junction Allows for the passage of ions from cells
to cell to help synchronies their electrical
activity
What is the structure of a gap junction The adjacent plasma membranes are
very close and the cells are connected by
hollow cylinders called 'connexons'
Describe the structure and function of the Mitochondria – Produces ATP through
cytoplasmic organelles aerobic pathway – sausage shaped
Ribosomes – Protein synthesis – two
globular subunits that fit together
Endoplasmic retictulum – Rough
ribosomes that manufacture the proteins
– Rough interconnected tubes and
parallel membranes enclosing fluid filled
cavities – rough has ribosomes on it
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulaum –
Catalyses reactions for 1. Lipid
metabolism and cholesterol synthesis 2.
Synthesis of a steroid based hormone. 3.
Absorption, synthesis and transport of
fats. - Rough interconnected tubes and
parallel membranes enclosing fluid filled
cavities – smooth has no ribosomes on it
Golgi – Traffic director – stacked and
flattened membranous sacs
Lyosomes – Demolition – spherical
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Outline the 4 different plasma membrane 1. Simple diffusion: non polar and lipid
transport systems soluble substances diffuse directly
through the lipid bi-layer
2. Facilitated diffusion: Diffuse through
binding to a carrier protein or moves
through water filled protein channels
3. Carrier diffusion occurs through a
specific transmembrane carrier protein
4. Osmosis: Movement of water, nutrients
and gases
Outline the structure of the nucleus Usually spherical, but the shape often
conforms to the shape of the cell. It has a
nuclear envelope, nuclei and chromatin
Name the function of the nucleus Contains the DNA and is the control
center for the cell. Dictates the kinds and
amounts of proteins to be synthesized in
response to signals acting on the cell.
Outline the structure of DNA Tightly coiled double helix – with ATCG –
A – adenine which always links with T -
Thymine. C – Cytosine always links with
G – Guanine. All held together with
histone proteins
Outline the lifecycle and the main events Mitoses – 4 phases, prophase,
of cell division metaphase, anaphase and telophase.
Prophase: DNA replication
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Metaphase: arrangement of
chromosomes along the midway line of a
cell
Anaphase: Chromosomes split, cell
elongates
Telophase: Chromosomes become
chromatin's and the cell splits
Tissues
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List CT Blood
Bones
CT Proper
Cartilage
Describe the function of Mucous Line body cavities that are open to the
membrane external environment and absorbs and
secretes.
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Compare and contrast the general Skeletal: Has tetanus, voluntary, most
characteristics and locations of the three energy from, most energy from
types of muscle tissue mitochondria. Forms the flesh of the body
causes movement, holds posture,
generates heat
Cardiac: Branching and connect at
junctions called intercalated discs,
striated, generally uninucleate cells,
contain myofibrils with sarcomeres and T
– Tubules, abundant mitochondria: Only
found in the wall of the heart, contracts to
propel blood, involuntary
Smooth Muscle: Found mainly on the
walls of hollow organs, Cells have no
visible striations, involuntary, no T –
Tubles Individual cells are spindle shaped
and have one nucleus, they squeeze by
contracting, eg bladder.
Osteology
Name and describe the relative functions Axial skeleton: Head and torso –
of the two major regions of the skeleton protection of the brain, heart, lungs and
some organs.
Appendicular skeleton: Limbs –
movement
Compare and contrast the structure of the Long: Femur – has a shaft (Diaphysis)
4 bone classes and give an example of plus two ends (Epiphysis) a medullary
each cavity and a membrane (periosteum)
Short: Carpals/Tarsals – roughly cub
shaped and have the membrane
periosteum
Irregular: Vertebrae – complicated
shapes
Flat: Scapulae – thin flattened and
usually a bit curved
Sesamoid: Bone inbeded in a tendon
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Hydroxyapatite – inorganic – calcium
salts
Osteon – structural – what compact bone
is called
CT membrane endosteum which is
inside the bone and periosteum outside
the bone
The extra cellular matrix is made up of
mainly collagen fibers and
hydroxyapatites giving it extreme tensile
and compressional force. Bone does not
resist torsion well and so the most
common fracture is the spiral one
Name and locate the principal bones of Cranium, spine, clavicle, scapulae,
the skeleton humorous, ulna, radius, carpals,
metacarpals, phalanges, ribs, sternum,
coccyx, hip, femur, tibia, fibula, tarsals,
metatarsals phalanges.
Describe the general structure of the With the exception of C1 and C2 all
vertebral column vertebrae have: A body, two transverse
processes, two superior and two inferior
articular processes, a spinous process
and a vertebral arch
Nervous System
List the basic functions of the nervous Major responsibility for maintaining
system homeostasis
Outline the functional divisions of the Sensory Division (afferent) to the CNS
Nervous system and Motor Division (efferent)
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Describe the function of a neurons axon Each neuron has a single axon, a long
axon is called a nerve fiber, it is the
conducting region of the neuron
generating nerve impulses and
transmitting them
Explain the importance of the myelin The myelin sheath protect and electrically
sheath insulates the nerve fiber along with
increasing the speed of impulse
transmission
Outline the formation of the myelin sheath Myelin Sheaths in the PNS are created
via a schwann Cell and the CNS is the
oligodendrocyte. These indent to receive
an axon and then wrap themselves
around it in a jelly roll fashion. This starts
off loose, but due to constant squeezing
becomes tightly rolled.
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Explain how action potentials are For unmyelited neurons the action
propagated along neurons. potential is generated by the influx of
Na+. This establishes a local current that
depolarizes adjacent membrane areas in
the forward direction (away from the
origin of the nerve impulse) this in turn
opens voltage gated channels in triggers
a further AP eg once initiated an AP is
self propagating
Myelited neurons work through saltatoy
conduction
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Relative refractory period: The interval
following the absolute refractory period
where re-polarization is occurring A weak
stimulus would not reopen the Na+ gates,
but a strong one would meaning that
another AP could be generated.
Define Saltatory conduction and contrast it In myelinated nerves local currents give
to unmyelinated conduction rise to propagated AP that jump from
node to node. Ap are generated only at
the nodes by the current flows along the
entire axon
In an myelinated axon voltage gated
sodium (Na+) channels are located only
at the nodes of Ranvier, instead of along
the entire length of an unmyelinated axon
Myelinated conduction is approx 30x
fasted than unmyelinated conduction
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Name and locate the ventricles of the Lateral ventricles – one deep within
brain (draw) each cerebral hemisphere.
Third Ventricle – in the diencephalon
Fourth Ventricle – In the hindbrain
dorsal to the pons and superior to the
medulla.
Outline the nuclei and the white matter of White matter in the CNS is the axons and
the brain the neurogila the function is a conductor
(just like axons)
List the components of the peripheral Sensory (afferent) pathways that provide
nervous system input from the body into the CNS.
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Define autonomic nervous system and The Autonomic Nervous System is that
outline its role part of PNS consisting of motor neurons
that control internal organs. It has two
subsystems. The autonomic system
controls muscles in the heart, the smooth
muscle in internal organs such as the
intestine, bladder, and uterus. The
Sympathetic Nervous System is
involved in the fight or flight response.
The Parasympathetic Nervous System
is involved in relaxation.
What is the arrangement of the These nerves emerge from the brain and
Parasympathetic nervous system sacral spinal nerves (craniosacral)
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cardiac acceleration
Increase in blood pressure
Contraction of Sphincters
Depression of peristalsis
Respiratory
Identify the organs forming the respiratory Nose, mouth, Phrarynx, larynx, trachea,
passages from the nose/ mouth to the bronchi, bronchioles, respiratory
Alveoli bronchiole, alveolar duct and sac plus the
alveolus.
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Describe the blood supply of the lungs The Pulmonary trunk (artery) brings blood
into the lungs, this steadily becomes
smaller until it becomes capillary beds to
help with O2 and CO2 diffusion. It is then
eventually returned to the heart via 4
pulmonary veins
Describe the pleura of the lungs Parietal and visceral pleura. Adherent to
thoracic wall and diaphragm by CT by the
parietal layer. Visceral (inner) layer
attaches to lung surface. Anteriorly the
lungs finish at rib 8, but the pleura drops
to rib 10.
Describe the respiratory membrane The walls of the alveloi are composed of
a single layer simple squamous epithelial
cells called type 1 cells surrounded by a
basement membrane.
Together, the walls of the aveloi and the
basement membrane make up the
respiratory membrane.
Relate the structure of the respiratory The structure of the membrane is very
membrane to its function thin and creates the air-blood barrier with
air flowing on one side and blood on the
other.
Gas exchange happens easily through
simple diffusion due to its thinness
Relate Boyles law to inspiration and Gases travel from an area of higher
exportation pressure to lower pressure: therefore
when we expand our lungs increasing the
volume and the pressure drops. This
then causes air to rush in
When we relax and the lungs recoil (tho
air exportation is mainly passive) there in
is a pressure increase and so air is
ejected.
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Explain the relative roles if the respiratory inter -Costal muscles contract, diaphragm
muscles and lung elasticity in producing decends and rib cage rises – lungs
the volume changes that causes air to flow stretched to create lower pressure for
in and out of the lungs inspiration
Inter -Costal muscles relax, diaphragm
ascends back to resting place and rib
cage falls – lungs contract passively to
create higher pressure for expiration
Outline and compare the various lung 1. Tidal volume – the resting rate of
volumes and capacities inspiration (around 500ml)
2. Inspiratory reserve volume - The
amount of air that can be inspired forcibly
beyond the tidal volume (around 2100 –
3200 ml)
3. Expiratory reserve volume – The
amount of air that can be expired
(forcibly) after a tidal expiration (about
100, 1200 ml)
4. Residual volume - the amount of air
remaining in the lungs after expiration
(around 1200 ml)
Outline the pulmonary function test using FVC – Forced vital capacity – measuring
these volumes the amount of expelled gas when a
subject takes a deep breath
FEV – Forced Expiratory volume –
measures the volume exhaled in the first
second (checks on restriction)
Outline why atmospheric air and alveolar Alveolar air/gas contains more CO2 and
air differs in comparison H2O vapor, plus less O2 than
atmospheric air
State Henrys Law of Gas solutions Pressure differences move gases in and
out of solution.
The law states: ‘the amount of a gas in
solution is directly proportional to the
partial pressure of that gas’.
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Example: a bottle of soda water has CO2
under high pressure and therefore
contains a large quantity in solution when
the top is removed the ‘holding’ pressure
is released and the CO2 is now super-
saturated at atmospheric pressure and
fizzes out of solution until it reaches its
equilibrium.
Describe O2 transport in the blood Each RBC contains four Hæm units (each
with an atom of iron) and can bind four
molecules of oxygen forming
oxyhæmoglobin (bright red).
Of the oxygen carried in the blood, about
85% can be extracted from the
hæmoglobin, but normally only about
25% is extracted by tissues, leaving the
Hb about 75% saturated on return to the
lungs.
Endocrine System
Define the endocrine system and a Coordinates and directs the activity of the
hormone calls of the body via hormones in
conjunction with the nervous system
Endocrine system is usually slower acting
– like growth
The major components of the endocrine
system are glands and organs that
secrete hormones into extracellular
space, they are ductless and highly
vascularized
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Outline the structure of the hypothalamus is located below the thalamus, just above
the brain stem. This brain region occupies
the major portion of the ventral
diencephalon.In humans, it is roughly the
size of an almond.
Outline the structure of the pituitary gland The pituitary gland is an endocrine gland
about the size of a pea. It is a protrusion
off the bottom of the hypothalamus at the
base of the brain, and rests in a small,
bony cavity in the pituitary fossa. It has
two lobs, the anterior pituitary and the
posterior pituitary
Outline the function of the pituitary gland The anterior pituitary synthesizes and
and its relationship to the hypothalamus secretes important endocrine hormones,
such as ACTH, TSH, prolactin, growth
hormone, endorphins, FSH, and LH.
These hormones are released from the
anterior pituitary under the influence of
hypothalamic. The hypothalamic
hormones travel to the anterior lobe by
way of the hypothalamic-hypophyseal
portal system.
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The hormones secreted by the posterior
pituitary are Oxytocin, where the majority
is released from the paraventricular
nucleus in the hypothalamus Antidiuretic
hormone (ADH, also known as
vasopressin and AVP, arginine
vasopressin), the majority of which is
released from the supraoptic nucleus in
the hypothalamus
Oxytocin is the only pituitary hormone to
create a positive feedback loop. For
example, uterine contractions stimulate
the release of oxytocin from the posterior
pituitary, which in turn increases uterine
contractions. This positive feedback loop
continues until the baby is born.
List three examples of a pituitary hormone Growth Hormone: Stimulates most cells
and their target organs of muscles, tissue and bone to increase in
size and replicate hypo-secretion would
create a dwarf, hyper-secretion would
create a giant
Outline the micro anatomy of the pancreas It is both exocrine (secreting pancreatic
juice containing digestive enzymes) and
endocrine (producing several important
hormones, including insulin, glucagon,
Under a microscope, stained sections of
the pancreas reveal two different types of
parenchymal tissue. Lightly staining
clusters of cells are called islets of
Langerhans, which produce hormones
that underlie the endocrine functions of
the pancreas. Darker staining cells form
acini connected to ducts. Acinar cells
belong to the exocrine pancreas and
secrete digestive enzymes into the gut via
a system of ducts.
Outline the function and the Glucagon is released when the glucose
interrelationship of the two major level in the blood is low (hypoglycemia),
pancreatic hormones causing the liver to convert stored
glycogen into glucose and release it into
the bloodstream. The action of glucagon
is thus opposite to that of insulin, which
instructs the body's cells to take in
glucose from the blood in times of
satiation
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Differentiate between the glands of the GI Tract: The upper Gi tract consists of
alimentary canal (Gastrointestinal tract) Mouth (as an orifice), Pharynx,
and the accessory digestive tract Oesophagus. The lower GI tracts consists
of Stomach, small intestines, Large
intestines and anus
Accessory Digestive Tract: The upper
ADT consists of Teeth, Tongue, Salivary
glands. The lower ADT consists of the
Liver and pancreas.
Identify the structural modifications of the Rugae: folds of the lining which allows
wall of the stomach that enhance the expansion in volume of the stomach
digestive process without increased pressure
Smooth Muscle: Lies first length ways
then cross ways, this allows for the
churning ability of the stomach
Mucosal Barrier: Stops the stomach
from self digesting
Identify the structural modifications of the Three main regions of the small intestine:
wall of the intestines that enhance the Duodenum, Jejunum and the Ileum. The
digestive process bile duct and pancreatic duct join to form
the hepaticpancreatic ampulla and empty
their secretions into the duodenum via the
hepaticpancreatic sphincter.
Villi and Micro-villi: circular folds
increasing the surface area for digestion
and absorption
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Peyers Patch: Part of the lymphatic
system to ingest and kill pathagons
Liver: Secretes bile into the hepatic duct
State the roles of bile and pancreatic juice Bile is made in the liver by hepatocytes
in digestion and stored in the gall bladder. upon
eating is discharged into the duodenum
where the bile aids the process of
digestion of lipids
Pancreatic juice is a juice produced by
the pancreas and contains a variety of
enzymes. Pancreatic juice is alkaline in
nature due to the high concentration of
bicarbonate ions. This is useful in
neutralizing the acidic gastric acid,
allowing for effective enzymic action.
List the major functions of the large The large intestine: Dries out
intestine indigestible food, stores fecal material
and provides a suitable area for the
bacterial colony
Outline the process of absorption and the Almost all foodstuff, water and
processing of foods stuff within digestion electrolytes are absorbed in the small
intestine. Except for fat digestion
products, fat soluble vitamins and most
water soluble vitamins (which are
absorbed through diffusion) most
nutrients are absorbed through active
transport (membrane transport processes
run by ATP, such as solute pumping and
endocytosis
Outline how glucose is used by a cell to How it gets Glucose enters the tissues cells by
produce energy by oxidation into cells facilitated diffusion (this is enhanced
through insulin). immediately upon entry
to the cell glucose is phosphorylated to
glucose-6-phosphate.
Glucose + ATP = glucose-6-PO4 + ADP
Glucose is catabolized through the
reaction: C6H1206 (glucose) + 6O2
Oxidation of (Oxygen) becomes 6H2O (Water) + 6CO2
glucose (Carbon Dioxide) + 38 ATP + Heat
0. Glycolysis
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Outline how fats are metabolized for The products of fats and amino acids are
energy transported in lymph in the form of a fatty
protein called Chylomicrons. These are
eventually are hydrolyzed by plasmas
enzymes and the resulting fatty acids and
glycerol are taken up by body cells and
processed in various ways
Glycerol is converted to glyceraldehyde-
PO4 and enters the Krebs Cycle or is
converted to glucose
Fatty Acids are oxidized by beta
oxidation into acetic acid fragments.
These bind to coenzyme A and enter the
Krebs cycle as acetyl CoA. Dietary fats
not needed for energy or structural
materials are stored as adipose tissue
Breakdown of fats and fatty acids and
glycerol is called Lipolysis
Outline the synthesis of proteins (?) I think Amino acids are converted to keto acids
amino acids Metabolism that can enter the Krebs cycle. This
involves transamination, oxidative
deamination and keto acid modification
Outline the main enzymes involved in Proteases digest protein - hydrolyse the
chemical digestion, the foodstuffs they amino acid chains (protein) into smaller
work on and the products we produce molecules
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Amylases digest carbohydrate -
hydrolyse the starch chains into smaller
molecules such as maltose and
eventually glucose
Lipases digest fat – overt triglyceride
substrates found in oils from food to
monoglycerides and free fatty acids.
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Seminal Vesicles - The seminal vesicles
are 2 sacculated and contorted tubes that
are placed
between the bladder and rectum
Ejaculatory ducts - enters the prostatic
urethra.
Prostate - surrounds the commencement
of the urethra
Bulbourethral Glands – Posterior and
lateral to the membranous portion of the
urethra at the base of the penis
External Genital Organs
Testes – inside the scrotum outside the
body below the penis
Epididymis -narrow, tightly-coiled tube
connecting the efferent ducts from the
rear of each testicle to its vas deferens
Penis – external to the pelvic region
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Vas Deferens – Passage for sperm from
the testis
Seminal Vesicles - They secrete a
significant proportion of the fluid that
ultimately becomes semen. About 60% of
the seminal fluid in humans originates
from the seminal vesicles.
Ejaculatory ducts – unites Vans
deferens and Seminal vesicles
Prostate - The main function of the
prostate is to store and secrete a clear,
slightly alkaline (pH 7.29) fluid that
constitutes 10-30% of the volume of the
seminal fluid
Bulbourethral Glands - During sexual
arousal each gland produces a clear,
viscous secretion known as pre-ejaculate.
This fluid helps to lubricate the urethra for
spermatozoa to pass through, it
neutralizes traces of acidic urine in
urethra
External Genital Organs
Testes – formation of sperm
Epididymis -tube for passage of sperm
Penis – urination and reproductive organ
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Outline the ovarian cycle Follicular phase (1-14) the lining of the
uterus thickens, stimulated by increasing
amounts of estrogen. Follicles in the
ovary begin developing via hormones. At
14 days (approx) the oocyte follicle
(dominant) releases an ovum or egg in an
event called ovulation. It takes one to two
weeks to travel down the fallopian tubes
to the uterus.
Luteal Phase: (15-28) After ovulation the
remains of the dominant follicle in the
ovary become a corpus luteum; this body
has a primary function of producing large
amounts of progesterone. Under the
influence of progesterone, the
endometrium (uterine lining) changes to
prepare for potential implantation of an
embryo to establish a pregnancy. If
implantation does not occur within
approximately two weeks, the corpus
luteum will die, causing sharp drops in
levels of both progesterone and estrogen.
These hormone drops cause the uterus to
shed its lining in a process termed
menstruation.
Outline the Uterine cycle Menstrual phase: (1-5) the function layer
sloughs off in menses
Proliferative phase: (6-14) rising
estrogen levels stimulate regeneration
and is receptive ti ova implantation
Secretary Phase: (15-28) uterine glands
secrete glycogen and endometrial
vascularity increases
The last few days with a combinations of
hormones and blood supply reduction
causes menses to occur
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5. anabolic steroids: They increase
protein synthesis within cells, which
results in the buildup of cellular tissue,
especially in muscles. Anabolic steroids
also have androgenic properties,
including the development and
maintenance of growth of the vocal cords
and body hair.
estrogens: stimulates or controls the
development and maintenance of female
characteristics
1. estradiol: Estradiol is critical for
reproductive and sexual functioning, but
also affects other organs including bone
structure
2. estrone: Estrone is relevant to health
and disease due to its conversion to
estrone sulfate, a long-lived derivative of
estrone. Estrone sulfate acts as a pool of
estrone which can be converted as
needed to the more active estradiol
progestagens: Effects similar to those of
progesterone
1. progesterone: Involved in the female
menstrual cycle, pregnancy (supports
gestation) and embryogenesis
2. progestins: SYNTHETIC: The two
most frequent uses of progestins are for
hormonal contraception (either alone or
with an estrogen), and to prevent
endometrial hyperplasia from unopposed
estrogen in hormone replacement
therapy. Progestins are also used to treat
secondary amenorrhea, dysfunctional
uterine bleeding and endometriosis, and
as palliative treatment of endometrial
cancer, renal cell carcinoma, breast
cancer, and prostate cancer.
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renal column: The structures which
support the cortex. They consist of lines
of blood vessels and urinary tubes and a
fibrous material.
renal sinus: The cavity which houses the
renal pyramids.
calyces: The recesses in the internal
medulla which hold the pyramids. They
are used to subdivide the sections of the
kidney. (singular - calyx)
papillae: The small conical projections
along the wall of the renal sinus. They
have openings through which urine
passes into the calyces. (singular -
papilla)
renal pyramids: The conical segments
within the internal medulla. They contain
the secreting apparatus and tubules and
are also called malpighian pyramids.
renal artery: Two renal arteries come
from the aorta, each connecting to a
kidney. The artery divides into five
branches, each of which leads to a ball of
capillaries. The arteries supply (unfiltered)
blood to the kidneys. The left kidney
receives about 60% of the renal
bloodflow.
renal vein: The filtered blood returns to
circulation through the renal veins which
join into the inferior vena cava.
Describe the location of the urinary organs Kidney, ureter, bladder plus prostrate for
and their location men, urethra. The urethra passes through
the UG (muscular diaphragm)
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Identify the nephron parts responsible for Filtration: cortex: Glomerular filtration:
filtration, reabsorption and secretion The outer layer over the internal medulla.
It contains blood vessels, glomeruli
(which are the kidneys' "filters") and urine
tubes and is supported by a fibrous
matrix.
Reabsorption: The proximal tubule is
the portion of the duct system of the
nephron leading from Bowman's capsule
to the loop of Henle. Takes back things
like salts
Secretion: renal pyramids: The conical
segments within the internal medulla.
They contain the secreting apparatus and
tubules and are also called malpighian
pyramids.
Outline the mechanisms for the nephron The glomerular membrane is highly
cortex/glomerular filtration permeable and allows fluid and small
molecular weight solutes to pass into
Bowman's space. The glomerular
capillary tuft with its interconnected loops
increases available surface area. Finally,
arterioles at both ends of the glomerulus
modulate intraglomerular pressure.
Outline the mechanisms for the nephron Sodium potassium pump on the micovilli.
Proximal Tubual Reabsorption involves both passive and
active transport mechanisms. Passive
transport includes osmosis and diffusion
while active transport mechanisms, such
as primary and secondary transport and
endocytosis, require the use of energy to
move substances against an
electrochemical gradient.
Outline the mechanisms for the nephron Tabular secretion is the movement of
Renal pyramid solutes from the peritubular capillaries
into the tubular system. It is the process
by which the body secretes unwanted or
excess substances. Like reabsorption,
secretion occurs by both passive and
active transport mechanisms. As with
reabsorption, secretion of substances is
regulated by a number of factors, many of
them hormonal in nature.
List the kidney functions that contribute to Filtration, reabsorption and secretion
homeostasis which regulates blood volume, its
composition, PH of the blood and
eliminates nitrogenous metabolic waste
from the blood.
Describe the normal physical and A clear yellow and aromatic. Slightly
chemical properties of urine acidic, 95% water, should never be
proteins in it such as erythrocytes
Integumental System
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Name the tissue type composing the Connective tissue proper – both areolar
dermis and dense irregular CT
Name the tissue type composing the consists of adipose tissue, loose
hypodermis connective tissue and small bundles of
smooth muscle cells
What is the function of the dermis he main functions of the dermis are to
regulate temperature and to supply the
epidermis with nutrient-saturated blood.
What is the function of the epidermis protects the body from the environment
What are the layers of the epidermis he Basal Cell Layer : The basal layer is
the innermost layer of the epidermis, and
contains small round cells called basal
cells. The basal cells continually divide,
and new cells constantly push older ones
up toward the surface of the skin, where
they are eventually shed. The basal cell
layer is also known as the stratum
germinativum due to the fact that it is
constantly germinating (producing) new
cells. The basal cell layer contains cells
called melanocytes. Merkel cells, which
are tactile cells of neuroectodermal origin,
are also located in the basal layer of the
epidermis.
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The stratum spinosum Layer : This
squamous cell layer is located above the
basal layer, the cells are held together
with spiny projections. Within this layer
are the basal cells that have been pushed
upward, however these maturing cells are
now called squamous cells, or
keratinocytes. Keratinocytes produce
keratin, a tough, protective protein that
makes up the majority of the structure of
the skin, hair, and nails.
The Stratum Granulosum & the
Stratum Lucidum
The keratinocytes from the stratum
spinosum layer are then pushed up
through two thin epidermal layers called
the stratum granulosum and the stratum
lucidum. As these cells move further
towards the surface of the skin, they get
bigger and flatter and adhere together,
and then eventually become dehydrated
and die.
The Stratum Corneum : Is the outermost
layer of the epidermis, and is made up of
10 to 30 thin layers of continually
shedding, dead keratinocytes. The
stratum corneum is also known as the
“horny layer,” because its cells are
toughened like an animal’s horn. As the
outermost cells age and wear down, they
are replaced by new layers of strong,
long-wearing cells.
List and locate the organelles found in There are four main types of
glabrous skin mechanoreceptors (sensory receptors) in
the glabrous (hairless) skin of humans
Pacinian corpuscles (deep touch)
Meissner's corpuscles (light touch),
Merkel's discs (Texture)
Ruffini corpuscles (skin stretch).
Sweat gland
List the glands found in skin and their Eccrine Gland/Sweat gland –
functions temperature regulation through water
secretion
Sebaceous Gland – Oil producing gland
for sebum softens and lubricates skin and
hair
Ceruminous Glands – of the ear
producing ear was
Mammary Glands – secrete milk
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Outline how the skin accomplishes at least Protection against infection: Intact skin
5 different functions forms a primary barrier against
pathogens. Surface is always being shed,
the stratum Corneum is also resistant to
penetration
Protection against dehydration: Keratin
in the epidermous and the sebum
released helps to waterproof the skin and
prevent evaporation
Regulation of Body temperature: Blood
supply and sweat
Collection of sensory information:
Nerve ending in the skin relay messages
back to the brain
Vitamin D synthesis – from its
precursors under the effect of sunlight
and introversion of steroids.
Name and outline the neural receptors of There are four main types of
the skin mechanoreceptors (sensory receptors) in
the glabrous (hairless) skin of humans
Pacinian corpuscles (deep touch)
Meissner's corpuscles (light touch),
Merkel's discs (Texture)
Ruffini corpuscles (skin stretch).
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Ligaments – Fibroblast
Cartilage – more elastic fibres but little collagen
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C.A.M.E.O
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references
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Big to small
Small to big
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