PROCESS VARIABLES: PRESSURE

Pressure is the ratio of a normal (perpendicular) force

to the area on which the force acts.
N
SI Unit: 2
( or Pa )
m
dynes
CGS Unit:
cm 2
lb f
American Engineering Unit: 2
( or psi)
in

Fluid Pressure

Suppose a fluid is flowing through a horizontal pipe

and a leak develops. To stop the leak a force must be
applied over the area of the hole that causes the leak.
This pressure is called the fluid pressure (the force
that must be applied divided by the area of the hole).
Hydrostatic Pressure

A column of fluid of
density  has height h and
cross sectional area A.

pressure P at base of the

column = the force exerted
on the base divided by the area A = the weight of the
column (W) plus any force acting on the top (Fo).
F base 1 1 mg
P=
A
= ( Fo +W )=
A A(F o+
gc )
F o ρh g ρhg
¿ + =Po + =Po + ρgh
A gc gc

formula for pressure due to a column of fluid, or

hydrostatic pressure.

Atmospheric Pressure

Air is a fluid -- the air above the earth exerts a

hydrostatic pressure on the surface - atmospheric
pressure. Pressure exerted will depend on the height
of the column and the density of the air.
At sea level the pressure is
1 atm = 14.696 psi = 101.325 kPa
Decreases as altitude increases - reduced pressure is
why breathing is more difficult
sea-level value used as a fixed reference value - called
the "standard atmosphere" - also used as a unit of
pressure measurement (atm).
EXAMPLE: What is the hydrostatic pressure exerted
at the base by the water in a 6.00 ft diameter
cylindrical tank which contains 90.0 gal?

If atmospheric pressure (pressure at the surface) is

14.7 psi, then pressure at the base = psi
Head
pressures also measured in mm Hg (Torr). These are
not "natural" pressure units (force/area)

A column of fluid produces a pressure - so height of

the column is an indicator of the pressure produced.
This principle is the basis of one of the traditional
methods of measuring pressure: the manometer.

When pressure is expressed in terms of a height of

fluid, it is called fluid "head". Usually, water or
mercury is used.

Head units are mostly used for very low pressures and
expressed as "mm Hg" or "in H2O".

For converting between force/area and head units use

the fluid weight term from the hydrostatic pressure
equation:
P =ρ fluid g P(head )
( force
area )

EXAMPLE: For the example earlier, express the

hydrostatic pressure as head of water and mercury.
Fluid Pressure Measurement

Pressure Sensing Devices

Some Pressure sensing devices are

- Bourdon gauge
- Diaphragm capsule
- Capacitance sensor
- Column of fluid
- Manometer
- Barometer Bourdon gauge

Manometers

A manometer is a U-shaped tube partially filled with

liquid, usually water, or mercury. Each end is
connected to a pressure source, and the difference in
liquid height corresponds to the difference in pressure.
 At the bottom of the
manometer, the force exerted
by one leg balances against
the force exerted by the
other. The force balance
equation can be written:
P1 + ρ1 g h 1=P2+ ρ2 g h2 + ρl g h

Often manometer connected so that the same fluid is

present at the tops of both legs ( ρ = ρ =ρ) and only a
1 2

single manometer fluid ( ρ ) is used l

This gives the "differential manometer equation":

P1−P2= ( ρ1−ρ ) g h

frequently used to determine flow rate. A restriction

(e.g. orifice) is placed in a line carrying a flowing fluid
- produces a pressure drop. Manometer used to
measure the pressure drop. The pressure difference is
proportional to the flow rate squared.
Absolute vs. Gage Pressure

Most pressures are measured with reference to some

known value.
Getting "zero" pressure complicated and expensive -
more practical to measure w.r.t. atmospheric pressure.
e.g. one end of a manometer is attached to the pressure
source to be measured the other open to atmosphere.

Pressures measured in this way are designated gage

pressure. If absolute pressure is to be measured, it is
necessary to evacuate one end of the manometer so
that the fluid works against vacuum.

Thus, a "closed end" manometer measures absolute

pressure, while an "open end" manometer measures
gage pressure. A "barometer" measures atmospheric
pressure.
Pressures less than atmospheric are "vacuums".
Common practice is to state negative gage pressures as
positive vacuum. Vacuums are frequently listed in
head units.
The chart below may help keep track of things.

Two mercury manometers, one open-end and the other

sealed-end, are attached to an air duct. The reading on
the open-end manometer is 25 mm and that on the
sealed-end manometer is 800 mm. Determine the
absolute pressure in the duct, the gauge pressure in the
duct, and the atmospheric pressure, all in mm Hg.
A fluid of unknown density is used in two manometers
—one sealed-end, the other across an orifice in a water
pipeline. The readings shown here are obtained on a
day when barometric pressure is
756 mm Hg.

What is the pressure drop (mm Hg) from point (a) to

point (b)?