DC & Ups System

Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
Saline Water Conversion Corporation

General Directorate of Training Programs
Training Center – JUBAIL
MAINTENANCE DEPARTMENT
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERS COMMON
COURSE
DC&UPS SYSTEM
"
Version 1.1
Prepared by: ABDUL-RAZIK OTHMAN BAKRY
Date: FEBRUARY, 2007
Contents
Lesson 1: INTRODUCTION…………………………………………1
UNINTERRUPTIBLE POWER
SUPPLIES (UPS)……………………………………….1
DC ESSENTIAL SUPPLIES……………………………1
AC ESSENTIAL SUPPLIES…………………….………2
CAPACITORS IN ELECTRONIC
CIRCUITS………………………………………….……..2
CAPACITOR TYPES, SYMBOLS
AND RATINGS…………………………………….……..4
NON-POLARISED CAPACITORS……………….…….4
POLARISED CAPACITOR………………….….……….4
SYMBOLS AND RATINGS……………………..………5
CAPACITOR CHARGE AND
DISCHARGE……………………………………..………5
PRACTICAL EXERCISE - TESTING
OF CAPACITORS………………………..…………….7
PRECAUTIONS…………………………..……….…….7
PROCEDURE……………………………………………8
RESULTS TABLE……………………………………….8
CONCLUSIONS ………………………………………...8
EXERCISE MARKING SCALE…………………………9
Lesson 2: COMMON COLLECTOR CONFIGURATION…………1

PN JUNCTION DIODE…………………………………..1
REVERSE BIAS…………………………………………..1
FORWARD BIAS……………………………….…………2
RATINGS, SYMBOLS AND PACKAGES………..……..2
PRACTICAL EXERCISE - TESTING DIODES…..…….3
PRECAUTIONS……………………………………..…….3
PROCEDURE………………………………..……………3
RESULTS TABLE………………………..……………….4
CONCLUSIONS…………………………..………………4
EXERCISE MARKING SCALE……………...…………..5
ZENERS AND LEDS………………………...…………...5
ZENER DIODE…………………………………………….5
LIGHT EMITTING DIODE (LED)…………..……………6
SYMBOLS AND PACKAGES……………..…………….7
BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR (BJT)…..……….7
BJT SYMBOLS AND PACKAGING……………….……8
TRANSISTOR CIRCUITS………………………….……9
COMMON EMITTER CONFIGURATION……….…….10
SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES………………….……..11
Lesson 3: UNCONTROLLED RECTIFIERS……………………….1

DC ESSENTIAL SUPPLIES………………………….....1
HALF WAVE RECTIFIER…………………..……………2
FULL WAVE RECTIFIERS…………………...………….3
Contents │ i
CENTRE-TAP TRANSFORMER RECTIFIER......……3
BRIDGE RECTIFIER……………………………...……..4
THREE PHASE BRIDGE RECTIFIER…………………5
RECTIFIER CIRCUIT……………………………………5
PRV AND RIPPLE……………………………………….7
PRACTICAL EXERCISE - RECTIFIER
WAVEFORMS…………………………………………..7
OBJECTIVES……………………………………………7
GENERAL PRECAUTIONS……………………………7
SPECIAL PRECAUTIONS WHEN USING
ANOSCILLOSCOPE……………………………..…….8
EQUIPMENT……………………………………………8
PROCEDURE…………………………………………..8
Half Wave Rectifier…………………………………….8
Bridge Rectifier…………………………………………8
RESULTS TABLE……………………………………..9
CONCLUSIONS……………………………………….9
EXERCISE MARKING SCALE……………………..10
Lesson 4: DC FILTERS……………………………………………1
SHUNT CAPACITOR FILTER…………………….….1
FILTER ACTION…………………………………….…1
WAVEFORM AND RIPPLE…………………………..2
PRV RATINGS………………………………………...3
FILTERED HALF-WAVE RECTIFIER…………….…4
FILTERED FULL-WAVE RECTIFIERS……….……..4
PRACTICAL DEMONSTRATION……………….……4
OTHER TYPES OF FILTER……………………….….4
SERIES INDUCTOR FILTER…………………………4
PI FILTER ………………………………………………5
Lesson 5: VOLTAGE REGULATORS…………………………..1

ZENERSERIES EGULATOR………………………...1
ZENER FOLLOWER……………….…………………1
NEGATIVE FEEDBACK…………..…………………2
CURRENT LIMITING………………...……………….2
ZENER SHUNT REGULATOR…………………..…..4
SWITCHING REGULATOR…………………………..5
BASIC OPERATION……………………….………….5
PULSE GENERATOR…………………….…………..6
OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER…………………………7
BASIC 741C OP-AMP……………………..………….7
NEGATIVE FEEDBACK……………………..……….9
LM340 VOLTAGE REGULATOR………..………….12
Lesson 6: SILICON CONTROLLED RECTIFIERS…………….1

SCR BASIC THEORY…………………………………1
INTRODUCTION……………………………………….1
CONSTRUCTION AND CIRCUIT SYMBOL………...1
SCR OPERATION………………………………….…..2
Contents │ ii
COMPARISON WITH DIODE……………………………3
RATINGS AND PACKAGES……………………….…….3
PRACTICAL EXERCISE - TESTING
AN SCR WITH A MULTIMETER………………………..4
PRECAUTIONS……………………………………………4
PROCEDUR………………………………………………..4
RESULTS TABLE………………………………….………4
CONCLUSIONS……………………………………………4
EXERCISE MARKING SCALE………………….………..5
PRACTICAL EXERCISE - DC
TESTS OF AN SCR……………………………………….5
OBJECTIVES………………………………………………5
PRECAUTIONS……………………………………………5
EQUIPMENT……………………………………………….5
PROCEDUR ……………………………………………….5
RESULTS TABLE………………………………………….6
CONCLUSIONS……………………………………………7
EXERCISE MARKING SCALE………………….………..7
Lesson 7: INVERTERS………………………………………………..1
AC ESSENTIAL SUPPLIES………………………………1
INVERSION………………………………………………...2
INVERTER SYMBOL……………………………………...2
CENTRE-TAP TRANSFORMER
INVERTER (HALF BRIDGE)……………………………..2
FULL BRIDGE INVERTER…………………………….…4
INVERTING OPERATION………………………………..4
BLOCKING THE INVERTING SCRS……………………5
FREEWHEELING AN INDUCTIVE LOAD………………6
VOLTAGE REGULATION………………………………..6
THREE-PHASE INVERTERS…………………………...7
THREE-PHASE FOUR-WIRE INVERTER……………..7
THREE-PHASE BRIDGE INVERTER…………………..8
Lesson 7: INVERTER AUXILIARIES……………………………….1

HARMONIC FILTERS……………………………………1
SERIES RESONANT FILTER…………………………..1
SHUNT RESONANT FILTER…………………………...3
TRANSFORMERS AND STATIC SWITCH……………5
TRANSFORMERS……………………………………….5
STATIC SWITCH…………………………………..…….6
SCR TRIGGERING………………………………………8
Contents │ iii
Uninterrupted Power Supply Introduction
LESSON
1 INTRODUCTION
LECTURE
Objectives
At the end of this Lesson, the Trainee will be able to explain what
DC and AC UPS systems are and how they work; state that
capacitors are dangerous and correctly discharge them; identify
polarized capacitors; calculate RC Time Constants; test
capacitors using MultiMate’s.
1 UNINTERRUPTIBLE POWER SUPPLIES (UPS)
1.1 DC ESSENTIAL SUPPLIES
There are many important controls which must have a reliable supply
of electricity. Some typical examples are the tripping & closing coils of
circuit breakers and the protection relays which operate these in
emergencies. These are essential loads.
Such equipment where any loss of power is not acceptable is supplied
with DC current. Normally a Rectifier supplies the essential DC loads
and also charges up a Battery. This is called a DC Essential Supply.
If the DC supply from the rectifier fails, the battery supplies the load
without any interruption of current. The battery can only provide DC
power for a few hours, determined by its Ampere-Hour Capacity and
the current drawn by the DC load. Meanwhile arrangements can be
made to restore DC power from the charger.
DC BUSBAR - LOAD
+
AC MAINS
~ BATTERY
-- -
RECTIFIER/CHARGE
BUS
+
AC MAINS
~ BATTERY
-- -
+
RECTIFIER/CHARGE
- LOAD
DC
Fig. 1-1. Dual Redundant DC Power Supply
Lesson 1 Page 1
Fig. 1-1 shows a typical DC supply system. It is called Dual

Redundant because either of the two power lines can be lost without
affecting the loads. Each battery bank has the capacity to supply all
DC loads. Besides providing secure DC supplies during emergencies,
this scheme also allows one DC supply line to be taken out for
maintenance without shutting the DC system down.
There are two blocking diodes to prevent a healthy DC supply back
feeding into a faulty one. The bus coupler (usually a circuit breaker) is
normally closed, but can be opened for maintenance of either busbars.
Further flexibility can be obtained by providing facilities for switching
each load to either busbars.
1.2 AC ESSENTIAL SUPPLIES
There are certain important electrical loads which require AC current

instead of DC. These include control computers, logic controllers and
essential pump motors.
To supply these AC essential loads during failure of AC mains power,
we need rectifiers and batteries, just as with DC Essential Loads. But
we also need an Inverter to convert the DC from the rectifier/battery to
AC for the loads:
L N
+
~ ---
AC MAINS 1
---
-
BATTERY 1
~ ~ ~
RECTIFIER 1 INVERTER 1 STATIC SWITCH 1

ESSENTIAL
+ LOADS
---
~
AC MAINS 2
---
-
BATTERY 2
~ ~ ~ BUSBAR
AC MAINS 3 ~ ~
STATIC SWITCH 3
Fig. 1-2. UPS with Dual Redundancy and AC Bypass
The example above is a typical UPS system with dual redundancy. If

one charger, one battery or one inverter fails, the other UPS circuit can
supply all the essential AC loads. For maintenance or emergencies an
AC Bypass is also provided. The two Inverters convert DC back to AC
and the Static Switches isolate faulty supplies from the AC busbars.
2 CAPACITORS IN ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS
The capacitor is a very important part of most electronic circuits -

particularly rectifiers, inverters and pulse generators. This is because
of its ability to cause a controlled time delay when charging or
Lesson 1 Page 2
discharging through a series resistance. So the capacitor can switch

circuits on and off.
Capacitors are dangerous because they store electrical charge and
can electrocute anyone who touches their terminals. It is therefore
very important to discharge a capacitor before working on it. This is
done by shorting the two terminals together with a jumper lead. Large
capacitors should be discharged through a resistor, to limit the
discharge current. This avoids large arcs being produced.
Because capacitors are so important in electronics, it is useful to
remember their most important features:
1. A capacitor is simply two metal plates separated by a Dielectric
(insulating material). When a DC voltage is applied to the plates
current cannot flow through the dielectric, but there is a charge build-up
on the plates.
2. The ability of a capacitor to store charge is its Capacitance. This is
measured in Farads. The relationship between charge (Q),
capacitance (C) and voltage (V) is: Q = C x V.
3. Since it stores charge a capacitor opposes voltage changes. When
the supply voltage to a DC circuit falls to zero volts, the capacitor will
maintain voltage in the circuit. This is why even small capacitors are
very dangerous and must be discharged before they are touched.
However, this ability of the capacitor to maintain voltage is very useful
in many electronic circuits.
4. When the supply voltage is AC the capacitor charges in one
direction, then discharges and charges in the opposite direction as the
supply voltage alternates. So current flows all the time.
The Reactance of the capacitor is high for low frequencies and low for
high frequencies:
XC = 1_ = -j__
jωC 2πfC
The -j signifies that XC is the opposite of Inductive Reactance. This

ability of capacitance to cancel out inductance is used in Series and
Parallel Resonant circuits (oscillators and filters).
5. When capacitors are connected in parallel the total capacitance,
CT, is:
CT = C1 + C2 + C3 + ............
But when capacitors are connected in series, CT is given by:
1_ = 1_ + 1_ + 1_ + ............
CT C1 C2 C3
6. Capacitor Identification
Typical capacitor packages are shown in Fig. 1-3:
Lesson 1 Page 3
Fig. 1-3 - CAPACITOR PACKAGES
Most capacitors have leads for solder connections, though high-

capacity units have bolt-and-thread connections.
7. The Farad (F) is a very large unit. Most electronic circuits use very
small capacitors of typical sizes:
- Micro-Farads (µF), equal to 10-6 F
- Nano-Farads (nF), equal to 10-9 F
- Pico-Farads (pF), equal to 10-12 F
3 CAPACITOR TYPES, SYMBOLS AND RATINGS
There are two different designs of capacitor in common use, Polarized

(Electrolytic) and Non-Polarized (Electrostatic). It is very important to
understand the differences between them.
3.1 NON-POLARISED CAPACITORS
This is of standard, two-plate, construction. The dielectric can be

ceramic, mica, paper or plastic compounds. It does not matter which
plate is positive, so it is suitable for AC circuits.
3.2 POLARISED CAPACITOR
This capacitor contains an electrolyte (like a battery) rather than a

dielectric. The plates are usually of aluminum or tantalum. Because it
contains an electrolyte, the capacitor is polarized - it acts as a good
insulator (capacitor) in one direction, but as a good conductor (short
circuit) in the other.
If the supply voltage positive is applied to the capacitor positive
terminal we have a good capacitor. But if the supply voltage positive
is applied to the capacitor negative terminal, and the voltage is large
enough, the dielectric breaks down to a short circuit and the capacitor
explodes. (A very small reverse voltage, such as that from an
ohmmeter, will not cause any damage.)
Despite this danger, polarized capacitors can store much more charge
than similar sized non-polarized capacitors (though they lose charge
through leakage much more quickly). They are therefore widely used
in DC circuits, especially rectifier filters.
A polarized capacitor can be recognized by its polarity marking (non-
polarized capacitors do not have any polarity markings). Some typical
markings are shown in Fig. 1-4:
Lesson 1 Page 4
_
_
+ +
IDENTIFY CATHODE IDENTIFY ANODE
(NEGATIVE TERMINAL) (POSITIVE TERMINAL)
Fig. 1-4. Polarity Markings
3.3 SYMBOLS AND RATINGS
Typical circuit symbols are shown in Fig. 1-5:
OR ELECTROSTATIC (NON-POLARISED)
+ +
OR ELECTROLYTIC (POLARISED)
OR VARIABLE NON-POLARISED
Fig. 1-5. Circuit Symbols
The two important ratings for a capacitor are:
1. Nominal Capacitance, given in pF, nF or µF.
2. Nominal Voltage, which is DC unless stated otherwise. The AC rms

voltage rating of a non-polarized capacitor is approximately 70% of the
DC rating (to limit the peak value of the waveform).
For most capacitors, these two ratings are engraved on the case. On
some small capacitors a colour coding system is used, rather like that
for carbon resistors. Many small capacitors only have a reference
code. To find the ratings, these capacitors must be tested or the
manufacturer’s reference book consulted.
4 CAPACITOR CHARGE AND DISCHARGE
When a DC voltage is applied to a capacitor, there is a surge of current

as the capacitor charges up. This current rapidly reduces to zero as
voltage builds up across the capacitor plates. This process is called
charging. The supply voltage can now be switched off and the
capacitor retains its voltage!
Lesson 1 Page 5
If the capacitor terminals are now shorted out, the capacitor discharges
and once again a surge of current flows, which rapidly reduces to zero
as the voltage across the plates is lost.
The larger the capacitor (or resistor) the larger the charge/discharge
currents and the longer the time taken to charge and discharge.
We can prolong the charge and discharge times and reduce the surge
currents by adding series resistance to the circuit, as shown in Fig. 1-6:
R R
C C
(a) CAPACITOR CHARGING (b) CAPACITOR DISCHARGING
Fig. 1-6. RC Time-delay circuit
A measure of the time delay for charge and discharge is the RC Time
Constant (T).This is the time taken for the voltage to change by 63.2 %.
Mathematically:
T = R x C
Example
A 10 µF capacitor is in series with a 100 kΩ resistor. A DC supply of
20 V is applied. Calculate:
(a) The RC Time Constant (T).
(b) The voltage across C when this time has elapsed.
Answer:
(a) T = RC = 100 x 103 x 10 x 10-6 = 1
second
(b) V = 0.632 x E = 0.632 x 20 = 12.64 V
Fig. 1-7 on the next page shows typical Voltage/Time and Current Time
graphs for charging a capacitor - first with a small series resistor and
next with a large resistor. These graphs will invert for capacitor
discharge, because the voltage will reduce and the current will be
negative (reverse flow).
Lesson 1 Page 6
Emax
63.2% Small R (small RC Time Constant)
Large R (large RC Time Constant)
T1 T2 time
Imax
Small R (small RC Time Constant)
Large R (large RC Time Constant)

26.8%
T1 T2 time
Fig. 1-7. Effect of varying the Series Resistor
The RC Time Constant is used when testing a capacitor with an

analogue MultiMate on its ohm function. The circuit is the same as Fig.
1-6, because the series resistance is built into the meter. So we can
flick-test the capacitor.
The meter pointer should flick towards zero ohms (maximum current)
then slowly move back towards infinite ohms (zero current). If this
does not happen, either the meter range is too low to measure the
capacitor, or the capacitor is damaged.
The following exercise is designed to give the trainee practice in testing
capacitors and extracting information on ratings and construction.
5 PRACTICAL EXERCISE - TESTING OF CAPACITORS
5.1 PRECAUTIONS
1. Always discharge a capacitor before touching it. A large, charged

capacitor CAN ELECTROCUTE YOU!
2. When testing, do not press the bare ends of the test probes onto
the component with your fingers. The resistance of your body will be in
parallel with the component. This will give inaccurate readings.
3. When using any MultiMate as an ohm-meter, always check that the
batteries are fully charged. A low-charged battery will not give
accurate readings, because it cannot supply enough power for the test
circuit.
Lesson 1 Page 7
4. When using an analogue meter as an ohm-meter, always set the

zero reading, by shorting the meter leads together, before testing. Do
this for each range multiplier you use before testing the component.
5.2 PROCEDURE
There are 3 capacitors, labeled 1 to 3. For each one:

1. Determine the nominal capacitance, nominal voltage and whether
the capacitor is polarized or not, by reading the information on the
case.
2. Measure the capacitance using the digital MultiMate as a
Capacitance Meter. Record the values in the Results Table, with the
range setting used.
3. Use the analogue meter as an ohm-meter to perform a Flick Test.
Record whether the test was successful or not and which Scale
Multiplier was used.
4. Repeat step 3 using the digital MultiMate. Record whether the test
was successful or not and which range setting was used.
5.3 RESULTS TABLE
PACKAGE DIGITAL ANALOGUE DIGITAL

CAP INFORMATION METER METER METER CAP
A- AS FLICK TEST FLICK A-
CIT CAPACITAN TEST CIT
OR CE OR
METER
NO. NOMI NOMIN POLA READI SCAL TES MULTI TEST SCA OK?
NAL AL - NG E T -PLIER OK? LE (Y/N)
CAPAC VOLTA RISE RANG OK? (Y/N) RAN
- GE D E (Y/N) GE
ITANC (Y/N)
E
1 0.1 µF 100 NO 0.1 µF 2 µF Y R x 10K Y 2 MΩ Y

VDC
2 0.22 µF 50 VDC NO 0.2 µF 2 µF Y R x 10K Y 2 MΩ Y
3 10 µF 35 VDC YES 10 µF 20 µF Y R x 10K Y 2 MΩ Y
5.4 CONCLUSIONS
1. Which of the three tests is the easiest to perform accurately and

gives the most information? Why?
Answer: DIGITAL METER AS CAPACITANCE METER, WHICH NOT
ONLY SHOWS CAPACITOR IS OK, BUT MEASURES
CAPACITANCE TOO.
2. Which MultiMate is best for performing Flick Tests? Why?
Lesson 1 Page 8
Answer:ANALOGUE METER AS OHMMETER, AS IT IS EASY TO

SEE THE CHARGE & DISCHARGE OF THE CAPACITOR.
5.5 EXERCISE MARKING SCALE
1. Observations
Nominal Capacitance - 3 x 2 points = 6 points
Nominal Voltage - 3 x 2 points = 6 points
Polarized (Y/N) - 3 x 4 points = 12 points
Sub-Total = 24 points
2. Practical Tests
Capacitance Reading - 3 x 4 points = 12 points
Capacitance Meter Range - 3 x 2 points = 6 points
Analogue Meter Flick Test - 3 x 3 points = 9 points
Analogue Scale Multiplier - 3 x 3 points = 9 points
Digital Meter Flick Test - 3 x 3 points = 9 points
Digital Scale Range - 3 x 3 points = 9 points
3. Conclusions
Capacitor OK? - 3 x 2 points = 6 points
Conclusion 1 - = 8 points
OVERALL TOTAL = 100 Points
Lesson 1 Page 9
Uninterrupted Power Supply Semiconductor Devices
LESSON
2 SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES
LECTURE
Objectives
At the end of this Lesson, the Trainee will be able to explain the
construction and operation, identify circuit symbols and
packages, and test the most common semiconductor devices
used in electronic circuits.
1 PN JUNCTION DIODE
The PN Junction Diode only conducts electricity one way, from Anode
to Cathode. If current tries to flow the wrong way (from Cathode to
Anode) the diode blocks it. So the diode acts just like a check valve in
a water system.
The diode is called a PN Junction Diode because it is made of one
piece of P-Type material (containing positive Holes) and one piece of
N-Type material (containing negative Free Electrons) with a Junction
between them. Around the Junction is a Barrier (Depletion) Region
where there are no holes or electrons.
1.1 REVERSE BIAS
BARRIER VOLTAGE
V
B
P - TYPE N - TYPE
HOLES
ELECTRONS
(+) BARRIER REGION
(-)
(DEPLETION REGION)
E = V
B
Fig. 2-1. Reverse Bias (no conduction)
As shown in Fig. 2-1, with the battery positive connected to the N -

Type material the Depletion Region grows bigger so that the Barrier
Voltage, VB, always equals the applied EMF, E. So no current flows.
This is called Reverse Bias.
Lesson 2 Page 1
If the applied EMF is too great, the diode is forced to break down and
will become a permanent short circuit. The diode is then useless and
must be replaced.
1.2 FORWARD BIAS
BARRIER VOLTAGE
VB
P - TYPE N - TYPE
HOLES
ELECTRONS
(+) (-)
R
BARRIER REGION
I E
E = V + IxR
B
Fig. 2-2. Forward Bias (conduction)
Fig. 2-2 shows the battery positive is connected to the P - Type

material. The battery forces the electrons and holes to combine at the
Junction. So current can flow as long as E is greater than VB. This is
called Forward Bias. The difference between E and VB is the voltage
drop across the load resistor R.
If the resistance is too small the diode will overheat (due to excessive
current) and “blow” (become open circuit). The diode is then useless
and must be replaced.
1.3 RATINGS, SYMBOLS AND PACKAGES
The two most important ratings for diodes are:

1. Peak Reverse Voltage (PRV) - the maximum Reverse Bias Voltage
the diode can withstand without breakdown.
2. Maximum Forward Current (IF) - the maximum Forward Bias
Current the diode can carry before overheating and going open circuit.
For Forward Bias, VB is a voltage drop across the diode and is called
VF, the Forward Drop. This depends on the material the diode is made
from:
- For a Germanium diode: VB is approximately 0.2 to 0.4
V.
- For a Silicon diode: VB is approximately 0.6 to 0.8
V.
- For a Gallium Arsenide diode: VB is approximately 1.5 to 2.0
V.
Lesson 2 Page 2
Most diodes are made from Silicon, because it is does not have a large
leakage current, like Germanium, and does not have a high Forward
Drop, like Gallium Arsenide.
The circuit symbol for a diode is shown in Fig. 2.3 on the next page.
ANODE CATHODE
(P-TYPE) (N-TYPE)
Fig. 2.3. Diode Circuit Symbol
Some typical diode packages are shown in Fig. 2.4. Note that for low-
power diodes there is a Band at one end of the diode. This identifies
the Cathode. Large- power diodes have heavy threaded connections
which can dissipate heat into heat sinks and are mechanically strong.
B O L T C O N N E C T IO N
P IG T AIL
1N 4004
B AN D
AX IAL L E AD S
T H R E AD E D
F O R S O L D E R C O N N E C T IO N C O N N E C T IO N
Fig. 2.4. Diode Packages
2 PRACTICAL EXERCISE - TESTING DIODES
2.1 PRECAUTIONS
1. When using an analogue meter as an ohm-meter to test diodes,

remember that the red lead goes to the common (-) terminal and the
black lead to the normal (+) terminal (opposite to when using the meter
as a DC voltmeter or ammeter).
2. When using a digital meter as an ohm-meter to test diodes,
Precaution 1 above does not apply.
3. When using a digital meter as a diode tester, remember that the
range used is in mV, so your reading has the units of mV.
2.2 PROCEDURE
There are 5 diodes, labeled 1 to 5. For each diode:

1. Using the analogue meter as an ohm-meter, test the diode in
forward bias then reverse bias. Record the resistance values in the
Results Table. Also show the scale multiplier used.
Lesson 2 Page 3
2. Using the digital meter as an ohm-meter, test the diode in forward

bias then reverse bias. Record the resistance values in the Results
Table. Also show the range used.
3. Test the diode with the digital meter as a diode tester. Record the
voltages measured in the Results Table.
2.3 RESULTS TABLE
ANALOGUE DIGITAL DIGITAL

OHMMETER OHMMETER DIODE TESTER
DIOD
E
NO. + - + - SCALE + - + - SCALE + - + -
MULTI- RANGE
Ω Ω PLIER Ω Ω mV mV
1 12 Ω ∞ x1 ∞ ∞ 20 MΩ 600 mV ∞
2 10 Ω ∞ x1 ∞ ∞ 20 MΩ 630 mV ∞
3 15 Ω ∞ x1 ∞ ∞ 20 MΩ 700 mV ∞
4 ∞ ∞ x 10 K ∞ ∞ 20 MΩ ∞ ∞
5 0.1 Ω 0.1 Ω x1 0.1 Ω 0.1 Ω 200 Ω 0 0
2.4 2.4 CONCLUSIONS
1. From your test results, complete the Table below by placing a tick
(√) in the correct boxes:
DIODE CONDITION
CATHODE DIODE MATERIAL
DIODE IDENTIFICATION
NO. HEAL OPEN SHORT CORREC WRON ? SILICON GERM- ?
THY CIRCUI CIRCUI T G ANIUM
T T
1 √ √ √
2 √ √ √
3 √ √ √
4 √ √ √
5 √ √ √
Lesson 2 Page 4
2. Which of the three test methods is the best for diode testing?
Answer: DIGITAL MULTIMETER AS A DIODE TESTER.
3. Why is this method the best?
Answer: EASY AND SIMPLE AND TELLS YOU IF DIODE IS
SILICON
OR GERMANIUM, IF IT IS HEALTHY AND IF THE POLARITY
MARKINGS ARE CORRECT.
4. Which is the worst method of the three?
Answer: DIGITAL MULTIMETER AS AN OHM-METER.
5. Why is this method the worst?
Answer: READS HIGH RESISTANCE IN BOTH DIRECTIONS.
1. Practical Tests:
Analogue Ω Forward Test - 5 x 2 points = 10 points
Analogue Ω Reverse Test - 5 x 2 points = 10 points
Scale Multiplier - 5 x 1 point = 5 points
Digital Ω Forward Test - 5 x 2 points = 10 points
Digital Ω Reverse Test - 5 x 2 points = 10 points
Scale Range - 5 x 1 point = 5 points
Diode Tester Frwrd Test - 5 x 2 points = 10 points
Diode Tester Rvrse Test - 5 x 1 point = 5 points
2. Conclusions:
Conclusion 1, 15 crosses - 15 x 1 point = 15 points
3 ZENERS AND LEDS
3.1 ZENER DIODE
The Zener Diode is a special kind of PN junction diode. It is more

heavily doped than an ordinary diode and operates in reverse bias
beyond the Breakdown Voltage without being damaged. Since the
Zener Diode does not break down this breakdown voltage is called the
Zener Voltage (VZ).
Fig. 2-5 on the next page is the Characteristic Curve for a Zener Diode.
An ordinary PN junction diode has exactly the same characteristic, but
at the reverse bias kneepoint it breaks down (fails).
Lesson 2 Page 5
+I (mA)
FORWARD BIAS
-E (volts) +E (volts)
FORWARD DROP
ZENER VOLTAGE
REVERSE BIAS
-I (mA)
Fig. 2-5. Zener Diode Characteristic Curve
Note that at the Zener Voltage point the voltage across the diode is
almost constant, even though the current can increase a lot. So the
Zener Diode is a good Voltage Regulator - it keeps the voltage in a
circuit almost constant.
Fig. 2-6 is a simple voltage regulator circuit. If the supply voltage (E) is
less than the zener voltage the zener diode does not conduct and the
circuit will not regulate voltage.
R
I S
I I
Z L E is a variable DC voltage
+
V I = I + I
S Z L
E Z V
Z
- E = V + V
R S Z
L
V is CONSTANT
Z
Fig. 2-6. Zener Diode as a voltage regulator
Once E is slightly larger than the Zener Voltage, the output voltage will
be constant and the excess voltage from the supply is dropped across
the series resistor (RS). E must provide the load current (IL) and the
reverse bias current through the zener diode (IZ) which can be high.
As they are nearly always used in reverse bias as voltage regulators,
zener diodes are classed and selected by their Zener Voltage (VZ) and
their Power Rating (watts), because they pass quite large currents in
reverse bias.
3.2 LIGHT EMITTING DIODE (LED)
All PN junctions release light when they are conducting. This light is
produced when electrons and holes combine at the junction. But with
Lesson 2 Page 6
silicon and germanium diodes the junction and package material are
opaque, so no light is visible.
The LED is a special diode. It produces visible light when it conducts.
It is usually made of Gallium Arsenide and its forward drop is roughly
1.5 to 2.0 volts.
The junction is encased in translucent plastic so that the emitted light
can be seen. The plastic case is coloured, so that the light seen has
the colour of the case. LEDs are used as indicators (warning lights and
on/off lights) in electronic circuits.
3.3 SYMBOLS AND PACKAGES
ZENER DIODE LED
OR
(a) CIRCUIT SYMBOLS
AXIAL LEAD BAND (CATHODE) TRANSLUCENT

CASING
OR
CATHODE
ANODE
(b) PACKAGES
Fig. 2-7. Symbols and packages
Fig 2-7 shows ttypical circuit symbols and packages for Zener Diodes
and LEDs.
4 BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR (BJT)
The transistor is similar to a PN Junction Diode, but has two junctions

instead of one. It can be either NPN type, or PNP type. The 3
terminals are the Collector, Base (much narrower and less heavily
doped) and Emitter. Refer to Fig. 2-8 on the next page.
Whether the transistor is NPN or PNP, there must be FORWARD BIAS
on the BASE-EMITTER Junction before current can flow between the
Collector and Emitter. The BJT transistor is therefore an excellent
solid-state DC Switch.
For either type of transistor: IE = IB + IC
Lesson 2 Page 7
Typically, IC is 50 to 100 times larger than IB. So a small Base current

can control a large Collector current. So the BJT transistor is an
Amplifier.
COLLECTOR BASE EMITTER COLLECTOR BASE EMITTER
N P N P N P
NO BIAS on B-E
Junction, so NO
R CURRENT in C-E R
C C
circuit.
E E
NPN TRANSISTOR PNP TRANSISTOR
N P N P N P
WITH FORWARD
I BIAS on the B-E I

B B
I Junction, current I
R R E R R E
C B C B
can NOW FLOW
I E in the C-E circuit. I E
c c
Fig. 2-8. BJT Transistor Construction and Operation
5 BJT SYMBOLS AND PACKAGING
The circuit symbols for NPN and PNP transistors are shown in Fig. 2-9.
The arrow in the Emitter tells you which way the Base-Emitter P-N
Junction is polarized, just like the triangle in the circuit symbol of a
diode.
C C
B B
E E
NPN TRANSISTOR PNP TRANSISTOR
Fig. 2-9, Transistor Circuit Symbols
There are dozens of different packages and pin formations for

transistors. Some of the most common are shown in Fig. 2-10 on the
next page. Some packages (e.g. TO-5) are aluminum cans. Others
(e.g. TO-92) are plastic encapsulated. TO-3 is a large power transistor
with only two leads - the Base and Emitter. The metal casing is the
Collector, which bolts to a heat sink.
The Base can always be easily identified by testing with a MultiMate. If
any doubt exists regarding which leads are the Collector and Emitter
the manufacturer’s manual or other reference book should be
consulted. First you must read the code number printed on the case.
Lesson 2 Page 8
This number often has a prefix 2N (e.g. 2N2220). By looking up this

number in the manual, you can determine if the transistor is Silicon or
Germanium, NPN or PNP and what the ratings and lead arrangements
are.
If there is no information available, it may be necessary to make a
simple test circuit. An NPN transistor will not conduct properly if its
Emitter is positive. Similarly, a PNP transistor will not conduct if its
Emitter is negative. There are modular transistor testers available
which can perform these tests quickly.
The Digital MultiMate set on its diode test function can also identify the
leads of a BJT, tell you if it made of silicon or germanium, and tell you if
the transistor is damaged.
Fig. 2-10. Typical Transistor Packages
6 TRANSISTOR CIRCUITS
Fig. 2-11 shows a typical application of the transistor as a DC Switch:
Lesson 2 Page 9
R
C
LED
150 Ω
S
NPN
1500 Ω
R
B
5 VDC
Fig. 2-11. Transistor Switch
If switch ‘S’ is open, the Base-Emitter junction of the NPN transistor is

not forward biased. So the transistor is Cutoff and the LED will not
light. The transistor is an open switch.
When ‘S’ closes, the B-E junction is now forward biased, so the
transistor switches on. In fact it Saturates, because of the values of RB
and RC. So the Collector current is large and the volt drop VCE is very
small. The transistor is now a closed switch.
The instructor will now demonstrate the operation of this circuit using
the “Lab-Volt” electronic training equipment.
The other main use of BJT transistors is as AC signal amplifiers.
Basically, an AC signal is superimposed on the transistor’s DC Biasing
arrangement. The AC signal’s current (or voltage or both) is then
amplified by the transistor. There are three configurations which can
be used:
1. Common Base
2. Common Emitter
3. Common Collector
Common Emitter and Common Collector are commonly used in power
electronics. We will only study these two.
6.1 COMMON EMITTER CONFIGURATION
Refer to Fig. 2-12 on the next page. The Emitter (negative rail) is
common to both input and output. The input signal is supplied to the
Base and the output signal is taken from the Collector. The two
capacitors block the DC Biasing currents from flowing outside the
transistor circuit.
Main features of the Common Emitter circuit are:
1. Moderate Input Resistance (0.5 - 3 kΩ) and Moderate Output
Resistance (10 - 50 kΩ).
2. Current Gain = Change of IC = β, which is large.

Change of IB
3. As the amplified output current flows through RC, which is larger

than the input resistance there is also a good Voltage Gain.
Lesson 2 Page 10
4. Vout is 180 degrees out of phase with Vin.
RB R
C
I i
C out
I
V i in B
CC NPN
C V
out out
V
in
~
C
in
I
E
~~
Fig. 2-12. Common Emitter Circuit
The DC biasing shown (via RB) is fixed bias. Other circuits use voltage
divider bias and an emitter resistor for stability.
The Common Emitter circuit is an excellent AC Power Amplifier (its
main use) because it amplifies both current and voltage. It is also used
as a DC switch in logic circuits, because a small base current can
switch a large collector current.
6.2 COMMON COLLECTOR CONFIGURATION
RB I
C
I
i in B
NPN
i
out
VCC C
in
V C out
in V
~ RE out
I
E
~
Fig. 2-13. Common Collector Circuit
Refer to Fig. 2-13. Although this circuit seems very like the Common
Emitter, in fact it is the Collector which is common to both input and
output. The input signal is supplied to the Base and the output signal is
taken from the Emitter.
Main features of the Common Collector circuit are:
1. High Input Resistance (50 kΩ - 1 MΩ) and Low Output Resistance

(50 - 100 Ω).
2. Current Gain = Change of IE = β, which is large.

Change of IB
Lesson 2 Page 11
3. Due to low output resistance and high input resistance, the current
gain does not produce any voltage amplification, so the Voltage Gain =
1.0.
4. Vout is in-phase with Vin. (There is no phase shift).
The Common Collector circuit is not a good amplifier, but is useful for
Impedance Matching between a high impedance signal source (such
as a Common Emitter Amplifier) and a low impedance load. It is widely
used in DC voltage regulators because it stops the output voltage from
the Common Emitter amplifier from reducing as the load current
increases.
The output voltage from a Common Collector circuit almost exactly
copies (follows) the input signal to the Base very closely. This is why it
is often called an Emitter Follower.
In both of the transistor circuit configurations above an NPN transistor
was used. It is just as easy to construct the circuits using a PNP
transistor. All that needs to be done is to reverse the polarities of the
DC Bias supplies.
In this lesson it has only been possible to provide an overview of the
basic semiconductor devices. There are other important devices,
some of which are discussed later in this Module. Other devices are
not covered at all, as time does not allow it.
Lesson 2 Page 12
Uninterrupted Power Supply Uncontrolled Rectifiers
LESSON
3 UNCONTROLLED RECTIFIERS
LECTURE
Objectives
At the end of this Lesson, the Trainee will be able to explain what
a DC essential supply system is and how it works; draw the
circuits and explain the operation of all common uncontrolled
rectifiers; examine rectifier input and output waveforms with an
oscilloscope.
1 DC ESSENTIAL SUPPLIES
It should be well known that there are many important instruments,

controls and protection devices in any plant which must have a
reliable, secure supply of electricity. Some typical examples are the
tripping and closing coils of circuit breakers and the protection relays
which operate these in emergency situations. These are essential
loads.
Such equipment, where a loss of power is not acceptable, is supplied
with DC current from batteries and chargers (rectifiers). Normally the
chargers supply the essential equipment (the DC load) and also
charge up the batteries. This arrangement is called an essential
supply.
If the DC output power from the chargers is lost (due to AC mains
failure or a fault in the charger) the batteries supply the load without
any interruption of DC supply. The batteries can only provide DC
power for a limited time - usually 1 to 6 hours - determined by their
Ampere-Hour Capacity and the current drawn by the DC load. During
this period arrangements can be made to restore DC power from the
charger.
DC BUSBAR 1 LO AD 1
-
+
AC MAINS 1
~ BATTER Y 1
--- -
RECTIFIER/CHARGER 1
BUS COUPLER
+
AC MAINS 2
~ BATTER Y 2
--- -
+
RECTIFIER/CHARGER 2
- LO AD 2
DC BUSBAR 2
Fig.3- 1. Dual-Redundant DC Power Supply
Lesson 3 Page 1
Fig.3--1 shows a common DC supply system. It is called Dual

Redundant because either of the two power lines can be lost without
affecting the loads. Each battery bank has the capacity to supply all
DC loads. Besides providing secure DC supplies during emergencies,
this scheme also allows one DC supply line to be taken out for
maintenance without shutting the DC system down.
There are two blocking diodes to prevent a healthy DC supply
backfeeding into a faulty one. The bus coupler (usually a circuit
breaker) is normally closed, but can be opened for maintenance of
either busbar.
Further flexibility can be obtained by providing facilities for switching
each load to either busbar.
There are two classes of rectifier which can be used in DC systems:
1. Controlled Rectifiers, which use Silicon Controlled Rectifiers
(SCRs) as the rectifying element.
2. Uncontrolled Rectifiers, which use Diodes as the rectifying element.
In this lesson we will examine the Uncontrolled Rectifier. The trainee
should already be familiar with basic rectifier circuits, but they are
reviewed here in order to lead on to filters and controlled rectifiers.
2 HALF WAVE RECTIFIER
A Half Wave Rectifier is basically one diode supplied by a transformer

(Fig.3--2).
D
I
LOAD
Ein (AC) Eout
(DC)
TX
Fig.3- 2. Half Wave Rectifier Circuit
The transformer (TX) steps the AC voltage down to the level needed
by the DC load and isolates the DC circuit from the AC supply.
The diode only conducts for positive half cycles of the mains AC, when
it is forward biased (top of circuit is positive). When the mains AC is
negative the diode is reverse biased, so no current can flow. So this
circuit only allows the positive half cycles to pass to the load.
+E E -E E
peak peak
E ave
t t
HALF WAVE RECTIFIED

-E -E
SINUSOIDAL A.C. PULSATING D.C.
Fig.3-3. Waveforms
Lesson 3 Page 2
Eout and I are half wave pulsating DC as shown in Fig.3--3. The

Average Value of Eout is given by:
Eave = Epeak ≈ 0.318 x Epeak

π
Eave is the effective DC voltage produced by the rectifier - the voltage

measured by a DC voltmeter. The Half Wave Rectifier is therefore not
a very useful circuit, as Eave is less than a third of the peak value.
During negative half cycles of the AC input, when it is not conducting,
the diode can have full peak AC voltage across it. So its PRV (Peak
Reverse Voltage Rating) must be higher than Epeak.
The peak value of the pulsating DC output voltage is smaller than that
of the AC input because of the Forward Drop (VF) across the diode.
Usually this difference (0.7 V for a silicon diode) is negligible, but has a
large effect in low voltage (small power) rectifiers.
3 FULL WAVE RECTIFIERS
3.1 CENTRE-TAP TRANSFORMER RECTIFIER
Refer to Fig.3-4:
D1
LOAD
E (AC)
in
E
out
TX
D2
Fig.3- 4. Centre-Tap Rectifier Circuit
The transformer is now centre-tapped and there are two diodes.

When the mains AC voltage is positive, D1 is Forward Biased and
conducts current to the Load. D2 is Reverse Biased and does not
conduct.
When the mains AC voltage is negative, D1 is Reverse Biased and
does not conduct. D2 is Forward Biased and conducts current.
Current flows in the same direction through the load all the time. out is
therefore Full Wave pulsating DC as shown in Fig.3- 5
:
Lesson 3 Page 3
+E +E AVERAGE VALUE
in out
t t
FULL WAVE RECTIFIED

-Ein SINUSOIDAL A.C. -E
out PULSATING D.C.
Fig.3- 5. Waveforms
The Average Value of Eout is given by:
Eave = 2 x Epeak_ ≈ 0.636 x Epeak

π
Because Eave is twice as large, this is a better rectifier circuit than the
Half Wave type. However, it has two disadvantages:
1. A centre-tap transformer is needed but only one of the two windings
is used at any time. This is wasteful.
2. The two diodes must have a PRV rating of twice the peak DC
output voltage, because the whole transformer secondary voltage is
applied across them in reverse bias.
So this circuit is not efficient in terms of materials needed.
3.2 BRIDGE RECTIFIER
Refer to Fig.3--6 on the next page.The transformer is not centre-

tapped and there are now four diodes.
When the transformer AC supply is positive, D1 and D2 are Forward
Biased, allowing current through the Load. D3 and D4 are Reverse
Biased and do not conduct. When the transformer AC supply is
negative, D1 and D2 are Reverse Biased and do not conduct. D3 and
D4 are Forward Biased, allowing current through the Load.
D1
D4
LOAD
E (AC)
in E
OUT
TX D3
D2
Fig.3- 6. Bridge Rectifier Circuit
Lesson 3 Page 4
Pulsating DC current flows the same way through the load all the time.
So we have a Full Wave Rectifier again.
This is the best rectifier circuit, as it produces the same Average DC
output voltage as the Centre-Tap circuit, but uses a single-winding
transformer. Also, the PRV of the four diodes does not have to be
twice the DC peak output voltage.
The circuit can be re-drawn as in Fig.3-7:
D1 D3
E E LOAD
in OUT
(AC)
D2 D4
TX
Fig.3- 7. Bridge Rectifier Circuit
The trainee should be able to verify this is the same circuit as that in
Fig.3- 6. It has simply been re-drawn to clearly show the output
terminals at the right hand side.
4 THREE PHASE BRIDGE RECTIFIER
4.1 RECTIFIER CIRCUIT
Three phase rectifiers can deliver more power than single phase units
and produce a much smoother DC output, because the output voltage
is the average of three full-wave waveforms of pulsating DC.
So for DC systems with large loads, three phase bridge rectifiers are
commonly used. Fig.3-8 shows a typical three phase rectifier:
Fig.3- 8. Three-Phase Bridge Rectifier
Lesson 3 Page 5
The fuses in series with the diodes prevent damage to the circuit if a
diode breaks down (becomes a short circuit) due to excessive reverse
bias voltage. They can also protect the diodes from excess current
caused by overloads or faults.
Three voltages are applied in parallel across the Load by the AC input
transformer - EAB, EBC and ECA. Due to the rectifying action of the
diodes, these three voltages are full wave rectified pulsating DC at the
load. The trainee should confirm that:
1. Positive half cycles of EAB are rectified by diodes D1A and D2B,
while negative half cycles are rectified by diodes D1B and D2A.
2. Positive half cycles of EBC are rectified by diodes D1B and D2C,
while negative half cycles are rectified by diodes D1C and D2B.
3. Positive half cycles of ECA are rectified by diodes D1C and D2A,
while negative half cycles are rectified by diodes D1A and D2C.
Fig.3--9 shows the waveforms of these three pulsating DC voltages:
EAB EBC ECA

Epeak
+ VOLTS
TIME
Fig.3- 9. Pulsating DC Waveforms
Fig.3--10 shows the resulting output voltage waveform across the load,
which is always the largest of the three instantaneous voltages:
Epeak
Emin
IF
TIME
Fig.3- 10. Waveform of Eout
Lesson 3 Page 6
The Minimum Value of Eout is 0.866 x Peak Value. The Average

Value is 0.94 x Peak Value. So the three-phase bridge rectifier
produces a very good DC output voltage with very little ripple.
4.2 PRV AND RIPPLE
The PRV rating required by the six diodes is equal to the full phase-to-
phase, peak value of the AC input, which equals the peak DC output
voltage.
Although the DC output voltage from the three-phase rectifier is much
better than those from single phase rectifiers, it still contains ripple. So
the waveform can be regarded as having two components:
1. Eave - a constant (smooth) DC voltage.
2. Eripple - a ripple waveform which can be approximated to a
sawtooth. This is superimposed on the steady DC component.
Example:
Calculate the % ripple and ripple frequency in the output voltage from a
three phase rectifier where the AC supply frequency is 50 Hz..
Answer:
Eripple = Epeak - Emin = Epeak -

0.866 x Epeak
Eripple = Epeak(1 - 0.866) = 0.134 x Epeak
% Ripple = Eripple x 100 = 0.134 x Epeak

x 100
Eave 0.94 x Epeak
% Ripple = 0.134 x 100 = 14%

0.94
Ripple Frequency is six times the AC supply frequency, as there are

six output ripples for each cycle of AC supply.
Ripple Frequency = 6 x 50 = 300 Hz
5 PRACTICAL EXERCISE - RECTIFIER WAVEFORMS
5.1 OBJECTIVES
1. To use Experiment Board No. 1 to construct the following circuits:

HALF WAVE RECTIFIER
FULL WAVE BRIDGE RECTIFIER
2. To examine the circuit output voltage waveform.
5.2 GENERAL PRECAUTIONS
Never touch any circuit components or connections unless the circuit is

isolated from electrical supply.
Lesson 3 Page 7
5.3 SPECIAL PRECAUTIONS WHEN USING AN

OSCILLOSCOPE
1. Always ZERO the channel traces before connecting the probes to a

circuit.
2. Measure voltages in DC circuits using the DC display function.
3. Always check the vertical and horizontal gain controls are set to
calibrate when measuring voltages or time periods.
4. When using both input channels, always connect the 2 probe
ground connections at the same place - otherwise part of the circuit
being tested will be shorted out through the CRO.
5.4 EQUIPMENT
1. Experiment Board No. 1.

2. 120 V AC mains supply.
3. Miniature test leads.
4. Oscilloscope.
5.5 PROCEDURE
5.6 Half Wave Rectifier
1. Using CR2 on Experiment Board 1, construct a Half Wave Rectifier.

2. Display the input and output voltage waveforms on the oscilloscope
and measure their peak values and their periods.
3. Calculate the average value of the output voltage waveform and its
frequency.
4. Use the AC setting of your oscilloscope to measure the average
value of the output voltage directly. Then measure the output voltage
with a digital multimeter.
5. Use your oscilloscope to measure the peak reverse voltage across
the diode.
6. Complete the Results Table and Conclusions section.
5.6 Bridge Rectifier
Construct a Bridge Rectifier and repeat steps 1 to 6.
Lesson 3 Page 8
5.6 RESULTS TABLE
RECTIFIER CRO MEASUREMENTS DIGIT

AL
CIRCUIT METE
AC DC OUTPUT VOLTAGE DIO R
DE RDG
INPUT Epeak CALC. CRO PERIOD FREQ. PRV OUTP
Epeak Eave Eave UTVO
LTS
HALF WAVE 55 V 52 V 16.5 V 16.5 V 16.6 mS 60 Hz 55 V 16.5 V
FULL WAVE 55 V 52 V 33 V 33 V 8.3 mS 120 Hz 55 V 33 V
5.6 CONCLUSIONS
1. Is the output frequency of the Full Wave circuit different to that of

the Half Wave circuit? If so, explain why.
Answer: YES. BECAUSE THE FULL WAVE CIRCUIT
PRODUCES 2
OUTPUT PULSES FOR EVERY CYCLE OF INPUT AC. SO ITS
OUTPUT FREQUENCY IS DOUBLE THAT OF THE HALF WAVE
RECTIFIER.
2. Is the average output voltage of the Full Wave circuit different to
that of the Half Wave circuit? If so, explain why.
Answer: YES. BECAUSE THE FULL WAVE CIRCUIT
PRODUCES
TWICE AS MANY OUTPUT PULSES AS THE HALF WAVE, ITS
AVERAGE OUTPUT VOLTAGE IS TWICE AS LARGE.
3. Do your calculated values of average output voltage agree with
those measured directly on the oscilloscope and the digital voltmeter
readings? If so, explain why.
Answer: YES. THE OSCILLOSCOPE SET TO AC WILL SHOW
THE
AVERAGE VALUE OF VOLTAGE. THE DC VOLTMETER ONLY
RESPONDS TO AVERAGE VOLTAGE. SO ALL THREE VALUES
SHOULD BE THE SAME.
4. What minimum PRV rating should the diode have:
(A) For the Half Wave Rectifier? Answer: 55 V
(B) For the Bridge Rectifier? Answer: 55 V
Lesson 3 Page 9
1. Practical Work:
Correct Construction - 2 x 5 points = 10 points
of two Circuits
Correct use of 2-channel - = 10 points
CRO and multimeter
2. Results Table:
16 correct results - 16 x 3 points = 48 points
3. Conclusions:
Lesson 3 Page 10
Uninterrupted Power Supply Dc Filters
LESSON
4 DC FILTERS
LECTURE
Objectives
At the end of this Lesson, the Trainee will be able to identify the
common DC filter circuits and explain how a capacitor and
inductor operate as filters.
1 SHUNT CAPACITOR FILTER
A capacitor can store charge. So if a capacitor is placed as a shunt

across the load in a Rectifier circuit, it will do two things:
1. Charge up when positive pulses of rectified current are supplied by
the rectifier.
2. Discharge through the load when the rectifier is not conducting.
So a shunt capacitor smoothes the ripple (pulses) and raises the
average voltage of the rectifier output, giving a much smoother
(filtered) DC output.
1.1 FILTER ACTION
Fig. 4-1 shows the current flow for a half wave rectifier with a shunt
capacitor filter during conduction of the rectifying diode. There are two
currents, one to supply the load and one to charge up the capacitor.
D
+ IL
IC
E (AC) SHUNT
LOAD
i Eout
n CAPACITOR
TX
Fig. 4-1. Shunt Capacitor being Charged
Fig. 4-2 on the next page shows the current flow for the same circuit
during blocking by the rectifying diode. Now there is no supply from
the transformer, but the shunt capacitor discharges through the load,
maintaining its voltage and current:
Lesson 4 Page 1
D IC
+
IC
E (AC) E
LOAD
in SHUNT
out
CAPACITOR
TX
-
Fig. 4-2. Capacitor Discharging through the Load
1.2 WAVEFORM AND RIPPLE
Refer to Fig. 4-3 to see the effect of shunt capacitance on the load:
+Ein +Eout CAPACITOR CAPACITOR

CHARGE DISCHARGE
t t
-E -E FILTERED D.C.
in SINUSOIDAL A.C. out
Fig. 4-3. Effect of Capacitor on the Load
So the shunt capacitor has smoothed the pulsating DC waveform. The

larger the capacitance used, the better the smoothing. So a large
capacitor will provide perfectly smooth DC. Because large capacitors
are needed for filtering and the rectifier output is never negative,
electrolytic capacitors are usually used in filter circuits.
The capacitor filter has converted pulsating DC voltage to filtered DC,
which contains some ripple (refer to Lesson 1 - Three Phase Bridge
Rectifier). Normally a ripple factor of 10% is acceptable. If less ripple
is desired, a larger electrolytic capacitor must be used. So we need to
be able to calculate the required capacitance:
Peak-to-Peak value of the ripple waveform = Eripple
Eripple = Epeak - Emin and Eripple =

2(Epeak - Eave)
Eave = Average Value of Output Voltage (DC value)
% Ripple = Eripple x 100 = (Epeak - Emin)

x 100
Eave Eave
Lesson 4 Page 2
It can also be shown that:
Eripple = _I_ where I is the DC Load Current, f is

the ripple
fxC frequency and C is the filter capacitance.
So: % Ripple = ____I x 100

f x C x Eave
Example:
A Bridge Rectifier, supplied with 60 Hz AC, and capacitor filter must

supply an average DC voltage of 17.8 V to a resistive load of 1.78 kΩ
with a maximum ripple of 1%. Calculate:
(A)Peak-to-Peak value of the ripple voltage.
(B)The value of filter capacitor required.
Answer:
(A)% Ripple = Eripple x 100
Eave
Eripple = % Ripple x Eave

100
Eripple = 1 x 17.8 = 0.178 V

100
(B)I = Eave = __17.8___ = 10 x 10-3 A

Rload 1.78 x 103
Since the rectifier is a Full Wave Bridge, the ripple frequency is double
the AC supply frequency:
f = 2 x 60 = 120 Hz
Eripple = _I_
fxC
C = ___I___ = _10 x 10-3_ = 0.47 x 10-3 F

f x Eripple 120 x 0.178
C= 470 µF
2 PRV RATINGS
The filter capacitor can have a large effect on the PRV ratings of the
rectifying diodes, because it keeps the cathodes positive when the AC
supply is in its negative half cycle.
Lesson 4 Page 3
2.1 FILTERED HALF-WAVE RECTIFIER
Refer to the circuit in Fig. 4-4:
PRV
- Epeak +E
peak
Fig. 4-4. Effect of Filter on PRV
Without the filter capacitor, the PRV of the diode needs only to be
greater than Epeak to avoid damage during negative half cycles of the
AC supply.
But with a filter capacitor, an extra voltage (+Epeak) is applied to the
cathode of the diode. So:
PRV = 2 x Epeak
So the diode must have a PRV at least equal to two times the peak AC
supply voltage.
2.2 FILTERED FULL-WAVE RECTIFIERS
The trainee should be able to prove that both the Bridge and Centre-
Tap full wave rectifiers are unaffected by the filter capacitor, since the
capacitor acts in parallel with the negative half cycle of AC supply.
Remember that in the Centre-Tap Rectifier the PRV required is at least
equal to two times the peak output DC voltage. This is the same as
one times the peak input AC voltage, because of the transformer
centre tap.
For the Bridge Rectifier, the PRV ratings, peak input AC voltage and
peak output DC voltage are all the same.
2.3 PRACTICAL DEMONSTRATION
The instructor will demonstrate the effect of a shunt capacitor filter on a

Bridge Rectifier using Experiment Board 1 and an oscilloscope.
3 OTHER TYPES OF FILTER
3.1 SERIES INDUCTOR FILTER
An inductor stores energy in its magnetic field. When the current

flowing through the inductor changes, this stored energy is released
Lesson 4 Page 4
and tries to keep the current constant. A series inductor can therefore
be used as a filter, as in Fig. 4-5.
D I
+ L
SERIES
INDUCTOR
E (AC) LOAD
in E
out
TX -
Fig. 4-5. Series Inductor Filter
Unlike the shunt capacitor, which basically works upon the output
voltage, helping to raise its average value, the series inductor works
upon the output current, trying to keep it constant at its average value.
This filter does nothing to improve the average DC output voltage from
the rectifier. But it can smooth out the waveform and can compensate
for large changes in load current, which would severely reduce the
average output voltage from a shunt capacitor filter.
Fig. 4-6 shows the effect of a series inductor filter on the rectifier
output:
+E AVERAG +E AVERAG
t t
BRIDGE INDUCTIVE
OUTPUT TO OUTPUT TO
Fig. 4-6. Inductive Filter Waveforms
3.2 PI FILTER
The shunt capacitor is excellent for smoothing and raising the average
value of the output voltage from a rectifier, but can be ineffective for
control of large, rapidly changing output currents.
The series inductor is excellent for smoothing large currents, but does
not raise the average DC voltage. So these two devices are often used
together in a PI (π) Filter. A PI Filter is shown connected to the output
of a Half Wave Rectifier in Fig. 7-2-7 on the next page.
The first capacitor filters and raises the average DC output voltage.
The inductor filters again and provides control of large changing
currents. The second capacitor provides the final stage of filtering.
Lesson 4 Page 5
D + IL
LOAD
E (AC) E
in out
TX -
Fig. 4-7. PI Filter
Often only one capacitor is needed. In this case the circuit is called an
L-Filter because of its shape.
Lesson 4 Page 6
UNINTERRUPTED POWER SUPPLY VOLTAGE REGULATORS
LESSON
5 VOLTAGE REGULATORS
LECTURE
Objectives
At the end of this Lesson, the Trainee will be able to identify the
common voltage regulator circuits and describe how they work.
1 ZENER SERIES REGULATOR
When the output voltage from an uncontrolled rectifier is applied to a

load, it will decrease
as the load current increases and increase as the load current
decreases. This is because of changes in the circuit losses
+ Vcc
Is (input voltage)
IL
Rs
IB
Iz
VZ VBE
E
RL out
Fig. 5-1. Zener Follower Circuit
Therefore Q conducts for shorter periods and Eou

Also, fluctuations in the AC supply voltage will affect the DC output
voltage from the rectifier, as will ripple. So we need a voltage regulator
to maintain constant DC voltage.
The simple Zener Diode Voltage Regulator described in Common
Module 6 is not suitable for regulating large DC power supplies. But it
can be adapted.
1.1 ZENER FOLLOWER
Refer to Fig. 5-1. This circuit is called a Zener Follower because it

uses an Emitter Follower transistor configuration with a Zener Diode.
The basic important equations are:
Lesson 5 Page 1
Eout = VZ - VBE and IB =

IL
β
. (β is the current gain of the transistor amplifier)
The advantage of this circuit over the simple Zener Diode Regulator is
that a small Base current controls a large load current. Since the Base
current is set by the Zener diode, a low power Zener can control large
load currents. Without the transistor, the Zener diode would need to
handle very large currents directly. This entails very high power rating
and large heat sinks.
Example 1:
VCC = 20 V, VZ = 10 V, β = 80,
RS = 680 Ω, RL = 15 Ω. Find IZ.
Answer:
IS = ( VCC - VZ) = (20 - 10) = 0.0147 A
RS 680
Eout = (VZ - VBE) = (10 - 0.7) = 9.3 V
IL = Eout = 9.3 = 0.62 A
RL 15
IB = IL = O.62 = 0.00775 A (7.75 mA)
β 80
IZ = (IS - IB ) = (14.7 - 7.75) =6.95 mA
So a fairly low power Zener diode (drawing 7 mA) can regulate the
voltage in a load circuit with nearly 100 times as much current flowing
(620 mA).
Example 2:
Re-calculate IZ if VZ = 15 V and RS = 330 Ω.
Answer:
IS = ( VCC - VZ) = (20 - 15) = 0.01515 A
RS 330
Eout = (VZ - VBE) = (15 - 0.7) = 14.3 V
IL = Eout = 14.3 = 0.95 A
RL 15
IB = IL = O.95 = 0.01187 A (11.87 mA)
β 80
IZ = (IS - IB ) = (15.15 - 11.87) =3.28 mA
Note that to obtain a higher output voltage we have to use a larger VZ.
This means using a smaller RS, otherwise there will not be enough
Base current to turn on the transistor.
Lesson 5 Page 2
1.2 NEGATIVE FEEDBACK
+
Q2
R R3
s R1
V E
cc Q1 RL out
(input
voltage)
R2
VF
VZ
Fig. 5-2. Voltage Feedback Regulator Circuit
The circuit in Fig. 5-2 is a refinement of the Zener Follower using an

extra transistor to provide a Negative Voltage Feedback Signal.
Negative Feedback is commonly used in electronics and
instrumentation as a means of fixing the output by controlling the input.
Although it may not be obvious, this is the same circuit as FIG. 5-1 with
some simple additions:
Between Q2 and the Zener diode an extra transistor has been placed.
This is the Feedback Transistor (Q1). Q1 has a collector resistance
R3, and receives its feedback bias (VF) from adjustable voltage divider
R1 and R2.
All load current passes through Q2, the Emitter Follower transistor. Q1
is a Common Emitter transistor whose biasing is set by the feedback
voltage. The larger VF is, the more collector current flows through Q1
and the Zener diode. So as Eout rises, so does VF and the current
through Q1 via R3. This diverts some current away from the Base of
Q2, so the load current and Eout will reduce. If Eout reduces the
reverse happens and Eout will be forced to rise back to its original
level.
This circuit therefore uses negative feedback to automatically
compensate for both load and supply voltage changes. The desired
level of output voltage is set by the potentiometer section of voltage
divider R1 and R2.
1.3 CURRENT LIMITING
The series voltage regulator has one major defect. If the output
terminals are short circuited (or overloaded) the pass transistor (Q2)
will be destroyed by excessive heat caused by the very large load
current .
Lesson 5 Page 3
The solution is to provide an extra transistor Q3, biased by a sensing

resistor R4. Refer to Fig. 5-3 on the next page, which only shows the
new components affecting Q2. The rest of the circuit is unchanged.
Q2
FROM R4 TO LOAD
SUPPLY R
3
Q3
Fig. 5-3. Regulator with Current Limiting
Assume that R4 is 1 Ω. As long as the load current is below 600 mA,

the volt drop across R4 will be less than 600 mV. So Q3 cannot turn
on and the circuit operates normally.
However, if the load current exceeds 600 mA, the volt drop across R4
will be greater than 0.6 V and Q3 will turn on. Therefore Q3 will draw
bias current away from the base of Q2, which will reduce the amount of
load current flowing. So the output from the regulator is automatically
reduced to a safe level.
If R4 was changed to a 0.1 Ω resistor, current limiting would occur at
load currents above 6 A.
2 ZENER SHUNT REGULATOR
The Zener voltage regulators discussed so far are often called series
regulators because the pass transistor is in series with the load. The
main problem with this design is that the pass transistor must conduct
all of the DC load current all of the time, leading to large heat
generation and large heat sinks and fan cooling.
An alternative arrangement for large load currents is the Shunt
Regulator. A simple shunt regulator circuit is shown in Fig. 5-4:
+ Is IL
R
s
IC
VZ
V E
RL out
cc
Q
I
z
V
BE
Fig. 5-4. Simple Shunt Regulator
Lesson 5 Page 4
The bias voltage for the shunt transistor is held constant by the Zener
diode. If the input voltage rises, more current flows through the Zener.
So the shunt transistor has a larger base current and therefore a larger
collector current. The result is that the shunt transistor diverts excess
current and the load current and load voltage stay constant.
If the input voltage reduces, the procedure reverses. If the load itself
changes so IL varies, the currents through the Zener and transistor
also vary and VCC and Eout are kept constant.
As the voltages across the Zener, transistor and load are constant,
series resistor RS absorbs the fluctuations of VCC and is short circuit
protection.
Although the Shunt Regulator is more suitable than the Series
Regulator for large load currents, it is does not have such good
regulation. For large power DC systems the Switching Regulator is
better than either of the Zener regulators.
3 SWITCHING REGULATOR
3.1 BASIC OPERATION
Fig. 5-5 shows a simplified circuit of a Switching Regulator:
Q L
E in D C E out
LOAD
PULSE VF
GENERATOR
Fig. 5-5. Switching Regulator Circuit
The pass transistor (Q) does not conduct all the time - it acts as a fast
acting DC switch, biased by the pulse train coming from the Pulse
Generator. Q is not continuously conducting, so does not get too hot .
The output from Q is also a pulse train, but is much bigger than that
supplied to the base of Q. A typical pulse train frequency is 20 kHz.
The pulse train is then fed to an LC filter where it is smoothed by the
inductor (L) and AC ripple shunted away by the capacitor (C).
Because the pulse frequency is so high, a small inductor can be used
and a high reactance (good smoothing) achieved. For the same
reason, a small capacitor can be used and a low reactance (good
shunting of ripple) achieved.
Lesson 5 Page 5
Part of the smooth DC output voltage (Eout) from the regulator is fed
back as the input signal (VF) to the pulse generator. This is called
negative feedback, since if Eout rises, the output pulses from the pulse
generator become narrower. t will reduce. The reverse happens if
Eout falls.
The diode (D) is a Freewheeling Diode. When the DC supply to any
inductor is cut off, its magnetic field tries to maintain constant current
by generating a back-emf (inductive kickback). Without the diode to
discharge through, the inductor would force current to flow through Q.
The large inductive voltage would damage the transistor.
3.2 PULSE GENERATOR
Refer to Fig. 5-6. This shows a typical simplified circuit.
E
out
TO LC FILTER R1
COMPARATOR
TO (Q) VF
+
-
PULSE CONVERTER
- E R2
ref
+
R3 .
R5
C2 R4
-
- +
+ C3
INTEGRATOR
. R6 .
OSCILLATOR R7
Fig. 5-6. Pulse Generator Circuit
The oscillator produces a square wave whose frequency is set by R5

and C3. The integrator converts this square wave to a triangular wave.
This signal is supplied to the pulse converter’s non-inverting input.
Meanwhile, a feedback voltage (VF) is derived from Eout by the
voltage divider R1 and R2. VF is taken to the comparator. Here it is
compared with a reference voltage (Eref) which is usually taken from a
Zener diode.
The difference between VF and Eref is the error, which can be positive
or negative. This is applied to the inverting input of the pulse
converter, which converts the triangular waveform to a pulse train.
Control of the width of the pulses is done by the error input to the
Comparator.
If Eout rises:
The comparator produces a larger positive output voltage. This error
signal is inverted in the pulse converter and reduces the width of the
output pulses. So Q conducts for less time and Eout is reduced back
Lesson 5 Page 6
to normal. If Eout decreases, the procedure reverses to raise it back to

normal.
Example:
R1 = 3 kΩ, R2 = 1 kΩ, Eref = 1.25 VDC. What should Eout be?
Answer:
Current in R1 and R2 = Eref = __Eout __
R2 (R1 + R2)
Eout = Eref (R1 + R2) = 1.25 x (3 + 1) x 103
R2 1 x 103
Eout = 5 VDC
The output voltage will be constant 5 VDC as long as Eref is 1.25 VDC.
4 OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER
The Operational Amplifier (Op-Amp) is an Integrated Circuit (IC). This

is a complete electronic circuit (resistors, diodes and transistors)
manufactured on one small silicon chip.
The Op-Amp is much smaller and cheaper than a circuit assembled
from individual components. It gets its name from the many different
electronic operations it can do (amplifier, oscillator, waveshaper and
voltage regulator to name only a few).
4.1 BASIC 741C OP-AMP
Refer to Fig. 5-7:
TOP
14 13 12 11 10 9 8
SIDE
8 7 6 5
741
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 PIN
IC OP-
Fig. 5-7. 741C Package
The Op-Amp has 8 pins (terminals) arranged in two parallel rows of 4.

So its package is called 8/DIL (8 pin, dual-in-line). In the example
shown, the chip is installed in a 14-pin IC socket.
The pins (terminals) are numbered in a specific sequence - 1 to 8 from
the bottom left hand side. The type number 741C tells you this is an
industry-standard, general purpose Op-Amp. There are also many
special-application Op-Amps. Each type has a different type number.
Lesson 5 Page 7
Some may be of 14/DIL construction and others may have TO

(transistor-type) packages.
The circuit symbol for an Op-Amp is shown in Fig. 5-8:
2 -
6
3 +
4
1 5
Fig. 5-8. OP-AMP Symbol
The three terminals of major interest are 2, 3 and 6:

- Terminal 2 is the Inverting Input.
- Terminal 3 is the Non-Inverting Input.
- Terminal 6 is the Output.
The Inverting Input converts a positive signal to negative and vice-
versa. The Non-Inverting Input does not change the signal polarity.
The amplifier’s output is proportional to the Error (Differential) Input -
the difference between the Inverting and Non-Inverting Inputs.
Terminal 8 is not used. The other four terminals are needed to power
and balance the Op-Amp:
- Terminals 1 and 5 are for the DC Offset Voltage.
- Terminal 7 is the Power Supply Positive.
- Terminal 4 is the Power Supply Negative.
Terminals 1 and 5 are supplied from the power supply via an external
potentiometer. The purpose is to compensate for DC offset (+ or -)
voltage at the output when there is no input signal. This DC offset is
caused by slight differences between the transistors in the Op-Amp.
The Op-Amp Ground-Line for input and output signals is internally fixed
at half the DC power supply voltage across terminals 7 and 4. So if a
normal 2-terminal power supply is used it must not be grounded, as
part of the Op-Amp circuitry will be shorted out. If a dual power supply
is used, the Common (centre) terminal may be grounded and
connected to the Op-Amp Ground-Line.
The Open-Loop Gain (AOL) of an Op-Amp is given by:
AOL = ______Output Voltage (at terminal 6)______
Error Input Voltage (between terminals 2 &3)
As the Error Input Voltage is the difference between the Inverting and
Non-Inverting Inputs, AOL is also called the Differential Gain.
Typically, this is approximately 100,000 for a 741C Op-Amp.
Lesson 5 Page 8
The Input Impedance of a 741C is high (approximately 2 MΩ) and the

Output Impedance is low (approximately 50 Ω). So the Op-Amp is an
excellent substitute for the Common-Collector transistor circuit
discussed in Common Module 6. Its high Gain also makes it an
excellent substitute for the Common-Emitter transistor amplifier circuit.
So the Op-Amp is a very versatile device. Its only problem is the Gain
is too high for safe operation. This is corrected by using Negative
Feedback.
4.2 NEGATIVE FEEDBACK
The circuit in Fig. 5-9 is a Non-Inverting Amplifier. Its main function is

to amplify DC or AC input signals. But its high input resistance and low
output resistance mean it can also act as a voltage regulator, with the
input and output voltages being unaffected by large changes of load
current.
The output voltage only depends on the Closed-Loop Gain and the
input voltage. The circuit does not compensate for changes of input
voltage, so should be supplied through a Series Regulator.
+
+ +
V
er -
R1
V
in V R load
ou
Vf R2
Fig. 5-9. Feedback Circuit
Vin = Input Volts, Vout = Output Volts, Vf = Feedback Volts, Verr =

Error Volts.
Vf = __R2__ x Vout
R1 + R2
Verr = Vin - Vf
The Closed-Loop Gain (ACL) is given by:

ACL = Vout
Vin
So: ACL = __Vout__

Verr + Vf
Lesson 5 Page 9
Since Verr is 100,000 times smaller than Vout it can be ignored:
ACL = Vout = Vf(R1 + R2)

Vf Vf x R2
ACL = (R1 + R2) = 1 + R1

R2 R2
So, with Negative Feedback, the Gain of this circuit is no longer

100,000 but is always greater than one. The feedback also increases
the input impedance to almost infinity and reduces the the output
impedance to almost zero.
Example 1:
R1 = 1 kΩ, R2 = 1 kΩ, Vin = +2 VDC. Calculate:
ACL, Vout, Vf and Verr.
Answer:
ACL = 1 + R1 = 1 + 1 kΩ = 2.0
R2 1 kΩ
Vout = ACL x Vin = 2 x 2 = 4.0 VDC
Vf = Vout x ___R2___ = _4 x 1 kΩ_ = 2.0 VDC

(R1 + R2) (1 kΩ + 1 kΩ)
Verr = (Vin - Vf) = (2 - 2) = ZERO
In fact, the Error Voltage is not zero, but it is very small:
Verr = Vout = __4___ = 40 µV

AOL 100,000
Example 2:
Recalculate Example 1 if R2 = 10 kΩ.
Answer:
ACL = 1 + R1 = 1 + 1 kΩ = 1.1
R2 10 kΩ
Vout = ACL x Vin = 1.1 x 2 = 2.2 VDC
Vf = Vout x __R2__ = _2.2 x 10 kΩ_ = 2.0

VDC
(R1 + R2) (1 kΩ + 10 kΩ)
Verr = (Vin - Vf) = (2 - 2) = ZERO
In fact, the Error Voltage is not zero, but it is very small:
Verr = Vout = __2.2__ = 22 µV

AOL 100,000
Lesson 5 Page 10
The Instructor will now give a practical demonstration to prove the

above calculations, using Experiment Board No. 5 and a 40 VDC
power supply. Note that the DC Input voltage is taken from a 0-1 kΩ
potentiometer connected between the Positive and Common terminals
of the DC power supply. If the potentiometer were connected between
the Positive and Negative terminals, there would be a dangerous short-
circuit!
During the demonstration, observe that as the load resistance (0-10 kΩ
potentiometer) at the Op-Amp output is varied from zero to 10 kΩ, the
Input and Output Voltages remain constant! This why the Op-Amp is
so useful as an Output Voltage Regulator.
This is only one application of the Op-Amp. By adding external
combinations of resistors and capacitors to the external circuit, we can
produce practically any electronic device - integrator, differentiator,
pulse generator, oscillator and high-gain AC amplifier to name but a
few.
4.3 LM340 VOLTAGE REGULATOR
There are integrated circuit devices specially made as DC voltage

regulators which can regulate the output DC voltage even though both
the load current and input voltage are varying. These devices include
elements from the Series Regulator (Zener Follower) with a 741C Op-
Amp. They only have three external terminals, which makes
installation and testing simple.
One common type of DC Voltage Regulator using Op-Amps is the
LM340 series. Refer to Fig. 5-10 on the next page. A built-in
Reference Voltage circuit (zener diode) supplies the Non-Inverting
Input of the Op-Amp. The zener diode takes its supply from Vin.
Output voltage feedback supplies the Inverting Input via a built-in
voltage divider. The Reference Voltage is set slightly higher than the
Feedback Voltage to ensure the Op-Amp output is always positive.
If Vout reduces for any reason, the error at the Op-Amp input increases
and the Op-Amp increases its output voltage. This increases the bias
on the Base of the Pass Transistor, reducing its VCE volt-drop. So
Vout increases back to its original level.
Lesson 5 Page 11
1 PASS 2
TRANSISTOR
V in V
out
(+) (+)
CURRENT R1
LIMITER
OP-AMP
-
+
Reference
R2
Voltage
LM340 CHIP
Common
(Ground) 3
Fig. 5-10. LM340 Block Diagram
If Vout increases for any reason, the error at the Op-Amp input reduces
and the Op-Amp reduces its output voltage. This reduces the bias on
the Base of the Pass Transistor, increasing its VCE volt-drop. So Vout
reduces back to its original level.
The Current Limiter protects the Op-Amp and Pass Transistor from
overload.
For the LM340 to operate correctly, Vin must always be larger than
Vout. This ensures that the Zener Diode always operates above its
Zener Voltage, giving a constant reference voltage, and to allow for
VCE volt-drop in the Pass Transistor. For example, an LM340
designed to produce a regulated DC output voltage of 15 V needs an
unregulated DC input voltage of 23 V.
The LM340 is not a high-power device. It usually operates at up to 30
VDC and 10 amperes. However, larger DC systems can be regulated
by using the LM340 to control the Bases of high-power Common-
Collector transistors (including Darlington Pairs).
Lesson 5 Page 12
Uninterrupted Power Supply Silicon Controlled Rectifiers
LESSON
SILICON CONTROLLED
6 RECTIFIERS
LECTURE
Objectives
At the end of this Lesson, the Trainee will be able to explain that
an SCR only conducts in one direction and when the Gate is
triggered; identify an SCR by its markings; test an SCR with a
multimeter; measure the Holding Current and Minimum Trigger
Current.
1 SCR BASIC THEORY
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Modern discoveries and improvements in semiconductors have

resulted in a rectifier which is controlled - it does not need a separate
voltage regulator. This Controlled Rectifier uses Silicon Controlled
Rectifiers (SCRs) instead of diodes and has largely replaced
Uncontrolled Rectifiers with separate Voltage Regulators in power
station main DC systems. However, the equipment described in the
last two lessons is still widely used for lower power DC systems and
Generator Excitation systems.
The SCR is a type of thyristor. Other thyristors are the Diac, Triac and
UJT, which are often used to trigger SCR circuits. The SCR behaves
very much like a PN Junction Diode - it only conducts one way. But
there is one major difference - the SCR will not conduct at all until it is
triggered. This is why it is called a controlled rectifier.
1.2 CONSTRUCTION AND CIRCUIT SYMBOL
The SCR is rather like two PN Junction diodes assembled in series

(see Fig. 6-1). Notice that the ends of the SCR are Anode (A) and
Cathode (K) and the internal P-type section has a third terminal - the
Gate (G).
Anode Cathode A K
P N P N
G
Gate
(a) SCR Construction (b) SCR Symbol
Fig. 6-1. SCR Construction and Symbol
Lesson 6 Page 1
The SCR is basically a 3-terminal semiconductor switch, which will not

turn on (close) until two things happen:
1. The Anode must be positive compared to the Cathode.
2. A positive trigger pulse must be applied to the Gate. It is only
necessary to apply a short pulse of Gate current, called a Trigger
Pulse. Once this pulse is received, the SCR will conduct until the
current flowing from Anode to Cathode is below the Holding Current.
Then the SCR switches off. When the applied voltage becomes
positive again, another positive trigger pulse is needed to turn on the
SCR again.
Also shown in Fig. 6-1 is the circuit symbol for an SCR, which is similar
to that of a diode.
1.3 SCR OPERATION
The equivalent circuit for an SCR is shown in Fig. 6-2:
A +
I (I )
B1 C2
Q1
I C1 (IB2 )
G
+ Q2
K -
Fig. 6-2. SCR Equivalent Circuit
(A) must be positive and (K) negative. When a positive pulse is

applied to (G), Q2 turns on because it now has forward bias on its
Base-Emitter junction. So Collector current (IC2) flows through Q2.
But IC2 is also IB1 (the Base Biasing current for PNP transistor Q1).
So Q1 turns on and Collector current IC1 flows through it.
IC1 is also the Base current for Q2. So Q1 and Q2 keep each other
conducting after the Gate pulse has finished. Current can therefore
keep flowing from Anode to Cathode. The circuit only stops
conducting if one of two things happen:
1. The forward current drops below the Holding Current level (there is
not enough Base current to keep the transistors forward biased).
2. The supply polarity reverses (as with an AC supply). In this case
the transistors are reverse biased and they turn off.
Lesson 6 Page 2
The trainee should be able to prove that the current flowing into the
SCR from (A) equals the current leaving the SCR at (K) and they are
equal to:
(IC1 + IC2)
1.4 COMPARISON WITH DIODE
1. Advantage of the SCR:

Because the SCR conducts when a positive Gate pulse is applied and
turns off when the supply to the Anode goes negative, it is an excellent
rectifier.
The SCR is a more useful rectifier than the diode because the
conduction time (and therefore the Average Output Voltage) can be
directly controlled by adjusting the timing of the Gate pulses. The
voltage regulators discussed in Lesson 2 are therefore not necessary.
2. Disadvantages of the SCR:
The SCR is not as robust as a diode, so is much more easily damaged
by large reverse voltages and forward currents, especially transients
such as sudden load changes, switching surges and short circuit faults
at the load.
1.5 RATINGS AND PACKAGES
The main SCR ratings are:

1. Maximum Forward Current (IT)
- The largest forward bias current the SCR can conduct without
overheating and becoming a permanent open circuit.
2. Peak Reverse Voltage (VRRM)
- The largest reverse bias voltage the SCR can withstand before
breaking down to a permanent short circuit.
3. Maximum Trigger Current (IGT)
- The largest Gate current which should trigger the SCR. If an SCR
under test needs a higher trigger current than this, it is deteriorating
and must be replaced.
4. Maximum Gate Voltage (VGT)
- The largest Gate voltage the SCR can withstand without failure.
5. Minimum Holding Current
- The minimum forward bias current needed to keep the SCR
conducting.
An SCR is a 3-terminal device, just like a transistor. Low power SCRs
look exactly like transistors, having the same TO package codes. High
power SCRs look very like high power diodes, except that they have
two pigtails at one end instead of two.
If in doubt, check the code number (if any) on the package and consult
the manufacturer’s guide. If there is no information available, the SCR
must be tested.
Lesson 6 Page 3
2 PRACTICAL EXERCISE - TESTING AN SCR WITH A MULTIMETER
2.1 PRECAUTIONS
The same precautions apply as when using multimeters to test

components in Common Module 6 - Electronics Workshop.
2.2 PROCEDURE
Test the SCR provided using the digital multimeter as a diode tester.
Record your readings in the Results Table.
2.3 RESULTS TABLE
(A)TO(G) (G)TO (A) (A)TO (K) (K)TO (A) (G)TO(K) (K)TO(G)

+ - + - + - + - + - + -
mV mV mV mV mV mV
∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ 800 ∞
2.4 CONCLUSIONS
1. Complete the Conclusions Table below:
SCR CONDITION SCR MATERIAL
HE FA ? SI GE ?
AL UL LI R
TH TY C M-
Y O AN
N IU
M
√ √
2. Are the Gate to Cathode test results similar to an ordinary PN

junction diode? Explain why.
Answer: YES. BECAUSE THE PART OF THE SCR BETWEEN
THE
GATE AND CATHODE IS A SINGLE PN JUNCTION.
3. Why can you not obtain a low and a high reading when testing
between the Anode and Gate? Does this mean the SCR is faulty?
Answer: THE PART OF THE SCR BETWEEN THE ANODE AND
THE
Lesson 6 Page 4
GATE HAS 2 JUNCTIONS (PNP) SO WILL GIVE 2 INFINITE

READINGS. THIS DOES NOT MEAN THE SCR IS FAULTY.
1. Practical Tests:
6 correct readings - 6 x 5 points = 30 points
2. Conclusions:
Conclusion Table, - 2 x 15 points = 30 points
2 correct crosses
3 PRACTICAL EXERCISE - DC TESTS OF AN SCR
3.1 OBJECTIVES
1. To measure the minimum gate current at which an SCR starts to

conduct, which should be less than the Maximum Trigger Current
rating of the SCR (0.045 mA).
2. To measure the Minimum Holding Current for an SCR which is in
conduction mode.
3.2 PRECAUTIONS
This experiment involves testing on a live DC circuit. The standard

safety precautions apply, especially not touching live components.
3.3 EQUIPMENT
“Labvolt” Konnect-All Board SCR, 10 kΩ and 500 kΩ potentiometers

Analogue and digital multimeters47 Ω, 4.7 kΩ and 1 kΩ resistors
DC power supply unit SPDT switch and PBNO button
3.4 PROCEDURE
1. Construct the circuit shown in Fig. 6-3 on the next page. Set POT
to maximum resistance and close SPDT.
2. Slowly reduce POT while pressing PBNO. Eventually a point is
reached where A-K current flows and the voltmeter reading changes.
Record the meter readings just before and after this point. Complete
the Results Table.
Lesson 6 Page 5
SPDT 47 ohms
6 VDC
V
mA
PBNO POT ANALOGUE DIGITAL
500 k-ohm
Fig. 6-3. Trigger Current Test Circuit
3. Reconstruct your circuit to look like Fig. 6-4:
+
mA
SPDT POT ANALOGUE 47 ohms
10 k-ohm
6 VDC
V
PBNO 4.7 k-ohm
DIGITAL
1 k-ohm
Fig. 6-4. Holding Current Test Circuit
4. Set POT to minimum resistance and close SPDT and depress then
release PBNO. The SCR should now be conducting.
5. Carefully increase POT while observing the meters. Eventually, the
current should stop flowing and the voltmeter reading will change.
Record the meter readings just before and just after this point.
Complete the Results Table.
3.5 RESULTS TABLE
TRIGGER CURRENT TEST HOLDING CURRENT TEST
TIME GATE (A) - (K) TIME ANODE (A) - (K)

milli- Voltmeter milli- Voltmeter
Ammeter Ammeter
BEFORE 0 mA 6V BEFORE 0.3 to 0.6 to

CHANGE DC DC CHANGE 3 mA DC 0.85 VDC
AFTER 0.04 mA 0.85 V AFTER 0 mA 6V

CHANGE DC (max) DC CHANGE DC DC
Lesson 6 Page 6
3.6 CONCLUSIONS
1. For both tests, does the voltmeter reading change? Explain why!!
Answer: YES. WHEN THE SCR IS NOT CONDUCTING IT HAS
FULL
SUPPLY VOLTAGE (6 VDC) ACROSS IT. WHEN IT CONDUCTS,
THE VOLT DROP ACROSS IT IS THE FORWARD DROP (0.6 TO
0.85 V).
2. What is the Holding Current for this SCR?
Answer: 0.3 to 3.0 mA DC
3. What is the minimum Gate current for this SCR?
Answer: 0.04 mA DC (or less)
1. Practical Tests:
Correct circuit assembly - 2 x 10 points = 20 points
Results Table correct - 8 x 5 points = 40 points
2. Conclusions:
Lesson 6 Page 7
Uninterrupted Power Supply Inverters
LESSON
7 INVERTERS
LECTURE
Objectives
At the end of this Lesson, the Trainee will be able to explain the
importance of an Inverter in a UPS system; identify the symbol for
an Inverter; draw the circuits and explain the operation of
common Inverters; explain the use of Commutation SCRs and
Capacitors and Freewheeling Diodes.
1 AC ESSENTIAL SUPPLIES
There are certain important electrical loads which require AC current

instead of DC. These include emergency lighting, control computers
and essential pump motors.
To supply these AC essential loads during failure of AC mains power,
we need batteries and chargers, just as with DC Essential Loads. But
we also need an Inverter to convert the DC from the battery and
charger to AC for the loads. Refer to Fig. 7 -1:
L N
+
~ ---
BATTERY 1
AC MAINS 1
---
-
~ ~ ~

ESSENTIAL
+ LOADS
~ ---
AC MAINS 2 BATTERY 2 BUSBAR
---
-
~ ~ ~
INVERTER 2 STATIC SWITCH 2
RECTIFIER 2
AC MAINS 3
~ ~
STATIC SWITCH 3
Fig. 7 -1. UPS with Dual Redundancy and AC Bypass
The example above is a typical UPS system with dual redundancy. If

one charger, one battery or one inverter fails, the other UPS circuit can
supply all the essential AC loads. For maintenance or emergencies an
AC Bypass (AC mains 3) is also provided.
The two Inverters convert DC back to AC and the Static Switches
isolate faulty supplies from the AC busbars.
Lesson 7 Page 1
2 INVERSION
2.1 INVERTER SYMBOL
Inversion is conversion of DC to AC(the opposite of Rectification). The

typical symbol for an inverter is shown in Fig. 7 -1.
Inverters are usually constructed from SCRs in a similar way to
rectifiers. Also like rectifiers, PN Junction diodes are often used, but
not as inverting elements, as they would short circuit the DC power
supply, so diodes are only used for free-wheeling or for blocking
unwanted currents from flowing.
2.2 CENTRE-TAP TRANSFORMER INVERTER (HALF BRIDGE)
Refer to Fig. 7 -2 below:

+ ISOLATION TRANSFORMER
IA IB
DA1 DB1
SINUSOIDAL AC OUTPUT
TA2 TB2
SMOOTH DC
INPUT VOLTAGE L
-
Fig. 7 -2. Half Bridge SCR Inverter
Initially, no current flows because neither SCR is triggered. Now if TA2

is triggered, current IA flows through the left hand side of the
transformer primary from the centre-tap. The voltage across the
transformer primary will be a step wave, rising from zero to almost the
full value of DC supply instantly.
Lesson 7 Page 2
The Commutating Capacitor, C, will charge up because its left side is

connected to the DC negative terminal through TA2 and its right side is
connected to the DC positive terminal through DB1.
After a certain time, TB2 is triggered. C now discharges through TB2
and TA2, helping TB2 to keep conducting and shutting down TA2.
Now the right hand side (limb) of the circuit conducts, allowing current
IB to flow through the right hand side of the transformer primary from
the centre-tap - the reverse of the previous direction (negative instead
of positive). Meanwhile, C charges up with reversed polarity.
So the voltage across the transformer secondary switches instantly
from positive to negative, forming a square waveform. When another
trigger pulse is applied to the Gate of TA2, the capacitor C discharges
through TA2 and TB2, shutting down TB2 and helping TA2 to conduct.
So we have a positive voltage again.
The only function of the diodes, DA1 and DA2, is to block the
commutating capacitor from discharging through the transformer.
The inductor, L, blocks sharp transient currents during switching of the
SCRs. The isolating transformer acts as a filter for the square wave
voltage, smoothing it to a roughly sinusoidal waveform. The
waveforms for this circuit are shown in Fig. 7 -3:
EA
(POSIT IV E)
EB
(NEGA T IV E)
AV E R AGE
OF E A
& EB
SIN USOI D AL
OUTP UT
VOLT A GE
W AVEFORM
o
180
T R IGGE R T A2T R IGGE R T B
Fig. 7 -3. Inverter Waveforms
The two SCRs are triggered at 180 degree phase shifts. For a 60 Hz
output frequency, this corresponds to a time difference of 8.3 mS:
Phase Shift = θ = 180 degrees = π radians
Lesson 7 Page 3
θ = 2πft, so t = θ = π = 1
2πf 2πf 2f
Since f = 60 Hz, t = 1_ = 0.0083 seconds (8.3 mS)

120
The accurate trigger pulse timing required is usually provided by an

oscillator circuit, often incorporating a crystal.
3 FULL BRIDGE INVERTER
The simple Half-Bridge Inverter is not flexible enough for use in large
UPS systems, where some form of voltage regulation is needed to
cater for large fluctuating loads. Also, it does not produce a smooth
enough sinusoidal output voltage. So for large UPS systems, the Full
Bridge Inverter is used. Refer to Fig. 7 -4:
+
L1A D1 T1 T3 D3 L3A
T1A L1 L3 T3A
CA CB
LOAD
T4A L4 L2 T2A
L4A D4 T4 T2 D2 L2A
Fig. 7-4. Full Bridge Inverter
T1, T2, T3 and T4 are the Inverting SCRs. CA and CB are the
commutating capacitors. D1, D2, D3 and D4 are freewheeling diodes
and also assist the commutating capacitors to turn off the inverting
SCRs. T1A, T2A, T3A and T4A are blocking SCRs. They operate with
CA and CB to turn off T1-T4.
3.1 INVERTING OPERATION
To understand the inversion process, the circuit has been simplified by

removing the blocking components - see Fig. 7 -5:
Lesson 7 Page 4
+
T1 T3
L1 L3
LOAD
L4 L2
T4 T2
-
Fig. 7 -5. Inverting Circuit
If T1 and T2 are triggered together, current flows from left to right

through the load. When T1 and T2 are turned off and T3 and T4 are
turned on, current flows from right to left through the load.
The load will receive AC current instead of DC. However, the voltage
waveform applied at the load will be more square wave than
sinusoidal. This can be corrected by resonant filters (combinations of
capacitors and inductors) which remove the harmonics from the square
wave, leaving a sinusoidal waveform.
The only problem is that we have to find a way to turn the Inverting
SCRs off. They will not do this automatically, because the supply to
the circuit is smooth DC.
3.2 BLOCKING THE INVERTING SCRS
To simplify the explanation, we will only look at one of the Inverting

SCRs - T1. The condition when T1 is conducting, and supplying
current to the load, is shown in Fig. 7 -6:
I
+
D1 T1
L1A
A
T1 L1
+ -
- + I
LOAD
CA
Fig. 7 -6. T1 Conducting
Lesson 7 Page 5
D1 is reverse biased and T1A is not triggered, so they do not conduct.

CA charges up because there is a positive supply to the load.
To turn off T1, a trigger pulse is first applied to T1A. T1A turning on
provides a path for CA to discharge through L1, D1, L1A and T1 as
shown in Fig. 7 -7:
ICA
+
L1A D1 T1
T1A L1
- + + -
I LOAD
CA
CA
Fig. 7 -7. CA Discharging
The reverse polarity current from the capacitor, ICA, blocks the load
current leaving T1. So the current in T1 drops below its Holding
Current and T1 turns off. As CA discharges, ICA drops below the
Holding Current level for T1A, so T1A turns off.
While T1 is being turned off, T2A and CB are performing the same
process on T2. So the Inverter Bridge is now ready for trigger pulses
to be applied to T3 and T4, to provide a negative half cycle of load
current.
3.3 FREEWHEELING AN INDUCTIVE LOAD
Essential loads usually contain a lot of inductance (from motors,

transformers and solenoids). When the Inverting SCRs are suddenly
turned off, this inductance will generate a back-emf to try to keep
current flowing. So we need to discharge this emf to prevent damage
to the SCRs.
Diodes D3 and D4 provide a freewheeling path for positive half cycles
of load current, when T1 and T2 are turned off. Likewise, D1 and D2
freewheel for negative half cycles of load current, when T3 and T4 turn
off.
3.4 VOLTAGE REGULATION
The obvious way to operate the Inverter Bridge is to fire and turn off T1
and T2 together to provide positive load current. Likewise, T3 and T4
should be operated together to provide negative load current. The
output voltage at the load is a square wave, as shown in Fig. 7 -8:
Lesson 7 Page 6
ICA
+
L1A D1 T1
T1A L1
- + + -
LOAD
I
CA
CA
Fig. 7 -8. Square Waveform
T1 and T3 are triggered at 180o intervals and conduct for 180o. The
same applies to T2 and T4. By firing the Inverting SCRs separately,
we can alter the waveform from a square wave to a stepped wave, as
shown in Fig. 7 -9:
1/2 1/2
LOAD
VOLTAGE
2/4 2/4
DEG.
90 360
AVERAGE VALUE
OF A HALF CYCLE
3/4
Fig. 7 -9. Stepped Waveform
T1 and T3 are still triggered at 180o degree intervals, but they are
turned off after a 90o conduction time. The trigger points of T2 and T4
have both been advanced by the same 90o to give them a 270o
conduction time. So what T1 and T3 lose, T2 and T4 gain.
The Average Value of each half-cycle of this stepped wave is half that
of the square wave. Therefore, after harmonic filtering, the RMS Value
of the sinusoidal output waveform will also be half the size.
So, by altering the turn-off times of T1 and T3 and adjusting the trigger
times of T2 and T4 to match, we can regulate the RMS Value of the AC
output voltage. (With some negative feedback to the SCR trigger
circuits, we can automatically keep the output voltage constant.)
4 THREE-PHASE INVERTERS
4.1 THREE-PHASE FOUR-WIRE INVERTER
Where the Essential AC Load is large, it is cheaper to use a three-

phase Inverter than a single-phase one. This also means that three-
phase motors can be supplied by the UPS.
Where there is likely to be a large imbalance between the loads on the
three phases a three-phase four-wire Inverter is needed.
Lesson 7 Page 7
This is basically three separate single-phase Inverters connected in

star formation with a common neutral. So each Inverter supplies one
phase. By using three separate units, we can supply any amount of
imbalanced load - even full load on two phases with zero load on the
other.
4.2 THREE-PHASE BRIDGE INVERTER
Where the loads are balanced (e.g. three-phase motors) we can use a
single Inverter connected as a three-phase bridge. Fig. 7 -10 shows
the basic circuit. All commutating components except the free-
wheeling diodes are removed for clarity.
+
T1 T3 T5
U V W
T6 T2 T4
-
Fig. 7 -10. Three-Phase Bridge
Because of the complex conditions caused by six SCRs being

triggered and turned off rapidly, and with a three-phase inductive load
freewheeling through six diodes, it is possible for an SCR to be turned
off at the wrong time. So instead of one trigger pulse a pulse train is
applied to the SCR Gate, to ensure it keeps conducting until it is
deliberately turned off.
U, V and W are the three AC output terminals of the Bridge. Normally
they would supply a delta-connected load (e.g. 3-phase induction
motors) but balanced (3-wire) star-connected loads can also be
supplied.
In this example the SCRs are triggered to conduct for 180o each in 60o
steps, as shown in Fig. 7 -11, which also shows the phase-to-phase
output voltage for terminals U-V. The phase-to-phase voltages across
V-W and W-U are the same waveform, but are delayed by 120o and
240o respectively.
Lesson 7 Page 8
T1
T2
T3
T4
T5
T6
60 120 180 240 300 360

DEG.
1/2 2/1
AVERAGE OF
HALF CYCLE
E 1/3 2/6
U-V
3/6
Fig. 7 -11. Bridge Output Waveforms
The relative Firing Angles are:
T1 - 0o T3 - 120o T5 - 240o
T2 - 300o T4 - 60o T6 - 180o
By turning off T2, T4 and T6 slightly earlier or later, the average output
voltage can be controlled.
Lesson 7 Page 9
Uninterrupted Power Supply Inverter Auxiliaries
LESSON
8 INVERTER AUXILIARIES
LECTURE
Objectives
At the end of this Lesson, the Trainee will be able to explain how
resonant filters and transformers are used to convert square
waves to sinusoidal; the function of a static switch and the basic
elements of an Inverter trigger circuit.
1 HARMONIC FILTERS
The square or stepped voltage waveform produced by an Inverter must

be converted to a sinusoidal waveform to be used by the AC loads.
This is quite easy, because the square and stepped waveforms are
both a Fundamental Sine Wave with a number of small sinusoidal
Harmonics added to it:
Fundamental Waveform - 60 Hz
Second Harmonic - 120 Hz
Third Harmonic - 180 Hz
Fourth Harmonic - 240 Hz.........etc...
All we have to do is remove the harmonics, leaving the Fundamental
Sine Wave to supply the AC load. This is often done using Resonant
Filters.
1.1 SERIES RESONANT FILTER
A series resonant filter consists of an inductor and capacitor connected

in series, as shown in Fig. 8-1:
L C
FILTER CIRCUIT LOAD
Fig. 8-1. Series LC Filter
Total Filter Reactance = XT = XL + XC
XT = jωL + _1_
jωC
Lesson 8 Page 1
Maximum power transfer is when XT is zero. At this point, L and C are

resonant with each other. Therefore:
jωL = _-1_
jωC
jωL x jωC = -1
Since (j x j) = -1,
ω2 LC = 1
ω2 = _1_
LC
So for Resonance: ϖ = _1_

LC
Since ω = 2πf, we can match the required values of L and C to the

Fundamental Frequency (f0) required. All higher frequencies (i.e.
harmonics) will see a high impedance and be eliminated or greatly
reduced.
Example:
A series resonant filter is used to remove harmonics in a square wave
of frequency 50 Hz. If the capacitor is 500 µF, calculate:
1. The size of inductor required.
2. The impedance to third harmonics.
Answer:
1. ω = 2πf = 2 x π x 50 = 100π
ω2 = _1_ L = _1_
LC ω2C
L = ______________1______________
100 x 100 x π x π x 500 x 10-6
L = __ _1____ = 0.02 H = 20 mH.

π x π x 5
2. For third harmonics, frequency = 3 x 50 = 150 Hz.
ω = 300π and XT = jωL + _1_

jωC
XT = j x 300π x 0.02 + ________1__________

j x 300π x 500 x 10-6
Lesson 8 Page 2
XT = (j x 6π) + _-j__
0.15π
XT = j( 6π - __1_ )
0.15π
XT = j(18.852 - 2.114) = j16.74 Ω
From the above example, it should be obvious that the Series

Resonant Filter acts as a short circuit to the Fundamental Frequency,
but is an inductive reactance to any higher frequencies (i.e.
harmonics). The higher the harmonic frequency, the greater is the
blocking reactance. This is called attenuation, as the ratio of:
Output voltage becomes smaller as harmonic frequency rises.
Input Voltage
The capacitor is only in the circuit to cancel out the inductor at the
Fundamental Frequency. For high frequency harmonics, it has very
little effect, whereas the inductor has a very high reactance.
1.2 SHUNT RESONANT FILTER
This filter consists of an inductor and capacitor connected in parallel,

as shown in Fig. 8-2:
LOAD
L C
FILTER CIRCUIT
Fig. 8-2. Shunt LC Fillter
_1_ = _1_ + _1_

XT jωL 1/jωC
Maximum power transfer is when XT is infinite. At this point, L and C

are resonant with each other. Therefore:
jωC = _-1_
jωL
jωL x jωC = -1
ω2 LC = 1
Lesson 8 Page 3
ω2 = _1_
LC
So for Resonance: ϖ = _1_

LC
Note that this is the same equation as for the Series Filter.
Since ω = 2πf, we can match the required values of L and C to the
Fundamental Frequency (f0) required. All higher frequencies (i.e.
harmonics) will see a low shunt impedance and be diverted from the
load through the shunt filter.
Example:
A shunt resonant filter is used to remove harmonics in a square wave
of frequency 50 Hz. If the capacitor is 500 µF, calculate:
1. The size of inductor required.
2. The impedance to third harmonics.
Answer:
1. We have already done this calculation for the series filter:
L = __ _1____ = 0.02 H = 20 mH.

π x π x 5
2. For third harmonics, frequency = 3 x 50 = 150 Hz.
ω = 2πf = 300π
_1_ = _______1______ + j x 300π x 500 x 10-6

XT j x 300π x 0.02
_1_ = -j_ + j x 0.15π = j( -0.053 + 0.471)

XT 6π
_1_ = j 0.418 XT = 2.24 Ω

XT
From the above example, it is obvious that the Shunt Resonant Filter
acts as an open circuit to the Fundamental Waveform, which bypasses
it, but is a low capacitive reactance to harmonics.
The higher the harmonic frequency, the lower is this reactance. The
inductor is only in the circuit to cancel out the capacitor at Fundamental
Frequency. For high frequency harmonics, it has very little effect.
For good harmonic filtering, the series and shunt filters are usually
combined to produce the Resonant-Arm Filter shown in Fig. 8-3 on the
next page.
Lesson 8 Page 4
L1 C1
L C2 LOAD
2
Fig. 8-3. Resonant-Arm Filter
2 TRANSFORMERS AND STATIC SWITCH
2.1 TRANSFORMERS
Many Inverter systems often do not need Harmonic Filters. Adequate

filtering of the square wave is often done by a simple transformer.
Small single-phase Inverters have a Ferro-Resonant transformer
connected at their output. Besides isolating the Inverter from the AC
load, this transformer is constructed so that the flux in its iron core
resonates at the fundamental frequency (60 Hz). The fundamental
frequency is allowed to pass easily through the transformer, but the
harmonics are blocked. The simple Half-Bridge Inverter described in
Lesson 6 uses a Ferro-Resonant transformer.
Three-Phase Inverters use three-phase transformers to block the third
harmonic, which is much larger than the other harmonics. Blocking is
achieved by including a Delta-Winding in the transformer, as shown in
Fig. 8-4:
A a
B b
C c
n
DELTA PRIMARY
(FROM INVERTER) STAR S ECONDARY (TO LOAD)
Fig. 8-4. Delta/star Transformer
Lesson 8 Page 5
The triplen (3rd, 6th, 9th) harmonics cannot generate a voltage in the
star secondary winding because they are in-phase and cancel each
other out.
The fundamental frequency voltages are 120 degrees out-of-phase, so
form a vector triangle and easily generate voltages in the secondary.
The result is a fairly smooth sinusoidal output. The voltage vector
diagram for a transformer vector group of Dy11 is shown in Fig. 8-5:
A
a
b
n
c
C B
PRIMARY VOLTAGES SECONDARY VOLTAGES
Fig. 8-5. Voltage Vector Diagram
2.2 STATIC SWITCH

Refer back to Fig. 7-6-1 of Lesson 6. The Essential AC Loads Busbars
receive power from two inverters and a backup AC supply. The reason
is to provide redundancy of inverters - one inverter can be lost (due to
maintenance or a fault) without affecting the essential AC loads.
However, if one inverter does become faulty (due to insulation or SCR
failure) it must be isolated from the Essential AC Loads Busbars as
quickly as possible. Otherwise a short circuit in the faulty inverter may
be backfed from the busbars, causing major damage and loss of
supply.
Circuit breakers and relays take a long time to isolate the faulty
inverter. To achieve fast isolation times, we use the Static Switch,
which is simply two SCRs connected in opposed parallel. A typical
configuration is shown in Fig. 8-6:
ESSENTIAL
STATIC SWITCH AC LOADS
INVERTER
T1
+
--- x
T2
~
-
L N
Fig. 8-6. Static Switch
Lesson 8 Page 6
One way to obtain power for the trigger circuits of the two SCRs is to
use a centre-tapped transformer at the Inverter output, as shown in Fig.
8-7. When the inverter is healthy, T1 conducts positive half cycles and
T2 conducts negative ones.
L L
T1
TRIGGER
CIRCUIT
TRIGGER
CIRCUIT
T2
N N
Fig. 8-7. SCR Trigger Supplies
If the Inverter output fails, the current in the SCR which is conducting
falls below the Holding Current and the SCR turns off. The busbars
cannot backfeed the Inverter because the SCR is off.
The SCR which was not conducting at the time of failure cannot turn on
for the next half-cycle because it has no trigger supply.
So we have an almost instant method of isolating the faulty inverter
which is static (does not have any mechanical moving parts). Manual
isolation can then be done by opening the circuit breaker.
Because the Static Switch converts AC to AC, its circuit symbol has
two sine waves inside it, as shown in Fig. 7-6-1.
The operation mode described above means the Static Switch is “ON”
unless there is a fault in the Inverter. This is only one of many ways to
use a Static Switch.
Another common way to use the Static Switch is as a Bypass. In this
case, the Static Switch is normally “OFF” and only switches in when
the Inverter is faulty.
Refer to Fig. 8-8 on the next page. The Inverter supplies the load
directly. A monitoring device in the Inverter senses that the Inverter is
about to fail and initiates a start signal for the Static Switch trigger
circuits.
Lesson 8 Page 7
The standby AC mains supply is therefore brought in parallel with the

Inverter output. The total time taken for this is usually about 20 mS.
The Inverter’s output contactor then automatically opens, isolating the
faulty Inverter from the load in a further 30 mS.
INVERTER
CONTACTOR
+
x x
---
~
-
TRIGGER INITIATED BY
"INVERTER FAULTY" L N
SIGNAL
BYPASS STATIC SWITCH
STANDBY AC SUPPLY
Fig. 8-8. Static Bypass
3 SCR TRIGGERING
The SCRs in rectifiers and inverters need trigger pulses for their gates.
So we need Pulse Generators (trigger circuits). With SCR rectifiers,
the pulse generator is relatively simple, because it can use the same
AC supply as the SCR. Synchronising and timing of the pulses is quite
easy, as explained in Lesson 5.
With Inverters there is only DC power. So we have to use Oscillators
as the pulse generators. An oscillator is supplied with smooth DC
voltage and produces alternating waveforms. These waveforms can
be square wave, sawtooth wave, sinusoidal or pulses.
Capacitors are used in all oscillators to give the Time Delay needed to
produce the required waveform. The other main components may be
BJT or FET Transistors, Unijunction Transistors (UJTs), Programmable
UJTs (PUTs), Crystals or Integrated Circuit Operational Amplifiers.
The oscillator design varies enormously from one inverter to another.
Popular types are Astable Multivibrators and Crystal Oscillators.
The SCR triggering system is also the Voltage Controller. Remember
from Lesson 6 that altering the relative firing of the SCRs alters the
shape (and so the Average Voltage) of the output from the Inverter.
A block diagram of a typical trigger/voltage control system is shown in
Fig. 8-9 on the next page. The Pulse Generator takes DC power from
the batteries and produces a square-wave output of fixed frequency
(60 Hz).
Lesson 8 Page 8
The Trigger Circuit for T1 amplifies the square-wave and supplies the
gate of SCR T1 with one positive pulse every 16.67 mS. T1 and T2
provide the positive half-cycles of Inverter output. A similar
arrangement exists for T2, except that the trigger pulses can be
advanced or retarded compared to those for T1, providing voltage
control.
INVERTER STATIC SWITCH

DC --- HARMONIC ~
~ FILTER ~ ~
INVERTER
PULSE TO T3/T4 RECTIFIER
GENERATOR (NOT GATE) CONTROLS & DC
FILTER
PHASE
VOLTAGE Does E
SHIFTER out
= Eref ?
(R-C BRIDGE) COMPARATOR
TRIGGER
CIRCUIT TO T2 GATE
FOR T2
TRIGGER
CIRCUIT TO T1 GATE
FOR T1
Fig. 8-9. Trigger/Voltage Control
The sinusoidal output voltage from the Inverter and Harmonic Filter is
rectified and filtered and fed to a Comparator, where Eout is compared
with Eref (the Reference Voltage from a Zener Diode). Any error
voltage is then fed to the Phase-Shifter circuit, where it varies the
resistance in an R-C Bridge. The square-wave from the Pulse
Generator is the input to this R-C Bridge and the output waveform will
be phase-shifted (advanced or retarded). This output waveform
supplies the Trigger Circuit for T2.
The Logic Inverter (Not Gate) phase shifts the output waveform of the
Pulse generator by 180 degrees to supply the triggering for SCRs T3
and T4 in the Inverter, which provide the negative half-cycle of the
Inverter output.
An element not shown is the Synchronising Circuit which is used to
ensure the output voltage from the Inverter is synchronised with any
existing voltage on the Load Busbars before the Static Switch is
closed.
Lesson 8 Page 9
FIGURES INDEX
Figure No. Page No.

Fig. 1 . 1 ………………………………………………………….. 1
Fig. 1 . 2 ………………………………………………………….. 2
Fig. 1.3 ………………………………………………………….. 4
Fig. 1.4 …………………………………………………………….5
Fig. 1.5 ……………………………………………………………5
Fig. 1.6 …………………….…………………………………..….6
Fig. 1.7 ……………………………………………………………7
Fig. 2.1 …………………………………………………………… .1
Fig. 2.2 ……………………………………………………….….. 2
Fig. 2.3 …………………………………………………………….3
Fig. 2.4 ……………………………………………………………3
Fig. 2.5 …………………………………………………………….6
Fig. 2.6 ……………………………………………………………6
Fig. 2.7 …………………………………………………….……… .7
Fig. 2.8 …………………………………………………………... 8
Fig. 2.9………………………………..…………………………….8
Fig. 2.10 ……………………………………………………………9
Fig. 2.11 …………………………………………………………...10
Fig. 2.12……………………………………………………………11
Fig. 2.13 ……………………………..…………………………… .11

Fig. 3.1 ………………………………………………………….. 1
Fig. 3.2 …………………………………………………………….2
Fig. 3.3 …………………………………….………………………2
Fig. 3.4 …………………….…………………………………..….3
Fig. 3.5 ……………………………………………………………4
Fig. 3.6 …………………………………………………………… .4
Fig. 3.7 ………………………….…………...……………….….. 5
Fig. 3.8 …………………………..……………..………………….5
Fig. 3.9 ……………………….……………..……………………6
Fig. 3.10……………………………………..…………………….6
Fig. 4.1 …………………….……………..………………………1
Fig. 4.2 ……………………….……………………..…………….2
Fig. 4.3 ……………………….……………………………………2
Fig. 4.4 …………………….…………………………………..….4
Fig. 4.5 ……………………………………………………………5
Fig. 4.6 …………………………………………………………… .5
Fig.4.7 ………………….…………………………………….….. 6
Fig. 5.1 …………………………………………………………….1
Fig. 5.2 …………………….………………………………………3
Fig. 5.3 …………………….…………………………………..….4
Fig. 5.4…………………………………………………..…………4
Fig. 5.5 …………………………………………………………….5
Fig. 5.6 ……………………………………………………….….. 6
Fig. 5.7 …………………………………………………………….7
Fig. 5.8…………………………………………………….………8
Fig5.9………………………………………………………..…….9
Fig.5.10 …………………………………………………………12
Fig. 6.1 ………………………………………………………….1
Fig. 6.2……………………………………………………………2
Fig. 6.3 …………………….…………………………………..….6
Fig. 6.4 ……………………………………………………………6
Fig. 7.1 ………………………………………………..………… .1
Fig.7.2 …………………………………………………….….….. 2
Fig. 7.3 …………………………………………………………… 3
Fig. 7.4 ……………………………………………………….….. 4
Fig. 7.5 ……………………………………………….…………….5
Fig. 7.6………………………………………………..…….………5
Fig7.7…………………………………………………..……..…….6
Fig.7.8 ……………………………………………………..………7
Fig. 7.9 …………………………………………………………….7
Fig. 7.10……………………………………………………………8
Fig. 7.11…………………….…………………………………..…9
Fig. 8.1 …………………………………………………………… .1

Fig. 8.2………………………………………………..……….….. 3
Fig.8.3 ……………………………………………….…………….5
Fig. 8.4…………………………………………….……….………5
Fig8.5……………………………………………….………..…….6
Fig.8.6…………………………………………………...…………6
Fig. 8.7…………………………………………………………….7
Fig. 8.8……………………………………………..………………8
Fig. 8.9…………………….…………………………………..….9

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Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

Saline Water Conversion Corporation

Lesson 2: COMMON COLLECTOR CONFIGURATION…………1

Lesson 3: UNCONTROLLED RECTIFIERS……………………….1

Lesson 5: VOLTAGE REGULATORS…………………………..1

Lesson 6: SILICON CONTROLLED RECTIFIERS…………….1

Lesson 7: INVERTER AUXILIARIES……………………………….1

1.1 DC ESSENTIAL SUPPLIES

Fig. 1-1. Dual Redundant DC Power Supply

Fig. 1-1 shows a typical DC supply system. It is called Dual

1.2 AC ESSENTIAL SUPPLIES

There are certain important electrical loads which require AC current

RECTIFIER 1 INVERTER 1 STATIC SWITCH 1

RECTIFIER 2 INVERTER 2 STATIC SWITCH 2

Fig. 1-2. UPS with Dual Redundancy and AC Bypass

The example above is a typical UPS system with dual redundancy. If

2 CAPACITORS IN ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS

The capacitor is a very important part of most electronic circuits -

discharging through a series resistance. So the capacitor can switch

The -j signifies that XC is the opposite of Inductive Reactance. This

But when capacitors are connected in series, CT is given by:

Fig. 1-3 - CAPACITOR PACKAGES

Most capacitors have leads for solder connections, though high-

3 CAPACITOR TYPES, SYMBOLS AND RATINGS

There are two different designs of capacitor in common use, Polarized

3.1 NON-POLARISED CAPACITORS

This is of standard, two-plate, construction. The dielectric can be

3.2 POLARISED CAPACITOR

This capacitor contains an electrolyte (like a battery) rather than a

Fig. 1-4. Polarity Markings

3.3 SYMBOLS AND RATINGS

Typical circuit symbols are shown in Fig. 1-5:

Fig. 1-5. Circuit Symbols

The two important ratings for a capacitor are:

1. Nominal Capacitance, given in pF, nF or µF.

2. Nominal Voltage, which is DC unless stated otherwise. The AC rms

4 CAPACITOR CHARGE AND DISCHARGE

When a DC voltage is applied to a capacitor, there is a surge of current

(a) CAPACITOR CHARGING (b) CAPACITOR DISCHARGING

Fig. 1-6. RC Time-delay circuit

63.2% Small R (small RC Time Constant)

Large R (large RC Time Constant)

Small R (small RC Time Constant)

Large R (large RC Time Constant)

Fig. 1-7. Effect of varying the Series Resistor

The RC Time Constant is used when testing a capacitor with an

5 PRACTICAL EXERCISE - TESTING OF CAPACITORS

1. Always discharge a capacitor before touching it. A large, charged

4. When using an analogue meter as an ohm-meter, always set the

There are 3 capacitors, labeled 1 to 3. For each one:

5.3 RESULTS TABLE

PACKAGE DIGITAL ANALOGUE DIGITAL

1 0.1 µF 100 NO 0.1 µF 2 µF Y R x 10K Y 2 MΩ Y

2 0.22 µF 50 VDC NO 0.2 µF 2 µF Y R x 10K Y 2 MΩ Y

3 10 µF 35 VDC YES 10 µF 20 µF Y R x 10K Y 2 MΩ Y

1. Which of the three tests is the easiest to perform accurately and

2. Which MultiMate is best for performing Flick Tests? Why?

Answer:ANALOGUE METER AS OHMMETER, AS IT IS EASY TO

5.5 EXERCISE MARKING SCALE

OVERALL TOTAL = 100 Points

1.1 REVERSE BIAS

Fig. 2-1. Reverse Bias (no conduction)