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Ta den } Bye dents, Oo Xebse = os} seks Dra Wensiar Semen ere wort raters then giikone the Moun sucduur Recoming Loy ihe Themen We relia cbome CoThe Nucleus ae ad If an atom has atomic number Z and relative atomic mass A, the nucleus has Z protons and A-Z neutrons, For elements of low atomic number sta- ble isotopes consist of atoms in whose nuclei the proton-neutron ratio is 1, The farther away from 1 this ratio becomes, the greater the inst- ability of the nucleus anc the greater the chance of the isotope being radioactive, Natural Redioactivity In 1896 Becquerel found that a erystal of a uranium salt blackened a photographic plate ( even in complete darkness ), This effect was due to the giving off of very active rays from a uranium compound. Radium is 2,000,000 times mere radioactive than uranium, 1g of radium is obtained from 500 tons ef pitchblende, Rutherford sorted the rays from uranium into 3 kinds-- 0%, @,% according to their penetrating power. OXrays are attracted to-the negative plate in an electric field, have the least penetrating power-~ are stopped by a-sheet of paper or a few inches of air, are positively charged particles, are helium ions ( He** ), have “a-velacity—abuut—+/40—that of light. Grays could pass through thin shcets of aluminium, a are deflected by a magnetic field more readily thano(particles on@ in the opposite direction, wore identical with the electrons produced in cathode ray tues, have a velocity approaching that of light. Ue Y rays several inches of lead or several fect of coherete are’needed to absorb them completely, a ® they are not deflected by © /magnetic field, are not particles but waves similar to X-rays but having a smaller wevelongth, / cause severe damage to tissues, ¥_ eas 7 e_riys (Ga 226 radiun salt Raat »-@ rave (-vo) oe Deflection by a magnetic field ( Flemings left hand rulo)-" ~ Fa2 Ww In 1903 Rutherford suggested thet radioactivity was caused by the di. integration or decay of the large heavy atoms of radium, uranium etc. into simpler atoms of other elements, This proved to be correct. 226 ne loses 5 helium ions, each of mass 4, and the surplus electrons Rotate <0o ppe.) aide cneewaltarest pasaelenontsronusin aadeitsiee tence nnot be altered in any way. All the elements of higher relative atomic masse than bismuth (209) arc radioactive and decay ultimately to lead, When atoms of radioactive elements lose an alpha particle there is a move 2 places to the left in the periodic table, On losing a beta particle there is a move 1 place to the right. During radioactive disin= tegration, the radiation emitted comes from the nuclous of the atom When one radioactive element disintegrates it produces another radioac- tive element which will sgoin disintegrate, and so on, until a stable isotope of an element is reached. This series of changes is called a decay series, There are 3 decay sories :- the Uranium series; the Thorium series; the Actinirm series, The Uraniuni Series 226n, 2 222pqciphs, 2}8p alpig2!*pybota Ei sbetey 21p pha 205m, @iuha__ 7!9p, ebeta 21%, cbeta 2710p, Separation of Isotopes Separation of isotopes is difficult, Physical methods are commonly used, Electromagnetic separation is the most efficient method to obtain pure isotopes, Uses of Radioisotopes in Jadustry and Research Radioactive isotopes have the same chemical properties ac the corres- ponding non-radioactive element, As a result, radioactivity may be used es a tag to identify and follow the element through a series of reactions. This is kmown as the tracer technique and is used in chemical, biological, and industrial studies. eg. 1 By using a radicactive isotope the mechanism of a chemical reaction can be determined, og. 2 By using a redicactive lead isotope in analysis the completeness of precipitation can be established, If a phosphate containing e small quantity of radioactive phosphorus is fed to a plant, the regions in which the greatest phosphorus absorption takes place can be determined photographically, as they are the regions where the radioactivity is the strongest,- Nuclear Reactions The discovery of natural radioactivity led to the overthrow of the bel= ief that atome of one element could not change into atoms of another element, Thus radium atoms were found to decay spontaneously into helium atoms and lead atoms, Later investigations show that transmutations of elements can be brought about artificially. Aptificially Induced Nuclear Changes Ordinary chemical reactions involve just a rearrangement of electrons in atoms and molecules, The atomic nuclei are not affected. In the disintegration of radium, both nuclei and electrons are in= volved. A change of this type is called a nuclear reaction.Nuclear reac= tions occur when the nuclei of atoms are bombarded with various kinds ee stable isotopes radioactive isotopes of high-speed particles, stable nuclei bombarded with high-speed particles The possibility of artificial transmutation of elements was first suggested by the discovery that different kinds of atoms wore composed of the same fundamental units, The problem consists of changing the nun- ber of protons and neutrons in the nucleus, Rutherford thought a solution to be the collision between atomic nuclei and fast noving alpha part~ icles(helium nuclei), In 1919 Rutherford bombarded nitrogen with alpha particles, He found that protons(H*) and positive ions of oxygen(0*) were formed, These were ideatified from the lengths of their tracks in the Wilson Cloud Chamber, Thy + jo ——> 1h + {To (a muctear transformation) In these nuclear transfoructions the mass numbers and the atomic numbers must balance, Most of the lighter elements undergo transformation into other elements when bombardéd with alpha particles. In these changes, protons normally appear, confirming that they are basic constituents of different types of atom, This is wasteful because most of the atom is empty space and only about i particle in a million brings about a trans- mutation, Plcnents with heavy atoms are immune unless the alpha particles are accelerated to still hisher velocities, The reason for this is the strong force of repulsion between the positively charged nucleus and the positively charged alpha particles, As the charge on the nucleus iner- eases, the force of repulsion increases. If the energy of the alpha part- icles is increased by an electric field (cyclotron) , nuclei of quite high atomic number undergo transmutation,2 Bonbardnent by Protons = 24 H* particles are sualler in mass and smaller in charge than He2* part- icles, thus the force of repulsion between a given nucleus and a H* will be less than betweon the nucleus ond He**, This led Cockeroft and Walton in 1932 to use protons for attacking atomic nucled, ap te 4 3 > 23He Vory high-speed protons and deutorons(deuterium nuclei),obtained fror the cyclotron,can be used for the transmutation of heavier elenents, 26, 2 2h. 4, jade + = 7D ——> Fina + gle Since 1932 fest moving protons have frequently been used for bringing about transmutation, Sonetines proton captured by the nuclous is retained, so that a new nuclous of the next element is formed, 19, 1 205, one it ——> Tone The existence of a neutral particle, common to most atoms, had been predicted by Rutherford in 1920, but not until 1932 was the neutron characterised by Chadwick, These neutrons were formed when beryllium foil was bombarded with alpha particles, gee ne ie n Neutrons are also produced when several other ligi.t elements are bon- berded as above, Bombardent by Neutrons Today, nuclear changes are usually made by neutrons, Neutrons are prod- uced in abundance in nuclear reactors, thus transuutations can be per- formed on a larger scale than before. Neutrons cre more effective than protons or heliun nuclei because they heve no charge and so are not repelled by the nucleus, Slow Neutrons(with relatively low energies), These combine with the nuclei of most elements to produce an isotope of the target element with © mass number increased by 1 unit, With phosp- horus the excess energy is liberated as garma rays. 31 1 32 iP + on ———> TP +s The new nucleus nay be radionctive and decay, or not. East Neutrons(with relatively high energies) Here the additional energy is sufficient to cause a prcton to be ejected from the compound nucleus first formed, The relative atomic nass (mass no.) is the same but a nucleyg of the next lowey element is i Wt +f se) sing the nucleus to split. 7 ° 6 1 formed, cau- Ha Nuclear Fission Naturally occurring uranium is a mixture of 2 radioactive isotopes, 235u ana ?35y, when *95u is bombarded with slow neutrons the nucleus first captures a neutron and then breaks up into 2 nuclei of roughly equal size, These two nuclei fly apart at great speed. This is nuclear fission. 73%y undergoes fission with fast neutrons, The nature of the fragments produced depends on how the collision takes place, There are two important aspects of nuclear fissio: 1) It is accompanied by the shooting-out of 2 or 3 fresh neutrons at great speed, 2) these neutrons may collide with other *95u atoms, causing the latter to undergo fission with the production of more neutrons, If it can be arranged that at least 1 neutron from each fission brings about another fission, then the reaction is self-sustaining and in time all the *55y wii1 be split up, A reaction of this kind, consisting of a series of repeated steps, each initiated by'the previous one is atlled a chain reaction, noutron SA 5 fission Cy Bueieus Fission of a 2355 nucleus resulting in a chain reaction : Tie Neutron - Proton Ratio For the lighter elements with atomic no, below 20, the numbers of neu- trons and protons present in the nucleus of the stable isotopes is either identical or very similar and the neutron-proton ratio is near unity, In elements of higher.atomic no,,however,the most stable nuclei contain more neutrons than protons and the neutron-proton ratio rises steadily with atomic no, as shown below.Humber of [120 2 Neutrons 2s 57 100. Ny 80 i 60 ho 20. 56) Numbe¥ Of Protons Z *The Neutron-Proton Ratio in’ Stable Nuclei : Brom this figure it is clear that the ratio of neutrons to protons bears a definite relationship to the stability of the nucleus and for stable atoms varies between unity for the elements of low atomic no. and a value of about 1,5 for those with atomic no, around 80, Atoms with a neutron-proton ratio: lying outside the band of stability show in the figure tend to be ufstable and to undergo radioactive decay. It is interesting’ to note that nearly all stable nuclei contain either an even no, of protons or an even no, of neutrons,or, as is true in the majority of cases, even numbers of both, In fact, only 4 stable nuclei ere known in which the numbers of protons and neutrons are both o&d, 6 105 set ag Suet pi c7 2, qee With the loss of an alpha particle the neutron-proton ratio increases. With the loss of a beta particle the neutron-proton ratio decreases, Beta decay occurs by a neutron splitting to give a proton and @ beta particle, The Kinetics of Radioactive Decay The decay of a radioactive species follows a rate law like that of a first order chemical reaction, The rate of decomposition is directly proportional to the no, of atoms present at any time,Suppose we start with "a" atoms of material and that after time "t", "x" atoms have decayed, BR (ax) Se Mann) A = decay constant Sy dat Bn) Oo Soo 9 ats ee or ey ong oo en vin(a-x) = At - Ina At = -in(a-x) + Ina de Aare ¢? Half-life Determination The half-life is the time taken for a given mass of radioactive material to decay to half that mass, fron Ne Pals o = half-life ant = ng j A I = 6 ey ee Radiocarbon Dating to determine the approximate date of a"Fing” |, In a living species the proportion of "0 is constant(the present '*c decays as a new supply is taken in), Whon a species dies, the ‘4c pre- sent decays but is not reslaced. Thus by comparing the radioactivity of the "Fin the half-life of to the redionctivity of the living species, and knowing "4c, the approximate age of the "Find" can be calcul- ated, This method is suitcble for up to about 30,000 years,- 2 Lhe Elucktens “ y Ane Arromgemank § Ura Blackteno Yrom he Bak Qs 4 Tonkin E nara: La chemical wackons “Kw the dackrero thek ote wudval, Thos Khe emarary Aaadeld Ko femrove on dadkren rom Khe alo & om Ten gortonk quantita “3 enstay dromgen Uauslveh in dewieal, bonding are Ke ba wndoctood. 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Hygena une NHy 4 Nee Caottere Dgarh eg gee U=—N uo Se 0+ Tig on.Rudrerine to moda lary Making Sodsonn cherske C2) Ungoctialt) 5 EAR tas Qo nms a 20-01 Rap dna cree Woreeninc) aan an Wearwedilg 1 es a 2 NW, + oce —> Nach + ou” ch\otawine MWHaCd +a, ——o HaM-NHa + HQ oe warts Bake tn Che ctbsence Q cakiwa od thor Mek v ailldal by Khe odddben Qo calloib sudr co agin = Bedrrcne te werkt Yeasle anh Yoo Goo axes Q colts — ty UaHs ASC, ond COANE) S07 Waimaing Wo owe wucing aogat OG (ake. Mikrous onde Nad Megared bay Wedilvg, eonerenaton ddkcroke Lora avatine J NWR od NadlOs) %& cook Doorc. WULNO, rae NiO + ZNO 0° Ake readin & exetherre anh soy be axhreme , boo strong \eating D vend. The grodudk & BBR) Kamuge jax Tarr, \) DAC) SRD seh — temreves coger morse (ube 0&8 00 (] Sodiam Wudmdde sobubinn — remover Stour More (var) anh ony, _ dlorina greaowk ii) cone. servic aed — removes coon. ure Bis ; Mode lou worma A en Nore X sodium akrite am) Wadon amine \udrodddnde sodukines— VR, OH HC@ +NaW0, ——* NiO +20 xMachNi + Roogartion awd Ganckt Qikroxo Onde hb Cdootiar aoe, Macon sell. ; ae regrealdy aS vm cAR voor be gore o canktel chutlm, Aloe FO0°C UK Setomngesao Rank dkny ond oman Moab arth owngen K Wo una ao om emoastukic — Lardunrs, aes. skrockite . z a tee cetels ° 5 Eh eg, wpe o Wamane \ulorh & Rae dooue Kwo skrackutes. Wktoagn Mororde Cktic onde) 0 Pregored ka Khe oken 2 50|S0 mike adh on copes. Bx x BRNO, —p SCulwOs), + bH.O + 2n0t so\ So The grodadk ty wk very gute BE con be caledah over water Joad Ainskose Che edi imagery cikmge Momde VO. Cre che nikrogen wnoronde con Qe alosotld bra cdb cons sduutson R Worl sbgneke ond releanad ogginrtan hacking ron Irak wilh amadea) sulphuric ood. a | Pure Pate ign monoede con Be red : Perea x : * regan 2 aroun kre wih AS sulfuric od ob Cue ' 6Fe Sy 42KN0, + LUSO, ——» BFes(So,)y +K 250, ~eNLO 4 20004 Revgtinn ond Raadtims 3 Mktges moxie Colowrters poorly ighkly sdulde a wos, LE dacongorto tale Ss amends weidly aoove Looore Buk w shelde bells Uno Grngenkine EE Bingdves teabilyy om Voorl\ subgeste teRn. quoing alomon sclakan of Rms0 — dont) subphale wad decom geass Ghen Vaated Fe SO, + No = Fe SO,+NO : Rikengen menoide combens Gk chWorve inthe grime Qo Qrarcod caltalyk Ke Yor Abioryl DibariSes— 2N0 «C2, —> awocd\ Struckine ae ws ee OMe OS Ga BY eas Ch 0 tone ‘atom Qkke adhere too skrackures. This accounts Yer “Ko dD, oD small Ligde momonk: The wheele Yes garaenagalic groqutias Decouce YY ungaich checker. Inthe sth sbike the onde worzes b Yorn U0, , steudka p - ee ee OF we boy doamoanelie,, Diedtogen Tkrorde ond WWingn Diowde (0204, 2d: 100,) Nikrogen Siarde i voually gregneh bay the ocbion & eorcrkwbel mine aad on cog@y: — Ca UXN0, —=e Cano), + 20,8 * ato One. a The 00% cde da toy becca. ddoery Sure. buy Waking wel dreh ond Ynaly~qoodueh ensrlls Alok akabe ~ Drews, Decaman ik Woe do water qf enidrallizaion, aeelwo,), SEs 2tkO + uno,t « O21 Svea tw nix Gten Digud Sindioan ekrodo he Srey martiit codes Che Sinlignn Cikromde, Hrereley segoraking K Yow Whe oxrgen.Be 3: arog ektonde, anh Ativgn Aionde oe oy expslibrum: S NiO, oa Aa ruc oe unt \N calla) boy See awe, Ae Qa a gedominiss JF AWK Gagualinte. N,0, =2awo, == 2N0~0, a opah examhe Q comolay te comdako o& ¢ Neen oe eae Chamrdk Liss ocrobion Di adcrogen kokronde axtremeds goraensus, TE 2xwS a2 caloutlers empralls iow —t0°c aos a ckroio-cAoure) gwd \ onli ok 23%, Tk Moodees weaddy” Man OSA ayorenay an acidic slum, 2n0, * 4.0 oe ~ HNO, NO.» Hwro mad oah BEC Wee. 5 ‘aah ‘sak | de. The dirs ach subbren Sobor old oak OR ook, Pre oval eqpabiim oa ‘ ee 3N0, + to —* 2HN0, «V0 okie ofl Wok solutions Qe odedie Ke ques o mnstine d Ante anf) dhrbe: AND, * 2Na0q —> NaNO, + NaNO, * 4.0 Ginko) Gia _ Decay) — Akylols) : FE a wohl oridurrg ager, berg ready educl be aboyn morovde oF aStrogem » — Ax + 2N0. —2 kGO «+ Na HaS +O, —» Hao * S§ * NO Sea Faso, wo Cess§ = A) Strudiye 3 V0, iC — oy ds Ss ae * os sont aackten areoorone Ibah Q Cre dhove too scruckares.ey ee Pmt nh Kp ° “ Pal ec i beic Aah HW0, Nike Cu) Bad Momulackinre = Ostwald Yrocoas The Yook Kage & the cokabitc octabion 2 amaonin to aliagm mode Kady *50,—S UNlot GUO 5 BH = — Gey WS ml Ammomal here Helier SalQaasis| vo acrcall with dno tatinas’ to vlan dL our and blam togidhy over Che JAK glakiwan - Tredisen kK. Here 46 —48 lo X ommenra vo converte uth cbfogen mmorde. The Neadkion Yo axecthermie yowh with a heck exchanger, the tnrgenione 9 qoote 1S meinem Gitiok extond beoking, : 2 __ The winkine Yo qaige ie thom coda ond LEE Sih ar Shon Wager monorede ExeSioees with organ to pwn Lovde whuda reade Wn unter qurra ae Sh Q alosuk 50% coranctrubinn thos secarh stage Glos ue Lasae skainlers stiod dbsorgtion twee, Aoaignd be ewsere Cho mama X the opcand icons cee Aasconding Viquuh. the “eqpatins Yr the teackios Sa eee skage oe 20 x0, —* 2N0, ak Sik 200, + HAO —> HNO, + HOO, Crew BWW. ——> WO, + 2N0% xHio gprs ovenll BNO, + LO —e 2HA0, + WO The prolluck con Qe comrcetirstah t 68% bu diKWlakinn dana coro | de _ kane Yared, More concrete ach con be wade la di Cie wring GW concokmtid subduarte acih,Laleomiarn Repomiian § (ude hed = q echoes ot sodden) (e ee Sek tw nee alk alu cxggats tino Kno, + HaSO, = KHSO, « HWO,t Che, Gmpentne Bvt weak sbne (0° be mininize Che Socomnookion 3 Whe kre ook, Evento; sone Ka ond Soconpusas Se gp ciktogm Monde whidh daodues in We adh colouting ee Re Wendie ley burns, voor ar Cavoudy gee SN) eo = aloovk qgy, adhe ach. Conconttnbed och conkers 68%(o rikric anh. Fuming sikie ach cokers 98% aibric acid. Wher coda be —W2°C Ke gore add © dogakah oo cboutlass crgtol Roadtirns Hike ach Rocougeans ody lk room Kenguntine (suck Belge) ok segidly iron Veale bo que dikrogen dice de anh oxygen. KHNO, ——» 2Hi0 + 4wo,t <« 0,} WSeke ach com ack oo Glan acd; Cillan axditing aga) Gia. Akroing ogg . oa an ocd i i : Set a stro, aed, adword comfwrely Ainsaciael Luke toms dn san, WOOO 5) mae ee No; TE Veadts with makalle hoses oul caboroteo —p salts calle citralns, (Kee ombahrowe ded w regula be be coda ofl peated, trodbine in Kean reoguedts).The erainn Yodtane oe— = He &) anne § wate Code Dackrogeaikntt) : (() conambrodian Atle ood iii) Keongsraiinre - 3 W ease ee Drum Rack nike ach akkockts cattery wakels sudroo ores, odes Ben Kras § cakroun ach oO @ hike ood akkodes aif to exeek dokianee onk add. Wha the. Disommuar ot staitace stax, He ee ea ee eae ron Soe o~ Se oss ee x o unset onide He waka & sand te bgcome gansive. Lowy very LOG Ake anh, moqresuns och wovapelar re Ris So AS erxcagtlen, Gin Baoan os Jie adae ob b—otnd’s me onde amnonuian kre, ids Mncornoste,Ko etme gee sho Werke) Bue GA cmd ooh VE ges o SMG werdue Q thabrieal GaCrw) odo ge vorteas ovdas y ergpa. Caw), + 24.0 + 200, % % Go x KANO, Sen UNO; ee Butwo,), + KM * aot £0|50 Qidake) NO, * att «e —o NO * WO conc. — Ca Noy + kHt + 3e —~» Nox 24.0 a. -Cr soa se =e a. -2n eau WW, * 30 MX AL iv oan a Tk be @ Gaba, agi: Ce sere 2b yd, oo tO +200, + 6 ead + 60st bebo Ents < snout )pces ets ORE cane. eg. Sx GAND, —e WrSOy P+ SAND. —* Hz 00, nh add atNs fr a ro 2¥NO, —2 HO +200 + 3O ea 6FeSOy + SHaSO, + 2HN0, —0 Bhea(S,), + UO tant SUAS + HNO, 2 35] + Go + 2W0t Aaya Yeaio Cludds care. HW03 + Bods. conc. HQ) abkocles add ory, leroouric aad — gmdsbly became Cre ave ah oxidaios Che Cla eloboddore ach b Mdorve, UNO, « S4HCR —» NocQ «CQ, + 2H (fi) coe Aken ogek Conconkaslah cikric acth, gortheullaty tn Ree geamne, d carcotentah subglumte aod, o cage Q subbstibuKing kro qrougo — VO, Jor \adrogen ofome Gn cota orgie whrenleg 2 eg Colle HNO, TEP Cette0, « HO “Tis gimcar coll Sdkwalimn and cy Q great cdascrd ington. “The dine sakrabing aagnk “ laakiued te tae he edkryt (Aronian) en NON. WSO, * HNO, Useed Mkre Aad KG wees wudccoths 0 Sprbliese. Exploaives : ¢ Sang, oggak Snthe grbudin 9 Khe gagere auler anh As an oediRmo, Gai = yok « WSOQ Na * HNO. rinhaberas UNO, — too unde, aloe Adee ake 'K Lacomgeane Laufack arene = es pagidly Dw wo ZHNO, —* KNOs + anok +o : Tie te Pewee regard ig situ Qrowee dderike ok ano. Two weak asd jody Ugly Simeddieh ike ans in Soba. HNO, S-Ht * NOL stouckive z : Neen cos trouks marie, ro —nbtous ot com reds 4 oder the KNEE R-0-N=0 or the alfa cragined R=N0, according bo Khe condi, i o= NO Wk Um stracdire 0 oe grees Wale Ye hour’ Goo cane Yarns, HNO, wv very Rackive lang bith on ondiaing agate enka teducwa aguk. won onndire eq, 2Fe SO, + 2HAIOZ H2SOq —o FealSoy), + 2Hi0 + 2WOF AKI *2HNO, +2Hcr oak « Fi +240 +2W0t We areetid Mange 240, —e Ho t2N0 x 6 og redux $3 AKMADE + THO. & SUSO, —P KSOLtDM ASO, + SUMO, + 320 Cha readin te ured & adtoneke solo Q akrites volumabrically, the Aka, maka ond alkabina eathe wokalls oe ctoble, Sew made by the Crema Onda the akrkeo 2 and Sodan SS Dkk mad Umgortonk weeks 2 NoW0a+ O24 Whang _ con ecian Soda wikrake, sees rev 33 escagic SAM migh. 280°C , Adndving la 2 Hy. 04 My 61,0 SW OH hydrogen ond one +0 > mt + iy + 10 Sm" + oF a =) emt fet effects— Miy.t0 SY? « on NNi,.H,0 i8 loosely called anmoniom hydroxide but it i9 really emmonia hydrate (Probk base). Ammonia solution ia a weak alkeli because of hydrogen bonding between Mi,” {ions and Of” sons. Fectors Affecting the Siting of e Chemical Production Plant Reailebility of tow on 1 workforc Imerkets, and protection of the environmentle able to discuss, the. above Factors’ using Supplied date.0 © an awareness of the industriel inportence of ammonia fond nitrogen compounds derived from saonia. By fer the biggest use is for the sanwfacture of nitrogenous fertilizers, particularly ammonium salts such as the sulphate, nitrate, end phosphat Manufacture of nitric acid by the Ostwald process Hanifacture of urea, phenylemine, nylon, and odin carbonate (Solvay process) . ea refrigerant because of the eae with which it 1s Liquefied (only a fe ines ‘atnospheric pressure at room temperature) end its high latent heat of vepor ization. In aatillurgy to provide an inert or reducing atmosphere during processes such fe heat treatment and brazing; the hat ammonia decomposes into nitrogen and hydrogen whieh prevents eccese of oxygen to the metal. Dilute wolutions af semonia are valuable cleansing agents, used to renove grease. Uiquid’ aemonis is ¢ useful solvent. Be able to demonstrate on amareness of the environmental consequences of (3). the uncontrolled use of nitrate fertilizers, (Li) the production of axides of nitrogen in ct engines. Farmers uso fertilizers in the form of compounds of phosphorus and nitrogen (phosphates and nitrates) to increase their erop yields. Often fertilizers are Used in Large quantities, and because planta can absorb only a limited amount Unrough their Toots, unabsorbed fertilizer is leached into rivers and lakes. There the fertilizer causes accelerated groxth of water plents, and thick eats of lgve cover the surface. The name of this unintentional enrichwent of river fond loke water ia eutrophication. When algae die, they are decomposed by terobie becterie which die when they run out of oxygen, Angerobie bacteria then teke over end convert part of the dead matter into anelly decey products. he rest of the debris falls tothe bottom and slowly @ layer of dead plant material builds up there. Deprived of oxygen the fish and other aqustic creatures di Excessive fertilizer can algo find ito vay into ground water. Inis is water held underground in porous layers of rock. A third of Britein’® drinking water conea from ground water, It is feared that the nitrate level will geaduelly bulld up dangerously high in years to cone. In car engines, bectuse of the high tenperstures produced, nitrogen snd ‘oxygen, present in’ the air taken in, conbine to produce oxides of nitrogen. In the eit the nitrogen monoxide ie s00a converted nto nitrogen dioxide. the Totter ia highly corrosive and toxic. It irritetes the breathing passages and yr'in the ait to form nitric acid, an ingredient of Nitric(¥) Acid (INO,)~ Manufecture - Ostwald Process the Tiret otoge is the tatalytic oxidetion of emania to nitrogen monoxide: {nt + 50) — ano + 6H, Al = = 906 43 moi Anoonia (From the Haber synthesis) is mixed with about ten times its voluae of ‘alr and blown tapidly over the hot pletinun-rhodiom catalyst. Here 365-90 Of ommonia ie converted into nitrogen monoxide. the reaction is exothermic, ‘nd’ with a heet exchanger , the temperature of 900°C 1s maintained without ‘xternal heating.60 The mixture of geses is then cooled and diluted with air, when nitrogen ‘onoxide combines with oxygen to form nitrogen dioxide which reacts with water giving nitric(¥) acid of about. 50% concentration, This second stage tokes Place in large stainless steel sbsorption towers, designed to ensure thorough Inixing of the ascending gases end the descending liquid. the equet ions forthe Teact ions in this second stage are:~ 2N0 + 0, — 2™0, at First 2N0, + 0 —P 10, + 10, then 310, ——¥ WD, + 20, + H,0 giving overs IMD, + 1,0 — 2HN0, + NO The product can be concentrated to 685 by distillation when © constent boiling mixture (azeotropic mixture) is formed. More concentrated acid cen be Image by distilling this mixture with concentrated sulphuric seide Uses of Niteie(¥) Acid Much ie used to make nitrates, particulerly omonium and celcivm nitrates, for use es fertilizers. Mony textile dyes and nesrly all chemicel explosives (eg. 1.N.1. end dynamite) fare made by processes which use concentrated niteie(¥) ecid in thele mmonufacture.. Tes used as an on nylon wed. "Terylene izing agent in the production of the important polymers Oxidation States of Nitrogen +5 ty; nitrate(¥)= +4 Ny0gsN0, +3 tm0,5 nitrate tits 2 0 a No oN O39 Wigs Ms Also 4, <== 0, 8 g00d example of complete at 750% thermal dissoctat ionSudgut S_ su By Sulgur & We aroue DLS. Occurence ov} Extradiirn Pee CRar es ierieaa ee subgandas. Tete adtwdah bythe Franck Crocess: suddur Were i axyges —? spur Mexde af a Uke oer trode. Readtine with Wolar (lo Weackion. Beadion with, Rode Umakkad@h ba cde unlase then are stm oxidizing agerks coresis COs —. 2W.0 F GNO, * BASOy Ee droite selln.,, sodden Criesslehdt Loken WH soduam lado’ @) SOCAN sulphate awk oh sAgube are or ab sche soldide chem wackong, oth more seu te awe potas idan. 6Na0H x S —* 2Na,S * NaaS.0, + 30 es So ees eke AMWLroen , : AWakrogn — Ke Ode x joan Noma oA Koo oF te suk Yorrne yoke Ypreon Naren, ya Kae some shot a suber : Derodee. Your Qs aie oC Files thre o uy, Yr on o heave te owvsgorne - ee ee wera la sllgeat) “De A me ebbeort. & eee Heok \wur in (ah ) ena bruf enerene re wan 9 he Geena) er pe, ere der Domne Co\i— monodiunre Sa ok S¢@ eons X gacsareh. Se wep (sw \sahors). & V7 aw\ Ava deagee J Sa od Se are aden lecllaw— he Vee 5 NAS NGS cana AB —vorobln in Lager ne R Sq wih Garg Bc — worn reaoure eo — voriolian on ae 4 Sat 58 oh ng rch @ — Eventi, ; me og nae Jot dy tc — mading & 4 SE ; QF ) ce — en cathy ehtanute a madting, oe? A Sg topecks ‘ 5 . ‘Mase ) Sodgwur Vubcondadng wubbar opagow dar mh, eetOvidao ond Orrondo of Subelwh — 63, “ onde Sora, | cortrogordumo, ach | Sora, SMdur donde | SO faelgrurese add WaSO, || wagtbonk een kroxde | S03 sudrate ocd HaSOy, one gr womorde (so [fektesia es (LMS, Dgur seopuorde | S20; [dithionovo aud |HaS20, Fepeqmandgaite cal. HASog Peroxodisulsuite acd |W. S.0e CRantulgurre ad) Soy Dur taktoxde slg hor hegkoxide, ManQadiired by burning silfor A ot. SO. — SO, Pregatalm — bythe educkon 3 Mek cone, subgame aed willy copear. Curt ASO, —* C. S04 * Aas = so,t “tra, sdihar Mondeo Bviad tag, ERES” cubgrane ook ond eflad ba Soumussh dels. < = Jur Aiowde Wo doo Yrvad au'— ()AMuto ach on subphikas SOs + ant —e HO + Sot VADs, acd on huPtogen subdnkos NSoy +H¥* —* Hao + So,f vi) Aka, “acd ow Cries uberatis : : S037 +2U* —o Wad +S0,t* S| - nde ecgitete tae — Yor Pre mmaomjdevre 2 cblghuvie och : Prngortion z J WaO-* So, ENT * WSO, SE AH Ss SOx EES exbrewaly polvlla in water agen, seensbuene AER Ne erBn Malone tens > SUIS, ond Bem Wurman s ubplas joe eg. 2N2OH + SO, —*® NasS0, + H20 Ma, SOs +420 * $0, — 2NahSO, ecee Asa we A SO, +40: + G —> HaSO, war water ptank MBic must howe wate eit eq. CRs + 2keD* SO, ——s 2ncL ~zHS Oy Qn y + CH SS0a+ 220 > AM + SHaSOy SudQur Mowe W ural, commercial, & & edu Dre cadeunny cantar om substances sudk ao stro onk wood — Uk ina leas nN encima, edak Chow race Lois (chorea O\"S). hs on 0 ie TS, wat rarrcaildigaregpotalira gained cepts Rica ahes cote Nala a ns acl as on oxidizers agenk- wg, AWaS «SO, —> 220 * 3S (unr creak) AM + SO, —» AMO «S$ burming Mgr : Serackiste - ; eo , ry ‘ Se yo. $ > bY. SS tg, OS Ps oR a Ba deur anki shold Do See ncaa Gabe dhall dadeos A Ramomer Wont. g che adore tno Coe SOF Yor DeeKo g sulphur diouds, Loh parach Xn oad oh Prarie non erengaareke QU rede. Che. Baltes cherrgnn coBour Yoon co coourdanalie- io decclourizad). Whoa Qooadl Qntoveh acdayial gor nan Gedrsoanoke Cyr) aed. Ele Qe dey- change caleur Yom otwnge > ahan,Sudgauric GW) Ac) Suhghvroo Acid) and Suldvste (i's (subpites) SF Ee A sclukion fb subg Rodda w wales L bnown ao subghuteus acd . SO, + pO = HaSO, SHS, = ANt * oa, Tt vo wesk,diveate ach guna Mee f 3 sedin sols, normoQd subg w. Va. SO3 wisuldde 4g. Natt 50, makalersddike <9: Va,S.0s ie eal Ae Dek eroded dam sodas ised de soln io evagotated te dougasd Hon okeeoghwe of saljur dionde. QNaKkSO, ——> NaiS.0s = ¥07 Len laated, sudlgiiter dacemncoae wii sulldstdes eat sddratest= eq. bNa.S0, —— Na S <« BMo,SOy Sodaen ord coloumn Wisldigats sebus. are una Ua moter, Yrom wood oocomae ron Aiaadve Ke Ylorrue vackaral ee ar YorrDitolé che eleura, Xe e2WVubaar . Wikh orm chlorde sola. Khan gf Eee é War que a wine geste Bartion sudake wlth te odulde “oy WOKE Wbroddare ae SAddur Tronke So Stradkiure (veoer gnsar) 2 ot 20% s0r : ~—> at &——> ¢ we RK S., A mete oa eee kts " % Sg it Ng om solder outy call aSackton a ceed out dal deckren o eran Walon OX We dhe Bare camenicad Joros. TED ensde Loy Che calabbe oxiobiin Cuanadsen (v1 onde ednliyh) R wer Kode:Sudguur Eriowde Uo caoutdans engtatine seid emrotrg mn area pRaynergric Lorre la,e5¥) ism & ra — waged yee jb gh EST Bor¥ pro — svlolimne bebe bSP ond SOPC. SDpur vices Musdves Radia in core. subghane ob) athe a Gaceee Bigad called, clanun Qaeng, sdgunde acd) WSO, * SO, == HaS.dg cloner, Subduuric: Ae WaSOy Are mogortiy Aika woh sobdeurie ach we ano credelutha Conk Seocoe. This We chau antammbicadl.. Yalow s— The Conkadk Pree Tin greene Xo baad upon the eewrble comlinalion d solder honk oad carga. : : ASO, +O, TE 280, > OWE —1G2 KT mole Bai be COGN, cgtdilions Woy wrentun al) are Widh giesare omk Low Conagarkire, In ee —ogtiowien ao greaaie ‘ soy aoe okrsadrute, de aad Deca the cmall Temptrucacant, NURS Bouin Brora Wah Qeroute, woud ade fasta tra heavy cogdad mak. Aro Che wduchan wm volume sus33%o oo gusto Yom Ca dome egpobin BK caer S°h Sue b SS eSncaay oF oragen.Ew daddua he temearatatey loth adh ond wadien mie lane to bo coraidared.Daogke ke wan Qo coksbit, onlay ok & Gergen. a dloouk” FSO “wo Nha reckon Jock emewds Yo alan eaililorian mm bbe vor, ime daring, hick Whe veackenls ore in conkuck wilh Che JK. Mur diode w Adkecah Lintng Sulphur On air ot iy tasting o a opicka oe! Trorud. gun cei een Ge yemoye sveenicatl angourds od char Subbstarto AL wig “got” the colabyk. the solgur dionde ) wid wlth excars ee @ purdads Shab, ond kere gesea. Racvedva sara 2 convettro uJ Dullbes taidieysahobh euceahe| Ube! moxiquins potilles unless area & Cre woebing qotes. The mode sutolde cakaludt vo Vamaduin Cu) ode gromah kay qdranauan subpraa ona Sihica suggort: (atin to areata, oak wore Seo ep he, & eisaning) - co Aho onthe u exotic and the oguaking Gur ape withouk external i aa 4 Alles goreing Urtour the cawertne tue goane arg codah ond geanal Take on alvsorpin Gwar Shwe Che odpurkroeds Mardes tn core. seyhure ach. 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AQ Te aoe Ae os ae aE oe BAO Aha AR Weare ee Larry ogh: 381°C Com lee wy ad o Sropd vockar(ecbeluct meena, pee SN a, eS Chk ia CoegirertaaE Oe AL can lee great ix beth cabrwic on anionic comgltves. oy Are oo CARY. eg te Qtr ove ARH, AVE ADU Gt,Ceramics The manufacture of earthenware, bricks, tile, porcelain, terra-cotta, and pottery from silicate minerals constitutes the large and important ceramics industry. Clay, an impure form of the mineral Kaolinite, H,Al,5in0q, is the most important’ of the minerals used in ceramics. Most tyes of ‘pdttery or bricks are made from naturally occurring clays that contain sand or feldspar. Usually iron oxide is present as an impurity, and hence the product obtained is coloured buff or red. The brick, tile, or other ceramic piece is shaped from a plastic mixture consisting of cley and water in the proper proportions, to which quartz, feldspar, or other minerals have been added in the desired amounts. After being dried, the object is placed in a kiln or furnace and heated to a high temperature ("baked or "fired”). Complex chemical changes take place, in which the mixture changes to a strong coherent mass. Porcelain and chinaware are made similarly from relatively scarce clays of high purity; since these clays contain no iron or other colouring matter, the products are white. Glazes can be applied to ceramic ware by introducing into the furnace or kiln toward the end of the baking period a substance that will react with the clay at the surface of the piece to give a transparent, Nonporous surface layer. Silica brick, containing a very high percentage of $i0g, is widely used as a refractory material for furnace linings. Glass Scientifically speaking, the word "glass" may be applied to any liquid that has been supercooled to a temperature at which its viscosity is so great that the substance has the outward physical characteristics of a solid. In practice, however, the application of the term glass is usually restricted to a noncrystalline, transparent mixture of metal silicates obtained by melting together silicon dioxide, metal carbonates, and other appropriate materials. The common variety of glass, known as "soft" or soda-lime glass, is made by fusing @ mixture of calcium carbonate (limestone), sodium carbonate (soda ash), and silicon dioxide (sand). The silicon dioxide displaces the carbon dioxide of the carbonates to yield a complex mixture of sodium and calcium silicates. Like other supercooled liquids, glass does not have a definite melting point but gradually softens as it is heated. It is usually formed into the desired shape by use of a blowpipe or by blowing by means of compressed air into moulds. In the manufacture of plate glass, a mass of hot glass is allowed to flatten out and is then rolled to the desired thickness. The cooling of glass must be carried out very slowly,ie. the glass must be annealed, in order to prevent the development of strains due to unequal cooling of various parts of the piece. Glasses having a wide variety of properties have been prepared. A typical soda glass contains 73%Si0,, 0.5%Al,03, 8.0%Ca0, 3.0%Mg0, and 15.5%Nag0. Pyrex glass, characterized by a low coefficient of thermal expansion, and hence a high resistance to cracking on rapid cooling (thermal shock), contains high percentages of acidic oxides and no calcium. A typical pyrex glass has the composition 80.6%Si0,, 4.4%Na,0, 2.0%Al,03, and 13%B,03. Pyrex is also highly resistant to chemical action and is widely used in laboratory apparatus and in cooking utensils. Flint glass (eg.55%5i09, 11%Kq0, 33%Pb0, and 1%Al,03) hes a high density and index of refraction and is widely used in glass tableware and ornamental "cut" glass as well as for optical purposes.Fine-Sized Silica By a variety of processes involving liquid- or gas- phase precipitation reactions, it has been found possible produce exceedingly finely divided forms of silicon dioxide. These products have very low bulk densities and are useful as fillers for a variety of synthetic materials. Fine-sized silicas are useful also as "flatting agents" for varnishes, to give a dull rather than a shiny gloss to the finished surface. Uses of Ceramics 1) Refractory materials, 2) Ceramic hobs, 3) Printed circuits - insulators, 4) VW Futura - has a pump with ceramic sliding surfaces - low coefficient of friction, 5) A medium for artistic expression (ceramic sculpture).Fuel Cell Fuel cells are devices for converting chemical energy continuously and directly into electricity. The principles of their operation can easily be understood by considering the simplest type, one consuming hydrogen and oxygen at room temperature. Such a cell is shown diagrammatically below. Flow of electrons supply of oxygen gas ee - ioral Somer peerrel hydroxide porous carbon cathode porous carbon anode OH” ions diffusing across soln. slowly a outlet outlet 4——— A Simple Fuel Cell Hydrogen gas diffuses through the porous cathode, which usually consists of carbon impregnated with finely-divided platinum to catalyse the chemical changes and prevent overpotential effects. Some of the hydrogen gas which is adsorbed then reacts with OH ions from the electrolyte to form water, releasing electrons which flow around the circuit. Be or a0 + The carbon anode is also porous and in the presence of the finely - divided platinum catalyst it adsorbs oxygen gas, which then reacts with water from the electrolyte (provided a supply of electrons is available from the cathode) forming hydroxyl ions: B+ H,0 + 2e——p 20H" Improved forms of fuel cell which operate at high temperatures and pressures are under development and promise much greater power outputs per cubic metre. Fuel cells have several distinctive features. The fuels they consume are not only cheap (e.g. hydrogen, methane, oxygen) but can be fed into the cell from storage tanks so that the cell can operate continuously over long periods without recharging. The efficiency of such cells is likely to be very high, approaching 70-75% compared with a maximum efficiency of only about 40-45% for conventional sources of electric power. Moreover, when fully developed they are expected to be much lighter and more compact than accumulators. Since, unlike turbines and dynamos, fuel cells contain no moving parts, they are noiseless and easy to maintain. They produce no obnoxious waste products and are fairly insensitive to vibration and temperature changes. The advantages should ensure that fuel cells become increasingly important in future years, first for specialized purposes such as space satellites and submarines, and later possibly for the large-scale production of electricity.