THE DUALITY OF MATTER AND WAVES

Frank Znidarsic*

ABSTRACT
A quantum measurement may detect a particle or a wave. The bias of the observer appears to influence the outcome
of the experiment. Newton’s laws of motion are not dependent upon the bias of an observer. The nature of the
influence that the observer imparts upon the observed is mysterious. I contend that observations progress through
the action of the quantum transition. Both matter and waves consist of undulating fields. The local fields of matter
are pinned into the structure of matter at elastic discontinuities. Vibration at a specific frequency shakes the fields
free from the grip of the discontinuity. The process of vibration is that of the quantum transition. The radiated
fields of light are not attached to a discontinuity. They propagate at the luminal velocity.

THE UNIVERSE IS COMPOSED OF PARTICLES THE UNIVERSE IS COMPOSED OF WAVES

Sir Isaac Newton proposed that light consists of particle like
corpuscles. Arthur Compton measured the angle of rebound-
ing X-rays and discovered that they bounce like particles.
This result confirmed Newton’s hypothesis. In the late nine-
teenth century, it was discovered that the spectrum of a
black body contains much less ultraviolet radiation than
classical wave theory predicted. Max Planck came up with a
solution to this problem. His solution employed particles of
light. These particles are called photons. The energy of these
photons varies directly with their frequency. Planck’s parti-
cle construct solved the ultraviolet problem by showing that
the higher frequency ultraviolet photons are not energeti-
cally accessible. Albert Einstein applied Planck’s constant to
the photo-electric effect and showed that the maximum
energy of an ejected electron equals the energy of the
absorbed photon. These observations demonstrate that light
is composed of particle-like things.
The ancient Greek philosopher Democritus proposed that
matter is constructed of particles. These particles are the
smallest unit of the substance that still retains the properties
of the substance. Chemist John Dalton offered some of the
first theoretical proof of Democritus’ proposition. His exper-
iments revealed that particles (elements) combine in whole
number ratios to form compounds. Ludwig Edward
Boltzmann extended this idea and showed that a gas consists
of a collection of particles. Boltzmann discovered that the
properties of a gas are established through a statistical inter-
action of its particles. Robert Millikan experimented with
electrically charged droplets. His experiments revealed a first
sub-atomic particle, the electron. Ernest Rutherford’s particle
scattering experiments detected a few alpha particles that
bounced directly back. This result disclosed a second sub-
atomic particle, the nucleus. In the twentieth century, the
tracks of a host of sub-atomic particles were directly
observed in a bubble chamber. These observations demon-
strate that matter is composed of particle-like things.
Christian Huygens proposed that light is a wave. He sug-
gested that the amplitude of the wave determines its inten-
sity and that the frequency of the wave determines its color.
The diffraction of light by a prism seemed to support this
hypothesis. The dispersion of light which passes through a
pinhole also indicates that light is a wave. Thomas Young
offered some of the first theoretical proof of Huygens’ propo-
sition. Young passed light through two closely spaced slits.
An interference pattern was produced as the light was pro-
jected on a screen. This interference pattern revealed the
wave-like nature of light. Radio technology was developed in
the twentieth century. This technology directly displays the
amplitude and frequency of a radio wave (a form of light) on
an oscilloscope. These observations demonstrate that light is
composed of wave-like stuff.
Louis de Broglie proposed that matter is a wave. In 1927,
Clinton Davisson and Lester Germer of Bell Labs conducted
an experiment in which an electron was passed though fine-
ly divided slits.1 An interference pattern was produced. It
was discovered that the electron exhibits wave-like proper-
ties. These observations demonstrate that matter is com-
posed of wave-like stuff.
It appears that the substance of the universe simultane-
ously exists as both particles and waves. The property that
emerges depends upon the bias of the observer. This duality
has been a fundamental mystery.
PROPOSED RESOLUTIONS
Niels Bohr produced an atomic model that contained a par-
ticle-like nucleus. Particle-like electrons orbited around this
nucleus. These electrons carried an amount of angular
momentum that is an integer multiple of Planck’s constant.
Angular momentum is the product of length, velocity and
mass. These terms did not emerge from a fundamental
analysis and are empirical. Bohr’s model described the radii
of the atomic orbits and the frequency of the emitted pho-

1 INFINITE ENERGY • ISSUE 92 • JULY/AUGUST 2010

ton. The model did not disclose the mechanism that binds
the electron to a state, determine the probability of transi-
tion, or explain the intensity of the atomic spectra.
Werner Heisenberg extended Bohr’s particle-like analysis
and developed a mathematical technique that produced
intensity of the spectral lines. His technique employed
matrix mechanics and the mathematical function known as
the Hamiltonian.2 The Hamiltonian describes particle inter-
actions as a function of their energy. The correspondence
principle was invoked. It states that the energy drop in a
quantum system is equivalent to the amplitude of a classical
system. The position of the particle was obscured within the
Hamiltonian and the amplitude of the particle’s vibration
was brushed aside with the help of the correspondence prin-
ciple. The question of the fundamental nature of a substance
was avoided.
Erwin Schrödinger proposed that matter is a wave. His
solution was slightly better than Heisenberg’s in that it incor-
porated de Broglie’s electron waves. The use of the de Broglie
wave presented a conceptual problem. The de Broglie wave
consists of a packet of waves that travel together at the group
velocity V. The length of the packet decreases as its velocity
increases. It is a curious mathematical construct with no
classical analog. It has become accepted because it produces
results. Schrödinger encountered a second conceptual prob-
lem. How do the discrete properties of matter naturally
emerge from a continuous wave? He proposed that the
superposition of an infinite number of waves localized the
wave function.3 Wave patterns repeat at intervals. The solu-
tion suggests that the particle appears at intervals in remote
locations. Matter’s particle nature did not spontaneously
emerge from the analysis and Planck’s empirical constant,
and had to be injected ad hoc into the solution.
Max Born offered a solution, known as the Copenhagen
interpretation. It proposes that matter’s de Broglie wave is
not real. It is a subjective construct that exists only in con-
figuration space. The amplitude of this wave represents the
probability that a particle of matter will reside at certain
locations. A particle emerges, from the probability wave,
upon the immediate collapse of the wave function. The solu-
tion attempted to extract a particle out of a wave and resolve
the problem of wave particle duality. The interpretation did
not provide for a mechanism to bind the electron to a state,
disclose the whereabouts of configuration space, or explain
how a continuous wave collapses at velocities greater than
light speed. Schrödinger and Einstein never accepted this
interpretation. The nature of the substance of the universe
remained a mystery. The duality of nature remained irrecon-
cilable.4
ZNIDARSIC’S INTERPRETATION
My model reveals the mechanism that bundles a wave with
a particle. The binding mechanism is classical. Classical sys-
tems are constructed by fastening components together.
Fasteners are mechanical discontinuities. The same binding
mechanism can attach a field. The electromagnetic field is,
for example, pinned into the structure of a superconductor
by introduced defects (discontinuities). This interpretation
states that the natural force fields are pinned into the struc-
ture of matter at elastic discontinuities. Discontinuities nat-
urally emerge when the intensity of a field exceeds the abil-
ity of space to support that field. The discontinuity acts as a
pilot and replaces Heisenberg’s and Schrödinger’s superposi-
tion of waves construct. The use of a single binding mecha-
nism is a simplification, in accordance with the principle of
Occam’s razor.
Charles Coulomb studied the force between electrical
charges. He qualified the energy E contained by the interac-
tion of two electrical charges Q. Coulomb’s formulation
(Equation 1) did not disclose the mechanism that binds an
electron to a state.
2Q2
E= (1/r) (1)
4πeo
The energy contained by a classical spring is proportion-
ate to the product of the spring constant K and the square of
the displacement x (Equation 2). This formula is usually
employed with a fixed spring constant K and a variable dis-
placement x.
1
E= Kx2 (2)
2
I regrouped the constants in Equation 1 into the form that
expresses the elastic energy of a spring. This formulation,
Equation 3, expresses both wave-like and particle-like prop-
erties. It describes electrical energy in terms of the move-
ment of the fixed (particle-like) displacement 2rp within the
variable elastic medium K-e.
1
E= K (2r )2 (3)
2 -e p
The displacement 2rp is twice that of the maximum extent
of the proton. It equals the classical radius of the electron.
Mass and kinetic energy are pinned into the structure of
matter at this discontinuity. The phase velocity of distur-
bances within the pinned fields is luminal. The group veloc-
ity V of the packet is that of the discontinuity. The condition
resembles that of stuck light. de Broglie suggested that the
matter wave naturally emerges from the superposition of the
Compton wave and its Doppler shifted reflection, under this
condition.5 The properties of special relativity also emerge as
a condition of stuck light.6,7
The variable elastic constant K-e (Equation 4) also emerged
as a result of the regrouping of the electrical constants. I
employed this elastic constant and produced the atomic
energy levels and the intensity of the spectral emission.8
This analysis showed that the wave-like properties of matter
emerge from its mass and elasticity. This harmonic is real; no
configuration space is required.
Fmax
K-e = (4)
r
The product of the harmonic frequency and the particle’s
displacement is the velocity Vt. This velocity, as expressed by
Equation 5, was extracted from the results of cold fusion
experiments. The first term in Equation 5 equals the diame-
ter of the active nuclear environment. The second term rep-
resents the natural frequency of an active environment.
Vt = (2πnrp)(fc/n) (5)
I presented my theorem at a conference of the American
Nuclear Society in 2000.9 It describes the action of Vt: “The
constants of the motion tend toward the electromagnetic in
a Bose condensate that is stimulated at a dimension fre-
JULY/AUGUST 2010 • ISSUE 92 • INFINITE ENERGY 2
quency of Vt.” The convergence of the motion constants is
an effect of an equalization in the strength of the magnetic
component of the electrical, gravitational and nuclear
forces. The equalization in the strength of the forces match-
es the impedance of the interacting states and allows the
fields to slip into a new configuration. Energy flows, the
wavefunction collapses and the quantum transition pro-
ceeds. The constant Vt, like Planck’s, has produced the atom-
ic energy levels and the intensity of spectral emission. The
convergence of the motion constants provides a clue as to
the origin of Vt. It is a condition where the velocity of light
within the electronic structure of the atom equals the veloc-
ity of sound within the nuclear structure of the atom. In the
case of cold fusion, the velocity of sound within the nuclear
structure is determined by the vibration of the optical
phonons within the mass of the dissolved deuterium. In the
nucleus this velocity appears, as shown in Equation 6, as the
product of the harmonic motion of the nucleons and the
spacing of the nucleons rn within the nucleus.
Vt = 1/2π √ Z(Fmax/2nrn)/nMn x 2nrn (6)
The equalization of the velocity of light and sound with-
in the transitional atomic state is the effect that pulls the
motion constants together. Vt is an emergent classical prop-
erty and, as such, it is fundamental to Planck’s constant.
THE PARTICLE OF A LIGHT WAVE
This paper extended the prior analysis and produced the
energy of the photon. It was accomplished through the use
of a fundamental analysis that did not require an ad hoc
injection of Planck’s constant. The geometry a photon expe-
riences during emission is approximately that of a flat plate
capacitor. The capacitance C of a flat plate capacitor of area
A and spacing D is given in Equation 7.
eo A
C= (7)
D that the frequency of a quantum system appears as an ampli-
The area A was set equal to the displacement of the photon
squared. The displacement between the peaks in the ampli-
tudes, D, equals one half wavelength. The capacitance expe-
rienced by a cycle of light is given in Equation 8.
eo λ2
C= (8)
.5λ
The reduction of Equation 8 produced Equation 9.
C = 2eo λ (9)
Equation 9 describes the capacitance of the captured pho-
ton. The capacitance of the “in flight” photon is indetermi-
nate. Its energy is strictly a function of its momentum and,
as such, it is independent of the photon’s displacement. The
lack of restriction allows the displacement λ to vary. The
geometry of the traveling photon is that of a boundless
wave. This variability may produce, as Einstein called it, “a
spooky interaction at a distance.”10 Its state is, as Feynman
called it, the sum of every possible history.11 This is the state
of the light that simultaneously passed through the two slits
in Young’s experiment.
The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle associates the pre-
cise velocity of Vt with a boundless wave.12 This uncertainty
in position couples the quantum transitions to a change in
3 INFINITE ENERGY • ISSUE 92 • JULY/AUGUST 2010
the state of the universe. The velocity of quantum transition,
Vt, is qualified in Equation 10.
Vt = f λ (10)
The strength and range of the natural forces converge as
the quantum transition proceeds. The wavefunction’s nega-
tive gravitational potential increases to the point where it
equals its positive mass energy. The zero energy wavefunc-
tion then collapses without restriction. Deterministic classi-
cal reality emerges, from probabilistic quantum waves, at
this instant. One half of the quantum information is lost in
the crash. Equation 10 was solved for length. This is the
range at which the natural force fields strongly interact.
Vt
λ= (11)
f
The amplitude of light, as expressed by its capacitance,
was given in Equation 9. The action of the transitional quan-
tum state (Equation 11) fixes the geometry of the light. The
simultaneous solution of Equations 9 and 11 produced
Equation 12. It expresses the relationship between the capac-
itance and the frequency of the photon.
2eo V t
C= (12)
f
The potential energy E of an electrical charge is a function of
capacitance C. This relationship is expressed in Equation 13.
Q2
E= (13)
2C
The great scientists described the energy of a photon in
terms of its frequency. The energy of a classical wave is a
function of its amplitude, not its frequency. This discrepan-
cy has been a long-standing mystery. The principle of quan-
tum correspondence was invented in an attempt to circum-
vent this problem. It proposes, with some slight of hand,
tude in a classical system. I have rejected this proposition
and shown that the energy of light is an effect of the light’s
displacement. The energy, of the captured photon was qual-
ified through the simultaneous solution of Equations 12 and
13. The result (Equation 14) expresses the relationship
between the energy and frequency of the photon. Equations
12 and 13 reveal that the energy of captured light is a func-
tion of charge and capacitance. The voltage produced by an
electrical charge increases as its capacitance decreases. The
energy of a photon is proportionate to the amplitude of its
voltage. The action of this voltage replaces the principle of
quantum correspondence. This is the state of the light that
produces Einstein’s photoelectric effect.
Q2
E=[ ]f (14)
4eoVt
Planck’s constant emerged from the terms within the
brackets [ ]. Planck’s constant was substituted for the quanti-
ty within the brackets. Einstein’s famous photoelectric rela-
tionship was produced.
E = hf (15)
The intensity of a light wave is a classical function of its
transverse amplitude. The voltage of a light wave is a classi-
cal function of its longitudinal displacement. The photon
does not physically exist. The coupling of a light wave to the
nuclear velocity of sound produces an artifact that appears as
the photon.
CONCLUSION
The nature of the substance of the universe has been the sub-
ject of debate since antiquity. Some philosophers have sug-
gested that the universe is composed of particle-like things.
Others have suggested that the universe is composed of
wave-like stuff. In the twentieth century, it was discovered
that the quantum realm consists of wave-like stuff. This
“stuff” is governed by pure chance and exhibits many
unusual properties, such as quantum entanglement. This
realm can never be directly observed and its properties are
subjective. This wave-like stuff is converted into particle-like
things through a process of quantum transition. These
things obey Newton’s laws and interact in a deterministic
clock-like fashion. The properties of these things can be
objectively measured. It is believed today that size is the
divide that separates the wave-like continuum from the par-
ticle-like reality.
The process of cold fusion was discovered in the late twen-
tieth century. Scientists have suggested that the cold fusion
reaction proceeds at the fringes of our contemporary under-
standing. I have shown, to the contrary, that the process of
cold fusion rests squarely at the center of a debate that has
been raging for hundreds of years. The observable results of
the cold fusion experiments have exposed the nature of the
divide that separates the quantum and the classical realms.
A quantum wave is transformed into a classical particle as it
follows a path through the divide. The speed of the passage,
Vt, invokes the magic of a convergence in the motion con-
stants. The range and strength of the natural force fields are
adjusted, by this convergence, to the dimensions of the
opening. The opening is large enough, under the condition
of cold fusion, to encompass a cluster of nucleons.
The terms that describe this passage have produced, in a
past publication, the energy levels of the hydrogen atom and
the probably of transition. This paper extends the analysis to
the energy of a photon. These constructs form the founda-
tion of our contemporary understanding of the natural uni-
verse. The path of the quantum transition has been exposed
and a new perspective on the nature of reality has emerged.
NOMENCLATURE
eo = 8.854 x 10-12 A2 s4 kg-1 m-3
Fmax = 29.05 Newtons
fc = 1.236 x 1020 hertz, the Compton frequency
Mn = 1.67 x 10-27 Kg
rp = 1.409 x 10-15 m, half the classical radius
of the electron
rn = 1.36 x 10-15 m, the nuclear spacing
Q = 1.602 x 1019 Coulombs
Vt = 1.094 x 106 m/second
REFERENCES
1. Clinton Davisson received the Nobel Prize in Physics in
1937, with George Thomson.
2. Hamilton, W.R. 1853. Lectures on Quaternions, Royal Irish
Academy.
3. Fourier, J.-B.-J. 1827. “Les Temperatures du Globe Terrestre
et des Espaces Planetaires,” Mémoires de l’Académie Royale des
Sciences de l’Institut de France VII, 570-604.
4. Einstein, A., Podolsky, B., and Rosen, N. 1935. “Can
Quantum-Mechanical Description of Physical Reality Be
Considered Complete?” Phys. Rev., 47, 777-780.
5. de Broglie, L.D. 1924. Ph.D. Thesis, “Recherhce sur la
Theorie des Quanta,” U. of Paris.
6. Einstein, A. 1905. “Does the Inertia of a Body Depend
upon Its Energy-Content?” Annalen der Physik, 18, 639-641.
7. Znidarsic, F. 2005. “A Reconciliation of Quantum Physics
and Special Relativity,” The General Journal of Physics,
December, http://www.wbabin.net/science/znidarsic.pdf.
8. Znidarsic, F. 2009. “The Control of the Natural Forces,”
Infinite Energy, 15, 87, 30-33, September/October.
9. Znidarsic, F. 2000. “The Constants of the Motion,”
Transactions of the American Nuclear Society, 83, November 12.
10. Bell, J.S. 1987. Speakable and Unspeakable in Quantum
Mechanics, Cambridge University Press (original 1964).
11. Feynman, R.P. 1948. “The Space-Time Formulation of
Nonrelativistic Quantum Mechanics,” Reviews of Modern
Physics, 20, 367-387.
12. Heisenberg, W. 1927. “Over the Descriptive Contents of
the Quantum Kinetics and Mechanics,” Zeitschrift für Physik,
43, 172-198.
About the Author
Frank Znidarsic graduated from the
University of Pittsburgh with a B.S. in
Electrical Engineering in 1975. In the 1980s,
he went on to obtain an A.S in Business
Administration at St. Francis College. He
studied physics at the University of Indiana in the 1990s
.He is currently a Registered Professional Engineer in the
state of Pennsylvania. Frank has been employed as an engi-
neer in the steel, mining and utility industries. Most
recently he was contracted by to start up power plants in
North Carolina.
*Email: fznidarsic@aol.com
JULY/AUGUST 2010 • ISSUE 92 • INFINITE ENERGY 4