Karen Bronze

Rain/Frog Drum and

importance in Karen
Culture

One-frog drum. Height 20.5 inches, diameter

of tympanum 25 inches

ONE OF THE side effects of the Vietnam war has been the
appearance of large numbers of beautifully cast bronze frog drums
on the art markets of the world. Since most came from Laos, where
many were purchased directly or indirectly from the Kha or Khamu
people who inhabit the remote upland areas of the northern part of
the country, they are often referred to as Kha or Laotian drums.
There is now available quite a body of research which strongly
suggests that some of these drums seen today were probably made
in eastern Burma by Shan craftsmen for their primary customers,
the Karen, a distinct minority people straddling the mountains which
separate Burma and Thailand.

Top and side-view of frogs

 Drum base decorations

The Karen, numbering approximately two million on the Burmese

side, with a further 200,000 in Thailand, include sub-groups such as
the Skaw, the Pwo and Kayah. As with most hill tribes of Southeast
Asia, their origins are obscure. Karen legends point to the upper
reaches of the Huang Ho river in China as a possible centre of origin,
from which they migrated south-ward via Yunnan into Burma around
A.D. 600-700. They are traditional slash and burn agriculturalists
and formerly lived a longhouse way of life. As animists, they
believed in Nats, spirits that reside in rocks, trees, water and other
objects. At times these spirits might prove dangerous, and to ensure
that all went well, they had to be regularly propitiated with
sacrifices, offerings and taboos. Throughout their little known and
largely conjectural history, the Karens have always regarded the
frog drum as their most precious possession, believing that
ownership bestowed the triple boons of wealth, status and security
on those fortunate enough to own one.

Early British travellers to the present-day Shan states and Kayah

and Kawthoolei states noted that the Karen tribes had a passion for
the possession of frog drums or pazi, as they are called in Burma.
O'Riley, the first English district officer to Toungoo in 1857
remarked, "they [the drums] were held in such high esteem, that in
the more remote villages even children were bartered for them."
The deep sonorous tone of the drum was considered pleasing to the
presiding N at spirits of the mountains, and the resulting echoes
signified their approval and hence guaranteed good fortune to the
people.

The drums were also used to summon the Karen ancestor spirits, to
remind them to be on hand to witness important ceremonies such
as marriage, house-warmings and funerals. At the same time the
sound of the drums implored them to look kindly on their kin below
and, when necessary in times of stress and misfortune, to use their
good offices in securing favours from the Nat spirits to ease the
burdens of those below.

The Karen also believed that a spirit resided within the drum and at
times it was thought beneficial to propitiate it with small bowls of
liquor and rice. Failure to do so might result in the early death of the
owner. Any changes to the surface of the drum were carefully
noted. For example, condensation on the surface was not regarded
as a good omen; it was interpreted as weeping and if nothing was
done, sickness and death could result. To avert such a calamity, a
ritual was performed with the blood of a chicken to appease the
spirit of the drum. The Rev. Harry Marshall, a leading authority on
the Karen people, has mentioned that some drums were regarded
as auspicious and others inauspicious. He also talks of "hot" drums
that were beaten at time of death and disaster, and "cool" ones
used for festive occasions. Unfortunately there is nothing physically
different to make a definite distinction between the two types of
drums. Some of the more notable ones were given special names
which when translated could have meanings such as "great
resonance", "pure tone", etc.

The popular elephant Three types of decorative handles

motif

The Karen used to store their treasures in frog drums and bury them
secretly in the ground, believing that they could take their
possessions with them after death. Until the sixteenth century it was
the custom of the Shan, Karen and other tribes of eastern Burma at
the death of a chief to bury his possessions, including his wives,
elephants, weapons and other valued objects. The Karen, like other
drum users in Yunnan and Vietnam, were known to bury their drums
with their owners. Bayinnaung (1551-1581), one of Burma's greatest
conquerors who in his heyday ruled over all of Burma (and a large
part of Thailand) except for the Arakan coast, being a devout
Buddhist forbade such funerary practices. As a compromise, token
offerings were subsequently placed in graves. In place of a complete
drum, a piece often in the form of a frog was cut off and buried.
Hence some of the older frog drums may be incomplete or repaired.

Drum base decoration

 Dr Francis Mason in 1868 wrote that no Karen was
considered rich without a frog drum, regardless of
whatever his precious possessions might be. Anyone with
money endeavoured to turn it into a frog drum. Such
drums were insurance against crop failure and famine, for
they could readily be sold to buy food in times of
hardship. They could be owned both by individuals or
clans. A village with many drums was the envy of other
villages and was often the cause of inter-tribal feuds to
obtain possession of them. Drums were frequently beaten
to heighten morale before Karen warfare, which generally
consisted of making a lightning raid into a rival village,
killing the inhabitants as they tried to escape and then
setting fire to the longhouse in which the village lived. A
successful outcome was naturally a cause for a
celebration and further beating of the drums.

The ownership of a drum also conferred status, for

according to tradition, the owner of such an item stood
higher in the community than if "he possessed seven
elephants", the elephant being highly prized in Southeast
Asia. Drums often formed part of the gift exchange
preceding a marriage. They could be offered as compensation in
disputes settled at the behest of the village elders.

Drum base decorations

In the past drums have also been used as tribute and valued gifts to
the various overlords of Southeast Asia. There is an inscription circa
A.D. 1056 attributed to King Manuha, the ruler of the Mon kingdom
of Lower Burma shortly before its capture by Anoratha of Pagan,
which states, "People went into his presence and repeatedly saluted
him by popular vote to the sound of frog drums and applause."
Anoratha's successor Kyanzittha (1084-1112) of the Pagan dynasty,
according to an inscription included frog drums as part of a
shipment of precious things that he sent to repair the holy shrine at
Bodhgaya in India.

Lacquered and gold leafed frog drums set in horizontal stands were
important items of ritual in the Thai court, to be beaten when the
king appeared, and they were used intermittently by Thai royalty
even to this day. In a ceremony held on October 20th, 1982 when
Queen Sirikit formally presented the Phra Buddha Nava Rajaboptr
image to the city of Bangkok, frog drums formed part of the
paraphernalia carried in procession. The Thai kings were known to
give them to monasteries on occasions. King Rama IV, on his ascent
to the throne, donated several frog drums to Wat Ba Wan and Wat
Phra Keow. His successor Rama V, carrying on the tradition, gave
two such drums to Wat Bencha. The ex-king of Laos is reported as
formerly having from thirty to forty bronze drums in his possession.

Man with feather costume

which could be the fore-runner
to the owl motif

Stylized flyign birds

Some Non-geometric Motifs Seen on Type I
Drums

Being primitive agriculturalists, the Karen were very dependent on

the kindness of the elements for their welfare and livelihood.
Consequently, it is not surprising to find that their highly prized
drums also played an important part in agricultural rituals to secure
abundant rainfall. So important was the agricultural cycle of
activities that the Karen names for the months of the year reflect
both the climate and the domestic and farming practices associated
with the seasons. Led by a pair of warrior leaders, the Karen were
also known to perform a line dance back and forth in two rows in a
ritual to bring on rain. Drums were beaten for other farming rituals
such as those at rice planting and harvest time. The valuable seed
grain for the next year's crops was sometimes kept safely stored in
the resonance case of a frog drum, which in addition to being
impossible for rats to climb up, was thought to impart some magic
power to enhance the efficacy of the germination process.

Three kinds of rosettes

Small duck-like birds

Two stylized owls

 Three larger birds

Varieties of fish motifs

Single lozenge patterns

Some Non-gemoetric Motifs Seen on Karen
Drums

The Karen also believed that the bronze drums linked them to their
remote past. Some associate the origin of the drums with Pu Maw
Taw, considered to be one of their early ancestors. He was a diligent
farmer who daily tended his steep hill rice fields located close to a
cave. His efforts to harvest his grain were constantly being
hampered by the depredations of a band of monkeys which
continually stole his grain. In despair the old man wearily lay down
and pretended to be dead. On finding him in a prone position, the
monkeys clustered around him, remorsefully saying, we have eaten
his grain, now he is dead. Let us perform a proper funeral for him."
With that they carried his body to the mouth of the cave. Several
monkeys then went to get their drums, which it appears they were
in the habit of using for funeral rites. Of the three drums brought,
one was of gold, another silver and the third white in appearance.
As the monkeys were beating the drums, the patriarch sat up and
began gazing around. This unexpected action caused the monkeys
to flee in terror, leaving their drums behind. Pu Maw Taw took them
and they became the most sacred possessions of the Karen people,
who subsequently worshipped them in an annual ceremony.
Unfortunately squabbles amongst the various Karen groups caused
the drums to be stolen and lost to posterity.

Despite the overwhelming importance of the drums in ritual and life,

the Karen themselves, not being metalworkers, do not seem to have
made them. According to Karen lore, the earliest drums were
obtained from the Yu people, who could possibly have been the Jung
or Yung people who occupied Yunnan in ancient times. Early
Chinese sources have verified that bronze drums were used by the
"Southern Barbarian" tribes of southwestern China as far back as
the second century B.C. It is quite likely that they were in use in
Yunnan when the ancestors of the Karen passed through there from
western China into Burma.

Throughout the nineteenth century it is known that Karen bronze

drums were cast by Shan craftsmen at Ngwedaung (Silver Muntain)
some eight miles south of Loikaw, the capital of Kayah state. These
craftsmen were also noted for making gongs, cow bells, silverware
and jewellery. In addition to the various sub-groups of Karen, buyers
from Laos, Thailand and Cambodia used to converge on Ngwedaung
at the end of the rainy season in October-November to purchase
drums to sell to various tribal groups such as the Tsa Khamu. They
were bartered for elephants, silver, gold and other merchandise. It is
reported that at one time U Sein of Loikaw even had a branch
salesroom at The Burma House on Merchant Street in Rangoon to
promote the export of frog drums.

Because of the importance of the drums to the Karen, master

craftsmen had to undergo certain purification rites before a drum
could be cast at a time predetermined by astrological calculations.
On the day before, they were required to undergo a cleansing ritual
to invoke spiritual guidance during casting. After bathing, they
made offerings of fruit and candles, then slept undisturbed that
evening. When they arrived at the foundry the following morning, a
circle was marked out in which the casting was to be performed.
Within this area the wearing of footwear was prohibited. Swearing
and the consumption of intoxicants were also forbidden until the
work was completed.

The drum's core is gradually built up from a

clay and rice husk mixture
 The clay core being turned on
Lead metal dies with archaic designs
a lathe

Impressions in wax of the above lead dies

Pouring molten metal into the

Placing strips of wax on the resonance case
drum mould

To begin the process and form the inside contour of the drum, a
hollow clay core is built up from finely wedged red clay mixed with
rice husks in the proportions of two parts of clay to one part rice
husks. When sufficiently hardened, it is smoothed by turning on a
lathe. It is then coated two to three times with a slip made from
yellow clay mixed with finely strained powdered cow dung. After
further shaping on a lathe, the form may be covered with a glue of
boiled rice water which helps serve as an adhesive for the wax.

A wax compound is made from a combination of approximately ten

parts of indwe tree resin, seven parts of beeswax and four parts of
crude oil. The thick brown wax is rolled out to a uniform thickness,
cut into squares and bonded to the clay core with crude oil. The
amount of wax used is carefully weighed so that the correct amount
of molten metal can later be added.

For decoration of the resonance case and tympanum, concentric

circles characteristic of frog drums are made with a blunt chisel.
Engraved motifs, such as birds and fish, are created with metal dies.
Repetitive geometric patterns may be impressed on the surface
with small rollers, while raised decoration, for instance the stylised
tree that sometimes appears at the base of a drum, is created with
strips of wax. Handles and three-dimensional figures, such as frogs
and elephants, are made from moulds or modelled separately, then
pressed on to the surface.

Small sprues one to two inches long, which provide conduits for the
molten metal and escape routes for the wax and gases, are set at
various intervals over the surface of the drum. A slip of white clay
mixed with rice husks is carefully applied over the whole wax
surface, great care being taken to fill in all the tiniest crevices of the
designs. A thick three to four inch layer of clay kneaded with either
rice husks or horse dung is applied to form the outer mould. The
inner and outer moulds are aligned with small iron rods.

To harden the clay core and to remove the wax, the mould is fired in
a kiln constructed of mud and bricks. The molten metal, usually
consisting of a mixture of copper, lead, tin and zinc in varying
quantities, is poured into the mould from a ceramic crucible. Once
the metal has been poured in, the mould is completely covered with
earth and allowed to cool slowly for several days. When cold, the
mould is broken open to reveal the drum which is then cleaned and
rubbed smooth. The sprues and any other rough projections are
filed even with the surface. The colour of the drum depends on the
alloys used in casting and ranges from black and reddish brown"to
greenish turquoise. The value of a drum depends on the metal
content, the tonal quality, the artistry of the design and its ritual
efficacy.
 Type I

This oldest type of drum is

characterised by a mushroom
shaped resonance case which is
sharply divided into three parts.
The tympanum does not overlap.
The central portion is fairly
straight with small semicircular
handles joining to the bulbous
portion. The resonance case has
large bands or panels with figures
of men, birds or animals. The
decoration on the tympanum is
similar. Motifs are arranged in
concentric bands surrounding a
central star. Examples have been
found in Cambodia, Vietnam and
adjacent regions.
Type II

The drum outline is less

pronounced than in Type I. The
handles are generally smaller and
often circular. The tympanum
projects a little over the
resonance case. The central star
is filiform and has fewer points
than Type I drums. The decorative
zones on the tympanum and
resonance case contain smaller
figures than on Type I drums.
There are usually four frogs on
the tympanum. These drums
appear to come from eastern
China.
Type III

This type of drum is quite distinct

from the two above. The lines on
the resonance case are more
graceful and less abrupt. The
swelling of the upper portion is
less pronounced. The decorative
designs on the tympanum, which
overlaps the resonance case by
about an inch, are smaller, and
consist of birds, fish, rosettes and
geometric decoration. At the base
 of the drum may be vegetal
designs, three-dimensional
elephants and snail shells. This
drum is the most common type,
and is found in Burma, Thailand
and Laos.
Type IV

This type of drum seems to be a

later and much squatter version
of earlier drums. The star on the
tympanum has twelve rays,
symbolic of the twelve months of
the year. Geometric designs are
suggestive of the figures on Type
I. There are no frogs. Numerous
examples have been found in
Yunnan province of China.

Type I drum from the National Museum,

Bangkok
Tympanum of drum above: Note the flying
birds and
feathered man motifs

A rubbing of a similar Type I drum found in

China
According to Dr Franz Heger's classification expounded in his
pioneer study of bronze drums, Alte Metalltrommeln aus Südost-
Asien (Leipzig, 1902), Karen drums have been classified as Type III
drums. They exist in far greater number than any other drum types
in Asia and have probably evolved from Type I examples.

There is a considerable variation in size of the drums. The oldest

Karen drums are generally smaller than the more recent examples,
but as many new ones are now being made in small to miniature
proportions, size is not a reliable indication of age. The overlapping
tympanum varies from about nine to thirty inches in diameter and
the resonance case is only slightly longer than the diameter of the
tympanum.

As with all bronze drums, a slightly raised star adorns the centre of
the tympanum. This star has an even number rays for instance
eight, ten, twelve, fourteen or sixteen, the points of which may be
relatively short or thread-like in shape. On the one-frog drums the
star usually has only eight rays, but there are exceptions to this.
Between the rays of the star may be seen an engraved heart-
shaped motif which resembles a resting butterfly with wings folded.
On the earlier drums this may be quite large, while on later
examples it decreases in size and may entirely disappear.
Occasionally there are small rosettes and circles between the outer
rays of the star, the tips of which may overlap into the first two to
three narrow concentric rings surrounding the star. These slightly
raised rings spread out in ever widening circles, dividing up the
entire surface of the tympanum into bands for decoration. The
number of rings between each band varies with the number of frogs
superimposed on the tympanum. The smaller, earlier frog drums
average about fourteen decorative bands separated by single rings,
while the more recent three-frog drums usually have about nineteen
bands separated by a series of triple concentric rings.

One-frog drum. Height 20 inches, diameter of

tympanum 26 inches
 Judging from the motifs The centre of this drum
(which are not clear) has been repaired, as
this is quite an old can be seen by the black
drum. The large birds tar ring. The star is a
and fish are quite later addition, for it lacks
archaic. Note the the butterfly motif
double chain of grain typical of the older
motif drums

The frog, although a little worn, is probably of

later vintage than the rest of the drum

Decoration within these bands consists of both geometric designs

and stylized representations of plants and animals. The first few
bands closest to the star are incised with geometric motifs such as
short, even, parallel lines or radial rays and circles with a dot,
referred to by Heger as the "eye" motif On some later drums this
becomes a continuous chain of rosettes which may be repeated in
double bands. There arc various "rice grain" patterns. One of the
earliest resembles a row of melon seeds laid end to end and has
come to be called the "chain of grain" motif.
It may also be seen as a double layer of grain. On some drums this
design has small filaments at the side and is then called "bearded
rice". The continuous lozenge motif; consisting of a diamond shape
surrounded by parallel lines, is another popular design seen on frog
drums. A variation of Chinese thunder pattern is occasionally found.
On some later drums there is a small square motif set wi th a
diagonal cross surrounded with dots around the periphery. Bands of
semi-circular wave patterns and diagonal trellis and dot designs
may also be depicted on the tympanum.

Following the set of geometric motifs closest to the star there may
be a single band of small stylised birds commonly referred to as
ducks, which on the earliest drums are depicted as round and plump
in a standing position. On later drums they change into a tear-drop
shape and appear to be floating. Eventually this evolves into a
highly stylised form with only the head and neck in a stretching
position depicted, so close together that at first glance it takes on
the appearance of a curved geometric pattern. These birds have
been called ducks because this bird is very important in Karen
folklore and was thought to ferry the souls of the deceased to the
nether world. On the earlier drums this duck motif is usually
immediately followed by a flag-like design that has been called an
"owl" by Dr Cooler, the foremost authority on Karen drums. It consis
ts of a small rectangle with one and a half to two circles or eyes
located at one end, parallel lines and V-shaped lines filling up the
remainder of the rectangle. This motif may be found in pairs on
some drums; it disappears on the later ones and the space is filled
up with other decoration.

Small one-frog drum. Height 12 in., diameter of

tympanum 17.5 in.
 A close-up of the centre This frog looks much
of the tympanum newer than the restof
dominated by an eight- the drum and could
point star with butterfly have b'een added
motifs between the much later. Frogs are
rays. Note the owl placed at four
motif has one and a equidistant points on
half eyes the perimeter of the
tympanum

The handles are simpler than later ones, which

have more plaited designs at top and bottom

A further interval of varied geometric decoration is followed by a

fairly prominent band consisting of one or two rows of fish and large
birds separated by rosettes. On the earlier drums these rosettes are
quite wheel-like. They have also been called lotuses. The fish and
birds may be single or depicted in pairs. On the earliest Karen
drums the birds are archaic, wi h some resemblance to those seen
on Type I drums and may be sitting, standing or floating.

This band may be repeated on the tympanum of some drums. On

many of the later drums the birds have taken a flying posture and
 the fish have disappeared, to be replaced by single lozenge motifs
which alternate with the rosettes. This band may be repeated up to
three times on the tympanum and in some cases may fill in for the
"owl" motif. Further band's of geometric decoration usually adorn
the outer bands of the tympanum. The final band is generally left
blank, although on some of the later drums there are a few widely
spaced rosettes in this area. The perimeter is usually bounded by a
thin strip of braided decoration.

The single frog, smoothly

moulded, appears to be the
original

One-frog drum. Height 20.5 in., diameter of

tynmpanum 25 in.

A close-up view of the strip

decorated handles

Detail of the outer concentric bands. Pairs

of fish and birds separated by six-petalled
rosettes. The birds appear to be floating
with one wing upraised. The fish appear to
have scales.
Detail of inner concentric bands showing
ducks which have become more "tear
shaped", followed by owls with one and
half eyes.

Detail of fish on two adjacent bands of the

drum's tympanum
Detail of birds and rosettes on the same
bands as the fish shown above

Concentric bands of decoration on the

upper portion of the resonance case.
Continuous lozenge, circle and dot and
double chain of grain motifs.

A portion of the tympanum

with 17 decorated bands
 The design motifs on the tympanum are not always clear because of
natural wear and tear and also the failure to fill up adequately all
the finely incised lines of the mould at time of casting. The surfaces
of some drums are quite pock-marked, probably because the mould
was too hot at the time of casting. On some of the newer drums
slightly raised sprue marks are noticeable on the surface of the
drum, particularly in the area between the points of the star, for in
many cases they have not been filed level with the surface of the
drum. In some cases attempts have been made to disguise the
sprues at the time of casting by placing them on rosettes.

Two-frog drum. Height 27 inches, Twelve-ray star at the centre of the

diameter of tympanum 27 inches. A tympanum. There are no butterfly
later type of drum with two frogs motifs between the points. Note the
superimposed one upon the other. darkened marks where the sprues
On base are three elephants were removed at each corner of the
followed by three snails star

Frogs appear at each of the four ninety-degree angles around the

perimeter of the tympanum. Like most of the animal motifs depicted
on frog drums, they face an ti-clockwise and appear to be following
each other. They are usually placed astride the last set of concentric
circles with the left feet in the last geometric band and the right in
the blank band. On the two- and three-frog drums the frogs are
superimposed one upon the other, each successive one becoming
smaller. The quality of the modelling varies greatly. As a rule the
single frogs are much more finely wrought than the superimposed
examples. They may be quite plain with protruding eyes, pointed
nose, narrow waist and spreading haunches. The backbone is
usually slightly raised, resembling a plaited line on some, while on
others lines may radiate out from the backbone like ribs. There may
be spirals on the haunches.

On some drums the frogs appear to be different or much newer than

the tympanum, as indeed they may be, for protruding above the
general level of the drum, they were liable to damage. As previously
mentioned, in some cases a frog might have been removed for
burial with the deceased owner. The new owner would then replace
the missing frog with a new one.

The cylinder or resonance case with its slightly bulging upper

portion has two or occasionally four vertical seams which are purely
decorative in function. They are probably a vestigial feature copied
from Type I drums which, unlike the Karen drum, were not always
cast as a single piece, hence seams were necessary to join the drum
together. Two pairs of angular handles, usually with triangular holes
at the tops and bottom, are placed midway between the two seams
on the nether portion of the bulge at the top of the resonance case.
The handles are marked with vertical lines and occasional diamond
shapes. The handles appear to be fastened to the resonance case
by a series of plaited and zigzag lines. The handles serve not only as
a device for ease in moving the drum, but provide the means by
which it was suspended by a rope for playing with a cloth-padded
bamboo stick. The drum was allowed to swing freely a few inches
above the ground. The player steadied it while playing by hooking
his toes into the handle close to the ground.

Four to five bands of decoration adorn the bulge of the resonance

case. The circle and dot, radial rays and continuous lozenges are the
most common motifs here. The mid portion may also have seven to
eight bands of decoration often separated into two parts by a wider
band in the centre which may be left blank or may occasionally
contain rosettes. Two to four lines of geometric decoration
sometimes surround the base of the drum. Zones of decoration on
the resonance case usually end in a band of lightly impressed,
closely set wavy patterns, which on some may be in the form of a
zigzag. The inner side of the resonance case is undecorated. Scrape
marks made in the process of improving the tone of the drum are
sometimes visible inside.

A pair of superimposed
frogs. Note the braiding
 around the perimeter of
the drum

Handles attached on
either side of the seam.
Note the wave-like
decoration at the bottom
of the decorated
concentric bands

One of the most unusual features of the Karen drum, particularly

those of slightly later date, is the placing of two-dimensional plant
forms and three-dimensional animals usually towards the base of
the resonance case, often aligned under a pair of handles.

The most popular three-dimensional motif consists of a procession

of two or three elephants in single file, as if walking down towards
the end of the drum. The elephants are usually depicted in
conjunction with snail shells which may be placed on either side of,
or behind, each elephant. This design may be enclosed within a
tree-like form so that the elephants seem to be walking down the
trunk.

The number of elephants is usually the same as the number of

superimposed frogs on the tympanum. Some drums may be
particularly elaborate, showing other flora and fauna in addition to
elephants and trees.

Newer drums may have a menagerie of fauna in the form of

squirrels, fish, reptiles, insects etc. (See Roxanna M. Brown, "Bronze
Drums of Laos", in ARTS OF ASIA, January-February 1975, the
illustration on page 53.) On a few drums the decoration may be
purely vegetal in the form of a tree or a sheaf of rice.

Three-frog drum. Height 21 inches, diameter of

tympanum 27 inches

Three frogs superimposed one upon the other,

and quite crudely modelled
 Detail of three This tympanum is fairly
elephants of diminishing typical for later drums.
sizes walking down One unusual feature is
stylised vegetation that there are no large
followed by three snails. rosettes in the wider
bands.

Using the internal comparative analysis method developed by

Philippe Stern and Jean Boisselier in establishing a chronology for
Southeast Asian sculpture, Dr Richard Cooler, in a doctoral
dissertation on Karen drums for Cornell University, has attempted to
trace, through a study of over four hundred drums, the evolution of
Karen drums from their Type I prototype. He has taken what he
considers to be key motifs on Karen drums - the large and small
birds, fish, owl and single lozenge-and has carefully charted their
various permutations through a series of seven evolutionary stages.
The present writer is indebted to Dr Cooler's research which has
greatly helped her to describe the general motifs and to prepare the
accompanying diagrams. Dr Cooler's research, however, suffers
from the problem that at present there are no known dateable
examples of Karen drums to provide a chronological framework on
which to hang his most interesting theories. Although Karen drums
have probably been in existence for as long as a thousand years,
there are no early historical records describing their appearance,
since the Karen were not literate until the advent of a missionary-
devised script in the late nineteenth century. Being a gentle, shy
people, the Karen throughout their history have tended to withdraw
in the face of contact with other races. Until the nineteenth century
there have not been any detailed descriptions of Karen drums from
Chinese or other sources. From previously quoted Burmese
inscriptions we do know of their existence since Pagan times
(eleventh to late thirteenth centuries). According to the Rev. Harry
Marshall, none of the drums now seen can be thought with any
certainty to date further back than two centuries.

Dr Cooler in his dissertation also advances one possible explanation

for the motifs which appear on Karen frog drums. He bases his
theory on a Karen poem. He likens the tympanum of the drum to a
magic pond which expresses the Karen ideal of prosperity. The star
perhaps represents a splash with ripples in the form of concentric
circles radiating out from the centre to embrace the various
elements of an aquatic environment -birds, fish and perhaps turtles
in the form of a lozenge. He claims that the "owl" motif disappears
from the Karen drum at a particular stage of evolution because it
does not fit in with the aquatic environment. Frogs, as amphibians,
are depicted close to the perimeter of the tympanum with feet
astride in the water and on the bank where they usually spawn. An
elephant is not only a status symbol for its owner, but a beast of
burden which can earn him a tidy sum by drawing logs. Snails,
considered edible by the Karen, have featured in folklore describing
the migration of the Karen people. It is hoped that the fruits of Dr
Cooler's research will eventually be published in order to increase
our knowledge and understanding of Karen drums, for few who have
seen them have failed to be fascinated by their unusual shape and
unique motifs.

With the end of the Vietnam war and the subsequent closure of Laos
to foreign contact, the export of drums from that area has largely
ceased. Although there is still a trickle of genuine drums from
Burma, there are not enough to meet the demand, and prices have
soared. From a mere US$50-I00 in Vietnam war days, a good drum
in Bangkok will cost US$IOOO-1500 today.

A number of concerns in Rangoon and Mandalay in Burma and

Thonburi and Chiang Mai in Thailand have been making
reproductions to meet the burgeoning demand. During a recent visit
to Burma the present writer had the opportunity to visit Hla Aung's
bronze casting establishment in Tanpawaddy Mandalay and
managed to see part of the casting process using the timehallowed
methods already described. They only make drums to order, usually
for foreign customers and sometimes for the Karen who still likes to
use the drum for Karen New Year festivities held annually in mid-
January. Five to six are made at a time. A drum with a twenty-six
inch wide tympanum takes about three months to complete. To age
the drum a mixture of sulphur, kerosene and engine oil is applied to
the surface. Heat may also be applied. Because of the amount of
labour and the price of the metal, a new drum costs about US$250
in Burma. This firm makes no pretence that the drums it produces
are anything but reproductions.
 Unfortunately there are a few establishments in Rangoon and
Bangkok that are less scrupulous and are known to be passing off
newly made drums as the genuine article. To determine whether a
drum is old or not, a good test is to try lifting it. If it is fairly easy to
lift, the chances are that it could be an old one. Many new ones are
very heavy and weigh up to from fifty to seventy pounds. This is
because the new drums generally have a very high lead content in
the alloy which lowers the melting point for the metal and allows it
to flow more easily into the mould with fewer mishaps. Such a drum
does not have a very good tone when struck. A real drum, if intact,
will have a most pleasing reverberating tone. The walls of the new
drums are usually thicker, whereas on the genuine ones the walls
are never more than one eighth of an inch thick. A check on the
motifs will also help to identify whether a drum is new or not. A
drum with a surfeit of archaic-type decoration combined with three-
dimensional elephants and other fauna on the resonance case is
most likely to be a reproduction, for the resonance cases of very
early drums are devoid of threedimensional decoration.

A few lighter drums have recently begun making their appearance

on the market. Instead of being cast, they have been made from
copper alloy sheeting. A careful look inside the resonance case
should reveal that the tympanum and resonance case have been
soldered together. These drums are not very sturdy and have been
known to bend and buckle easily. The tone is light and there is not
much ring to it.

Sheaf of rice at base of bronze drum fragment

 Tympanum of a later drum which has been
extensively repaired, blurring many of the main
motifs

Central portion of a roughly restored resonance

case

Elephants walking down a

stylised rice plant
A prospective buyer must also look to see whether a drum has been
extensively repaired or not, for the price should vary accordingly.
On some the tympanum and resonance case are from different
drums. A careful check on the style of motifs on each section will
reveal any discrepancies, while a look inside may show welding.
Extensive rough patches on the resonance case are also an
indication that a drum has been repaired. This may be further
checked by looking inside the resonance case for metal of a
different colour and thickness. The continuity or lack of it in the
geometric designs will also alert one to repairs.

While present-day owners of frog drums may not be aware that their
bronze ornament or side table may have been the cause of tribal
warfare or an important instrument in the ritual of Karen life, they
should rejoice in the knowledge that as the owners of such a
cherished object, they "are

considered as standing higher in the community than if they

possessed seven elephants. "