RADIATION AND EFFECT

Radiation can be produced from a variety

of sources. There are two broad types -
ionising and non-ionising radiation -
classified in terms of their effects on
matter
Non-ionising radiation includes some ultra
violet light, visible and infrared light,
microwaves, radar and radio waves.
Ionising radiation is that which has
enough energy to remove an electron
from an atom, thereby producing an
ion - an electrically charged atom or
grouping of atoms.
Cosmic rays, x-rays and the radiation
emitted by the decay of radioactive
substances are examples of ionising
radiation
 Types of Radiation Are
1 . alpha radiation
2 . beta radiation
3 . gamma radiation, and x radiation
4 . Neutron radiation is also encountered in
nuclear power plants and high-altitude
flight and emitted from some industrial
radioactive sources
Alpha Radiation
Alpha radiation is a heavy, very short-range particle
and is actually an ejected helium nucleus. Some
characteristics of alpha radiation are:

Most alpha radiation is not able to penetrate human

skin.

Alpha-emitting materials can be harmful to humans if

the materials are inhaled, swallowed, or absorbed
through open wounds.

A variety of instruments has been designed to measure

alpha radiation. Special training in the use of these
instruments is essential for making accurate
measurements.
A thin-window Geiger-Mueller (GM) probe can detect
the presence of alpha radiation. a
l
Instruments cannot detect alpha radiation through
even a thin layer of water, dust, paper, or other
material, because alpha radiation is not penetrating.

Alpha radiation travels only a short distance (a few

inches) in air, but is not an external hazard.

Alpha radiation is not able to penetrate clothing.

Examples of some alpha emitters: radium, radon,

uranium, thorium.
Beta Radiation
Beta radiation is a light, short-range particle and is
actually an ejected electron. Some characteristics of
beta radiation are:

Beta radiation may travel several feet in air and is

moderately penetrating.

Beta radiation can penetrate human skin to the

"germinal layer," where new skin cells are produced. If
high levels of beta-emitting contaminants are allowed
to remain on the skin for a prolonged period of time,
they may cause skin injury.

Beta-emitting contaminants may be harmful if

deposited internally.
.
Clothing provides some protection against
beta radiation.

Examples of some pure beta emitters

strontium-90, carbon-14, tritium, and sulfur-35
Electrons at 2MeV have a maximum range
of about 1cm in water

 
 Gamma and X Radiation
Gamma radiation and x rays are highly
penetrating electromagnetic radiation.
Some characteristics of these radiations
are:
Gamma radiation or x rays are able to
travel many feet in air and many inches
in human tissue. They readily penetrate
most materials and are sometimes called
"penetrating" radiation.
X rays are like gamma rays. X rays,
too, are penetrating radiation. Sealed
radioactive sources and machines
that emit gamma radiation and x
rays respectively constitute mainly
an external hazard to humans.
Gamma radiation and x rays are electromagnetic
radiation like visible light, radiowaves, and ultraviolet
light. These electromagnetic radiations differ only in
the amount of energy they have. Gamma rays and
x rays are the most energetic of these
Dense materials are needed for shielding
from gamma radiation
Clothing provides little shielding from
penetrating radiation, but will prevent
contamination of the skin by gamma-emitting
radioactive materials
Nowadays X-rays generated at several
million volts can be produced, and are
commonly used in the treatment of cancer

The naturally emitted γ rays do not differ

from high energy X –ray thus the rays
from cobalt-60 are the same as the
hardest X-ray generated at about 1.2Mev

Gamma radiation is easily detected by

survey meters with a sodium iodide
detector probe.
Examples of some gamma
emitters: iodine-131, cesium-
137, cobalt-60, radium-226,
and technetium-99m.
 Internal and External Exposure to
Radiation
Internal exposure comes from eating or
drinking contaminated food or water, or
from breathing contaminated air.
A radioactive substance can also enter the
body through cuts in the skin
Alpha and beta radiation contribute to
internal exposure.
External exposure can come from beta,
gamma and X-ray radiation that
penetrates the body
Both internal and external radiation can
directly harm cells
UNITS OF DOSE
Different type of radiation have
biological effect, depending on the
energy delivered per distance
travelled, or the linear energy
transfer (LET). α particls has high
LET than β or γ
SI unit
 BEQUEREL (Bq)
The unit of ionising activity in the tissue or
material: 1Bq=one nuclear
transformation/second
(3.7o×104Bq=1microcurie)

 GRAY(Gy)
The unit of ionising energy actually
absorbed (absorbed dose)1Gy=1J/kg
(1Gy=100rads)
Sievert (Sv)
The unit of absorbed dose taking account
of LET. This allows different types of
radiation from different sources to be
compared Sv=Gy × 1 for β particles and
Gy × 20 for α particles (1Sv =100 rem)
Changes induced in matter by the
passage of ionising radiation
Energy is absorbed. This leads to a variety
of physicochemical event.
Some molecules are excited, and ions and
free radicals are formed
The Changes vary with each type of
radiation
Ion formation
H2O →H2O++ e
H2O + e → H2O-
These charged ions are unstable and
decompose immediately
H2O+→H+ + OH. +

H2O → H. + OH-
The radical OH. and H. , although
electrically neural are highly unstable
and reactive
H2O- + H2O →H2 + OH. + OH-
In the presence of oxygen, further
powerfully oxidising species are formed
H2O + O2 → HO . + HO2.
H. + O2 → HO2.
HO2. + HO2. →H2O2 + O2
Effects of Ionizing Radiation?
Inactivate enzyme
DNA is liquefied, can break one or both
chains of DNA double helix

.
 How Radiation Can Harm a Cell
When a radioactive particle or wave hits a cell
in the body, one of four things can happen
It may pass through the cell without doing
damage.
It may damage the cell, but the cell may be able
to repair the damage before it produces new
cells.
It may damage the cell in such a way that the
damage is passed on when new cells are
formed..
It may kill the cell
1 Immediate death of the cell occurs with
very heavy dosage i.e.100Gy or more .
This effect occurs regardless of the stage
mitosis (interphase death)
2DNA synthesis is inhibited
3mitosis is delayed (usually G2 phase
prolong)
4DNA synthesis may occur unrelated to
mitosis, so that giant-cell forms are
produced
5CHROMOSOME break occur
6Finally cell death
 Health Effects of Radiation
Divided into two categories
Threshold effects
Non-threshold effects
 Threshold effects
Appear after a certain level of radiation
exposure is reached and enough cells
have been damaged to make the effect
apparent.
when levels of radiation exposure are
tens, hundreds, or thousands of times
higher than background, and usually when
the exposure is over a very short time,
such as a few minutes.
 Non-threshold effects
can occur at lower levels of radiation
exposure
Permissible dose
The risk from low-dose radiation is highly
uncertain, and recommended limits are
constantly being received
Annual limit for absorbed radiation to be
received by various populations have been
defined by the International Commission on
Radiation Protection (ICRP)
 ICRP
The whole body level of exposure
for pregnant women should be less than
0.5mSv,
for members of the public should be less the
5mSv
for occupationally expose workers less than

50mSv or
30mSv specifically to gonads, blood- forming
organs or lens of the eye
 Threshold Effects
Dose (in rem Effects

5 to 20 Possible latent effects (cancer), possible

chromosomal abberations
25 to 100 Blood changes
> 50 Temporary sterility in males
100 Double the normal incidents of genetic defects
100to 200 Vomiting, diarrhea, reduction in infection
resistance, possible bone growth retardation in
children
200to 300 Serious radiation sickness, nausea

>300 Permanent sterility in females

300to 400 Bone marrow and intestine destruction

400to1000 Acute illness and early death (usually within days
 Acute Radiation Side Effects
acute reaction occurring during radiation and in
the immediate weeks and months following
treatment
General Side Effect Symptoms
Radiation Nausea.
The degree to which patients experience nausea
following treatment is very variable.
Some people will experience hardly any at all,
whereas others will be troubled by nausea or
vomiting during the early part of the treatment
and, in some instances, throughout the
treatment.
If it occurs, nausea is likely to be worst from two to
several hours after treatment. The patient should
be encouraged to maintain fluid intake.
 The following dietary steps may prove
helpful:
1.Salty foods or ice cold drinks help control
nausea
2.Avoid greasy foods, strong-smelling or
overly sweet foods
3.Small, frequent meals eaten slowly

If insufficient, anti-nausea medication may

be prescribed. In most patients nausea
improves as the treatment progresses.
 Hair Loss
Hair loss will only occur within the
radiation field.
Scalp hair will only be affected if the head
receives radiation
 Fatigue / Malaise
Some degree of tiredness and lack of
energy is often experienced.
This will not prevent most people from
working or undertaking normal duties but,
in some, reduction in activities during
treatment and immediately afterwards will
be advised
 Low Blood Count
Reduction in certain elements of the blood
is often seen following radiation therapy.

This results from radiation exposure of

bone marrow, and to a lesser extent, direct
damage to lymphocytes in the blood
stream and lymph nodes.

The white cell count will be reduced,

particularly the lymphocyte count, and
the number of platelets will be reduced
These drops are seldom enough to cause
clinical problems, but if they are, an
interruption in treatment for a few days is
usually sufficient to allow recovery.

Reduction in red cells does not occur to

any degree in radiation treatment, but may
occur from blood loss due to bleeding

Changes in the peripheral blood count are

much more marked in patients who have
also received chemotherapy
 Organ Specific Side Effect
Symptoms
Skin.
erythema to dry desquamation

moist desquamation.

The reaction may only progress part way

through these steps and healing occurs through
the same steps in reverse.

If desquamation has occurred, crusts will form

which protect the re-epithelialisation occurring
underneath and will only come away and not
reform when the skin is healed underneath.
The reaction develops two or three weeks after the
initiation of treatment and may take four to six
weeks to heal. It is best managed by:
Avoiding irritation from clothing, deodorants,
perfumes, heat, dust and trauma

Best of all, leaving the area open to the air

Using non-stick dressings

Opinions vary about moisture. If the area is

bathed, dry carefully, do not rub or inflame
with soaps, and dust with corn starch
Steroid creams may help

Hair loss may be temporary or

permanent, depending on the amount
of radiation. Hair loss only occurs in
skin exposed to radiation treatment

Avoid direct sunlight on the treated

area

Have patience, the reaction will heal

 Mucous Membranes
Wherever mucous membranes are
included in a radiation field similar
reactions will be experienced:

Whether in the mouth, pharynx,

esophagus, trachea, bowel, bladder or
rectum, mucositis may develop.
 As with the skin,
the mucosa is reddened at first
but then may be covered with a plaque-
like fibrin similar to crusting of the skin.
The mucous membrane remains moist and
the surface covered by fibrin until the
underlying mucosa is healed, when the
fibrinous plaque is lost and the reaction
healed.
The symptoms resulting from
* inflammation,
* irritation
*dysfunction caused by the mucosal
reaction depend on the site of the reaction.
There may be
discomfort and dysphagia or cough,
hoarseness and tracheitis,
or dysuria and frequency,
or diarrhoea and abdominal cramps.
The management varies from site to site, but
depends on the same principles as the care of
skin reaction

Avoid irritation by keeping food or stools

soft and preventing trauma of any kind.
Local analgesic mixtures, antibiotics where
indicated, and steroids may help.
Maintain hydration by encouragement and
intravenous fluids if necessary.
Low fibre diet for those with bowel
reaction.
Best of all, have patience, the reaction will
heal.
 Accessory Glands
Eg. saliva and mucous
This leads to
a degree of stickiness,
oral discomfort,
dryness
change in taste,
irritating cough and discomfort,
urinary or bowel symptoms, depending on
the site of radiation.
 Management consists of
providing replacement lubricants such as
frequent small drinks,
adequate urinary and bowel fluid,
cough suppressants,
soothing creams or lotions and patience
Late Radiation Side Effects
The late effects of radiation treatment develop
gradually over several months or years

The changes that result may be sufficiently slight

as to cause no clinical symptoms,
or so rare as to present minimal risk to the
individual. Nevertheless, the late changes that
do occur warrant notice and care in all patients
who have received radiation treatment
Late Radiation…..
In those few individuals with serious late
effects (generally less than 5% of
patients who have received high-dose
radiation) the results are often disastrous
and treatment extremely difficult
Scarring
increased connective tissue, fibrosis and
scarring often associated with atrophy of
accessory tissues.
This leads to some increased rigidity of
tissues, less suppleness and less
resistance to injury.
In addition, the walls of small blood
vessels may be thickened and distorted,
leading to reduction in blood supply to
some tissues. This particularly leads to
less ability to deal with injury or trauma
such as that resulting from infection or
surgery
Carcinogenicity
Radiation is one of the causes of cancer

Very rarely leukemia may result some five to twenty

years after radiation exposure, due to bone marrow cells
being damaged during radiation therapy it may occur in
child, when doing x-Ray in pregnancy

SKIN-radium workers or therapeutic Rx -Squamus cell

CA
BONE-OSTEOSARCOMA may occur following local
radiation for either a benign tomour or an inflammatory
lesion-TB
Thyroid CA-Papillary type by radioactive iodine Rx for
hyperthyroidism
Liver-Angiosarcoma - thorium dioxide as a contrast
medium in angiography, as may also leukemia
 Genetic Effects
Exposure of the gonads to radiation increases
the risk of abnormal mutations and genetic
changes.
Most chromosome damage from radiation
results in a failure of conception and not an
abnormal child.
Even if both parents have been exposed to
radiation, the risks of abnormal children being
produced are so small as to be almost
negligible.
Late genetic effects in the individual are much
less important than the increased risk of
inducing cancer or the late vascular changes
produced by radiation treatment.
Total body radiation
1 Premature ageing- failed to demonstrate in
human
2 cataract- may occasionally follow a large dose
of neutron irradiation
3 Sterility –in male complete recovery usual, but in
females result is less predictable
permanent sterility occurs only when the
gonads have received a dose which would
cause death if applied to the whole body
Fetal abnormalities
neural tube defects
leukemia
RARIOTHERPY
Curative Rx of some primary CAs as well
as in palliative metastasized and are
beyond the scope of surgical excision
1 tissue of origin-seminoma,tumour of
lymphoreticular system ,neural origin is
highly sensitive
RADIATION AND EFFECT
There are two broad types - ionising and
non-ionising radiation - classified in terms
of their effects on matter.