Professional Documents
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PHYSICAL HAZARDS AT WORKPLACE - DEFINITION
• A physical hazard is an agent, factor or circumstance that can cause harm to body with or
without contact.
❖Anything in the environment that can cause a body harm is a physical hazard.
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RADIATION
• Radiation is energy.
• It can come from unstable atoms that undergo radioactive decay, or it can be produced
by machines.
• Radiation travels from its source in the form of energy waves or energized particles.
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• Non-ionizing radiation has enough energy to move atoms in a molecule around or cause them to vibrate,
but not enough to remove electrons from atoms.
• Ionizing radiation has so much energy it can knock electrons out of atoms, a process known as ionization.
Ionizing radiation can affect the atoms in living things, so it poses a health risk by damaging tissue and DNA
in genes.
• The energy of the radiation increases from left to right as the frequency rises as shown by the below
electromagnetic spectrum.
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EXPOSURE TO RADIATION: IONIZING RADIATION
Types of Ionizing Radiation:
1.Alpha particles: Alpha particles come from the decay of the heaviest radioactive
elements, such as uranium, radium and polonium. Even though alpha particles are very
energetic, they are so heavy that they use up their energy over short distances and are
unable to travel very far from the atom.
➢ Alpha particles lack the energy to penetrate even the outer layer of skin, so exposure to the
outside of the body is not a major concern.
➢ Inside the body, however, they can be very harmful.
➢ If alpha-emitters are inhaled, swallowed, or get into the body through a cut, the alpha particles
can damage sensitive living tissue.
➢ The ionizations they cause are very close together - they can release all their energy in a few cells.
This results in more severe damage to cells and DNA.
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EXPOSURE TO RADIATION: IONIZING RADIATION
Types of Ionizing Radiation:
2.Beta particles: Beta particles (β) are small, fast-moving particles with a negative electrical
charge that are emitted from an atom’s (unstable hydrogen-3 (tritium) and carbon-14
(strontium-90)) nucleus during radioactive decay.
➢ Beta particles are more penetrating than alpha particles, but are less damaging to living tissue and
DNA because the ionizations they produce are more widely spaced.
➢ They travel farther in air than alpha particles, but can be stopped by a layer of clothing or by a thin
layer of a substance such as aluminium.
➢ Some beta particles are capable of penetrating the skin and causing damage such as skin burns.
➢ As with alpha-emitters, beta-emitters are most hazardous when they are inhaled or swallowed.
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EXPOSURE TO RADIATION: IONIZING RADIATION
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EXPOSURE TO RADIATION: IONIZING RADIATION
Types of Ionizing Radiation:
4.X Rays: X-rays are similar to gamma rays in that they are photons of pure energy. X-rays
and gamma rays have the same basic properties but come from different parts of the
atom. X-rays are emitted from processes outside the nucleus, but gamma rays originate
inside the nucleus. They also are generally lower in energy
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HEALTH EFFECTS OF IONIZING RADIATION
• Exposure to low-levels of radiation does not cause immediate health effects, but can
cause a small increase in the risk of cancer over a lifetime.
• Radiation exposure increases the chance of getting cancer, and the risk increases as
the dose increases: the higher the dose, the greater the risk.
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PROTECTION FROM IONIZING RADIATION
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EXPOSURE TO RADIATION: NON-IONIZING RADIATION
Types of Non - Ionizing Radiation:
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EXPOSURE TO RADIATION: NON-IONIZING RADIATION
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HEALTH EFFECTS OF UV RADIATION
• Excessive exposure to ultraviolet radiation is associated with different types of skin
cancer, sunburn, accelerated skin aging, as well as cataracts and other eye diseases.
• The eyes are particularly sensitive to UV radiation. Even a short exposure of a few seconds
can result in a painful, but temporary condition known as;
• photokeratitis (= a burn of the cornea by UVB; radiation keratitis, snowblindness)
• conjunctivitis (= inflammation of the conjunctiva of theeye).
• The eyes are most sensitive to UV radiation from 210 nm to 320 nm (UV-C and UV-B).
Maximum absorption by the cornea occurs around 280 nm.
• Absorption of UV-A in the lens may be a factor in producing cataract (a clouding of the
lens in the eye).
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PROTECTION FROM UV RADIATION
• Workers must use eye and skin protection while working with UV radiation sources.
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PROTECTION FROM UV RADIATION
Ways to limit exposure to the sun's UV radiation include;
• Personal protective equipment; wearing protective clothing and applying sunscreens
• Protective clothing: long pants, hats, and long-sleeved shirts or some more efficient sun-resistant fabrics
can be used
• Physical sunscreens:
o SPF 15 sunscreen may absorb 93 percent of UVB radiation
• Engineering and administrative controls such as the provision of shade cover, and
avoiding excessive exposure to sunlight by rotating job shifts
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PROTECTION FROM UV RADIATION
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RADIATION SOURCES AND DOSES in US.
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RADIATION SOURCES AND DOSES in US.
• You can calculate your radiation dose by using a calculator provided by US. Environmental
Proptection Agency (EPA) from the link below; https://www.epa.gov/radiation/calculate-
your-radiation-dose
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PHYSICAL HAZARDS – EXTREME TEMPERATURES
Extreme temperature conditions include cold and heat stresses;
• Effects of extreme cold conditions; • Effects of extreme heat conditons;
• Non-freezing injuries – chilblains, trench foot
− Increased irritability
• Freezing injuries – frostbite and frosting
− Dehydration
• Hypothermia
− Heat stroke
• Lower work efficiency
− Chronic heat exhaustion
• Higher accident rates
− Cramps, rashes, and burns
• Impaired performance of complex mental tasks
− Sweaty palms and dizziness
• Reduced muscular strength and stiffened joints
• Reduced mental alertness − Increased risk of other accidents
• Impaired manual tasks because of sensitivity and − Loss of concentration and ability to do mental tasks and heavy
dexterity of fingers manual work
− Sleep disturbances, sickness,
− Susceptibility to minor injuries
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EXTREME TEMPERATURES
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BODY REACTION TO EXTREME TEMPERATURES –
METABOLIC HEAT BALANCE
At equilibrium: Metabolic Heat Generation (MHG)= Heat Loss to Surrounding
If equilibrium is not achieved;
MHG < Heat Loss (Cooling) MHG > Heat Loss (Heating)
• Heart rate decreases • Frequent rest required
• Body regulatory mechanism adjusts to give
• Capillary blood vessels contract higher skin temperature and evaporative
cooling by sweating increases
• Involuntary muscular action • Suffering progressively from heat strain
(shievering) (psychological lethargy-lack of care,
headache, sickness, nausea, coma and
death)
• Body cure temperature decreases
(with excessive heat loss) • Heart rate increases, mild increase in blood
flow to the skin, increase in rate of sweating
• Possible collapse (hypotherma) (if it • Circulatory instability, considerably
continues). discomfort, loss of working efficiency,
• Body gains heat, possible heat stroke and
collapse.
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EXTREME TEMPERATURES – THERMAL COMFORT TEMPERATURES
Type of Work Thermal Comfort (°C)
Work done while sitting 19 °C
Work done at standing 17 °C
Work requires active body motion 12 °C
Offices 20 °C
Laboratories 18 °C
Shopping malls 19 °C
Mental work done while sitting 21-23 °C
Light duty work while sitting 19 °C
Light duty work while standing 18 °C
Heavy duty work while standing 17 °C
Heavy duty work 15-16 °C
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EXTREME TEMPERATURES – PROTECTION AGAINST EXTREME HEAT
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EXTREME TEMPERATURES – PROTECTION AGAINST EXTREME HEAT
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EXTREME TEMPERATURES – PROTECTION AGAINST EXTREME COLD
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PHYSICAL HAZARDS – NOISE
• Sound is a form of energy that is transmitted by pressure variations which the human
ear can detect.
• Noise is an unwanted sound.
• The difference between sound and noise depends upon the listener and the
circumstances. Noise perception is subjective.
• Factors such as the magnitude, characteristics, duration, and time of occurrence may
affect one's subjective impression of the noise.
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NOISE
• Properties of noise that can be measured;
• Frequency
• Pressure
• Power
• Time distribution
• Frequency is the rate at which the source produces sound waves. he unit for frequency is
the hertz (Hz = 1 cycle per second).
• Frequency is generally measured by pitch which defines as «the quality of a sound
governed by the rate of vibrations producing it; the degree of highness or lowness of a
tone» .
• Low pitched or bass sounds have low frequencies. High-pitched or treble sounds have high
frequencies.
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NOISE – SOUND PRESSURE
• A healthy, young person can hear sounds with frequencies from roughly 20 (infrasound)
to 20,000 (ultrasound) Hz.
• The sound of human speech is mainly in the range 300 to 3,000 Hz.
• Sound pressure is the amount of air pressure fluctuation a noise source creates. We
"hear" or perceive sound pressure as loudness.
• A healthy, young person can hear sound pressures as low as 0.00002 Pa (pascals).
• A normal conversation produces a sound pressure of 0.02 Pa.
• The sound is painfully loud at levels around 20 Pa.
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NOISE – SOUND PRESSURE LEVEL
• Sound pressure converted to the decibel scale is called sound pressure
level (Lp).
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NOISE – DECIBEL
• Decibel is;
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NOISE – SOUND PRESSURE vs Lp EXAMPLE
What is the Sound Pressure Level if the sound pressure at 3 m
distance from noise source is 0.2 N/m2 ?
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10 80
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NOISE – ADDING MORE THAN ONE SOUND EXAMPLE
What is the combined sound pressure level for 60 dB, 65 dB, 70 dB
sounds?
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MEASURING NOISE AT WORKPLACE
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CONTROLLING NOISE AT WORKPLACE
• Identify the sound sources: vibrating sources and aerodynamic flow
• Identify the path of the noise from the source to the worker.
• Determine the sound level of each source.
• Determine the relative contribution to the excessive noise of each source and rank the
source accordingly. To obtain significant noise attenuation, the dominant source should be
controlled first.
• Know the acceptable exposure limits identified in the health and safety legislation and
quantify the necessary sound reduction.
• Identify solutions by taking into consideration the degree of sound attenuation, operation,
and productivity restraints and cost.
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CONTROLLING NOISE AT WORKPLACE
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LIMITING VALUES FOR NOISE
According to the Regulation on Protecting Workers from Noise-related Risks,
enacted on 28.07.2013:
• Limiting exposure level is 87 dB
• Maximum allowable effective exposure level is 85 dB
• Minimum allowable effective exposure level is 80 dB
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PHYSICAL HAZARDS - ELECTRICITY
• Electrical injuries can be divided into four types:
• fatal electrocution
• electric shock
• burns
• falls caused by contact with electric energy
• Electrocution is one of the major hazards on
construction sites.
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PREVENTION OF ELECTRICITY INJURIES
• Electrical injuries are preventable through safe work practices like;
• keeping electrical tools properly maintained,
• de-energizing electrical appliances before inspection or repair
• exercising caution when working near energized lines
• Personal protective equipment such as;
• hard hats
• hoods
• sleeves
• rubber or insulating gloves
• insulating clothing
can be useful to reduce any electrical accidents.
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PHYSICAL HAZARDS - VIBRATION
• Vibration is the mechanical oscillations of an object about an equilibrium point.
• Any vibration has two measurable quantities. How far (amplitude or intensity), and how fast
(frequency) the object moves helps determine its vibrational characteristics.
• Frequency: The number of cycles that a vibrating object completes in one second is called
frequency. The unit of frequency is hertz (Hz). One hertz equals one cycle per second.
• Amplitude: It is the distance from the stationary position to the extreme position on either side
and is measured in metres (m).
• Acceleration (intensity measure): Acceleration is a measure of how quickly speed changes with
time. The unit is metres per second squared 41 (m/s2).
VIBRATION
• Acceleration (intensity measure): The magnitude of acceleration changes from zero
to a maximum during each cycle of vibration. It increases as the vibrating object
moves further from its normal stationary position.
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VIBRATION – EFFECTS
• The oscillations (= 1 complete cycle) may be regular such as the motion of
a pendulum or random such as the movement of a tire on a gravel road.
• The study of health effects of vibration require measures of the overall
"pressure waves" (vibration energy) generated by the vibrating equipment
or structure.
• The risk of vibration induced injury depends on the average daily exposure.
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VIBRATION - EFFECTS (con’t)
• An evaluation of the risk takes into account the intensity and frequency of the vibration, the
duration (years) of exposure and the part of the body which receives the vibration energy.
• Hand-arm vibration causes damage to hands and fingers. It appears as damage to blood
vessels, nerves and joints in the fingers.
• Vibration-induced white finger disease also causes a loss of grip force and loss of sensitivity to
touch.
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VIBRATION - EFFECTS (con’t)
• Vibration induced health problems include;
• Spasms
• Low back pain
• Spinal damage
• Vibration white finger.
• Loss of concentration which can cause secondary accidents
• Vibration sickness
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VIBRATION - SICKNESS
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VIBRATION - SICKNESS
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References
• Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety (2020) Vibration – Introduction: OSH Answers. Canada:
CCOHS, https://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/phys_agents/vibration/vibration_intro.html.
• Environmental Protection Agency (no date) Radiation Protection. [online]. USA: EPA.
https://www.epa.gov/radiation.
• Friend, M.A. and Kohn, J.P. (2007) Fundamentals of Occupational Safety and Health. 4th ed., Government
Institutes. The Scarecrow Press, USA.
• Reese, C.D. (2016) Occupational Health and Safety Management – A Practical Approach. 3rd ed. Taylor and
Francis Group. CRC Press, USA.
• Reese, C.D. (2017) Occupational Safety and Health – Fundamental Principles and Philosophies. Taylor and
Francis Group. CRC Press, USA.
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