Professional Documents
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A New Way
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~QJJ~~~~YtiICHANGE
F!' 1-240
'Instrucent Flyinc
and Navication for Army Aviators
This field
IJnnual GiveE infor~ation on instru~ent flyin" and
navieation for Army aviators.
FL 1-5.
It has been revised to repl~ce
Other r;;ajor cb~r.[;es include--
0
Addition of a neli first cbapter, Illusions in Flight.. Tbis
cbapter should hel~ the aviator understand and cope with thG
various illusions encountered io flicht.
0
Deletion' of tl:e chapters on the Doppler IJavigation Set,
COLH.Je.nd HaviLation Syster;!, and Inertial Navication Set AI'/ASI:-86.
These systeQs aré covered extensively in their respective
operator's nanuals.
0
Addition of cew data to the InstruDent Approacb Procedure
Charts (chap 17). The new data are compiled from nUrJerous
fliCht information publications and shoulc Breatly belp aviators
with instrument approach procedures.
0
Expansion and upd~tin[ of appendix D, Instrument Fli~ht
PI a nni ne.
Addition of a newly devised series of sYLbols for clearance
0
I
I
k
UPDATE Change Highlighting
1. 2. 3.
Original text as it appeared in the Change text as it appears in a Fresh text as it will appear in the
base publication: current UPDATE issue: next UPDATE issue:
The quick brown fox jumped over the The quick bffiWM gray fox jumped The quick gray fox jumped on the lazy
- "V"I'
lazy dog. on the lazy dog. dog.
1. 2. 3.
Text as it appeared in the last Restructured change text as it Fresh text as it will appear in the
UPDATE issue: appears in this UPDATE issue: next UPDATE issue:
Chapter 12 Chapter 12
Reporting Equipment Ideas, Reporting Quality Deficiencies,
Problems and Warranty Claims Ideas, Equipment Improvement
Recommendations and Warranty (
12-1. General ,
Claims
This chapter tells you how to make and
submit: 12-1. Generat
a. Warranty Claim Actions (WCAs). This chapter tells you how to make and
b. Equipment Improvement Recom- submit:
mendations (EIRs).
.
a. Quality Deficiency Reports and
c. Quality Deficiency Reports (QDRs). suggest ideas and recommendations for
improving equipment on the SF Form
12-2. Warranty Claim Actions 368.
a. Purpose. DA Form 2407 is used to b. Warranty claim actions (WCA's) for
send in WCAs for items with bad items with bad components, parts, or
components, parts, or assemblies assemblies covered by a factory
covered by a factory warranty. DA Form warranty. Use the DA Form 2407 for
2407 is also used to get payment for WCA's.
labor used replacing the bad items.
b. Identity of end items under warranty 12-2. Reporting Quality Deficiéncles
is shown by a decal plate, data plate,
and Equipment Improvement
and labels. Recommendations
c. All warranty actions, settled or not, a. The SF Form 368 is a multi-use
are reported to the national level on DA form used for reporting:
Form 2407. Report local warranties
settled with DA Form 2407 with the
words "For Information only" written in
block 16a. See Appendix F.
\.
Supersession Notice: This UPDATE volume Editorial Comments: This UPDATE
supersedes the standard format, bound publication contains editorial comments
that
edition of FM 1-5 dated 7 July 1980. are not in the original standard field manuals.
Dlstrfbutlon: Special distribution of this These comments were inserted when there
issue has been made in accordance with DA was a need to clarify the placement of an
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O"'O~"U'3:'U'U', -- --
Preface
It the fundamentals,
This manual is prepared specifically for Army aviators. presents
for attitude instrument flying and air navigation. it also
procedures, and techniQUes
serves as a guide and reference for-
aviator students during their primary and advanced
a. Fixed-wing and rotary-wing
stages of training.
b. Chapters
6 through 21 cover the foiiowing:
in
(1) Basic concepts and the use of the implements of air navigation which assist
conducting a flight by means of dead reckoning navigation or pilotage.
pianning and
This UPDATE printing publishes a revision By Order of the Secretary of the Army:
which is effective 15 December 1984.
JOHN A. WICKHAM, JR.
Because the structure of the entire revised
General, United States Army
text has been reorganized, no attempt has
Chief of Siaff
been made to highlight changes from FM 1-5,
dated 7 July. 1980. Official:
DONALD J. DELANDRO
Brigadier General, United States Army
The Adjutant General
Applicability. This manual applies to User information. The proponent Distribution. Special distribution of this
Army aviators in the Active Army, US agency of this manual is the US Army issue has been made in accordance with
Army Reserve, and the Army National Aviation Center. Submit changes for DA Form 12-11 A requirements fOI field
Guard. improving this publication on DA Form manuals. The number of copies
2028 (Recommended Changes to distributed to a given subscriber is the
Placement of tables, figures, and Publications and Blank Forms) through highest single number of copies
appendixes. Full page tables, figures, requested in blocks 1 through 8
and appendixes (in that order) included
the aviation unit commander to the 01 the
in UPDATE printings are normally located Commander, United States Army subscriber's DA Form 12-11 A.
following the last chapter of the Aviation Center and Fort Rucker, ATTN:
publication. Less than full page tables ATZQ-TD-P-PM, Fort Rucker, AL
36362-5000.
and figures will be placed, when
possible, where first cited in the text.
DISTRIBUTION RESTRICTION. This publication contains technical or operational information that is for official Government use onlyDistri.
bution is limited to US Government agencies. Requests from outside the US Government for release of this publication under the Freelbm of
Information Act or the Foreign Military Sales Program must be made to HQ TRADOC, Ft Monroe. VA 23651-5000.
'4~19,52'
2 t5 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240
Contents-Contlnued
General
Tactical Emp/oyment Considerations
Section /
Tactical instrument flight. 21-2,203
Components
Ground components. 19-2, 185 Training. 21'-3,203
Principles of employment. 21-4, 203
Section /I Flight altitudes 021-5,204
Operation
Flight routes. 21-6, 205
Localizer .19-3, 185
Glide slope. 19-4, 187 Section /I
Marker beacons and compass Tactica/lnstrument Flight Pfanning
locators. 19-5, 189 Initial planning. 21-7, 206
Arrival. 19-6, 190 Preflight planning. 21-8, 206
Front course approach.18-7, 192
Localizer only approach. 19-8, 192 The course line. 21-9, 206
Localizer back course Minimum enroute altitude. 21-10, 207
approach. 18-9,192 Takeoff planning.21-11, 211
Runway visual range 019-10,192 Approach procedures.21-12, 214
The visual approach slope indicator Holding procedures. 21-13,218
(VASI) .19-11, 194
Simplified directional facility (SDF) and Missed approach procedures. 21-14,
localizer-type directional aid
219 .
Section /II
Chapter 20
Aviator Training
Radar
Training programs . 21~16, 221
General. 20-1, 196
Flight training for tactical instrument
Section I flight .21-17, 221
Radar Capabilities, Uses, and Limitations
Operatlon.20-2, 196 Appendixes
Primary radar. 20-3, 197
Secondary radar. 20-4, 197 A. References, 222
Air route surveillance radar. 20-5, 197
223
Airport surveillance radar. 21)....6, 197 B. IFR Flight Planning,
Limitations. 20-7, 197
C. Sample Program of Instruction for
Section /I Tactical Instrument Flight, 225.
Radar Air Traffic Control Procedures
D. ATC Shorthand Symbols. 228
identification.20-8, 198
Transfer of radar control Glossary, 231
(handoff) .20-9, 198
Enroute control procedures.. 20-10,.196
.
Index, 223
4 15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240
Chapter 1 The motion-sensing system, though backwards. The disoriented pilot may
illusions In Flight functioning normaliy in flight, can also push the aircraft abruptly into a nose-low
produce faise sensations. For example, altitude and possibly intensify this
1-1. General the process of decelerating while turning illusion.
An illusion or false impression occurs in one direction can produce the (7) Elevator illusion. An abrupt,
when information provided by the sensation of turning in the opposite upward, vertical acceleration, as can
sensory organs is inadequate or direction. This illusion can be corrected occur in a helicopter or an updraft, can
misinterpreted. Many illusions in flight only by using adequate outside visual shift vision downwards (visual scene
can be created by complex motions and references or by properly reading flight moves upwards). This acceleration
visual scenes which aviators encounter instruments, thus oVPrriding the overstimulates the sensory organs for
under adverse weather conditions and at sensations from the inner ear. gravity and linear acceleration and
night. Some of these illusions may lead b. The major illusions leading to creates the illusion of being in a climb.
to spatial disorientation or inability to spatial disorientation are described The disoriented pilot may push the
determine accurately the altitude or below. aircraft into a nose-low attitude. An
motion of the aircraft in relation to the (1) Leans illusion. A banked altitude to abrupt, downward, vertical acceleration,
earth's surface. This chapter provides the left, for example, may be entered too usually in a downdraft, has the opposite
the basic knowledge aviators need to slowly to activate the fluid in the "roll" effect. The disoriented pilot may pull the
understand the various illusions . semicircular tubes. An abrupt correction aircraft into a nose-up attitude.
encountered in flight, to respect their of this altitude can set the fluid in motion (8) False horizon illusion. A sloping
serious consequences, and to cope with and create the illusion of a banked cloud formation, an obscured horizon, a
them effectively. attitude to the right. The disoriented pilot dark scene spread with ground lights and
may make the error of roliing the aircraft stars, and certain geometric patterns of
1-2. Sensory systems for orientation back into the original left-banked attitude ground lights can create the illusion of a
Three sensory systems are used for or, if level flight is maintained, wili feel faise horizon. These provide inaccurate
orientation-the visual system, the compelied to lean to the left until this visual information for aligning the aircraft
motion-sensing system in the inner ear, illusion subsides. correclly with the actual horizon. The
and the position-sensing system (2) Coriolis illusion. An abrupt head disoriented pilot may place the aircraft in
involving nerves in the skin, muscles, movement during a prolonged constant- a dangerous altitude.
and joints. rate turn may set the fluid in motion in (9) Autokinesis illusion. In the dark, a
a. Vision is the major sense for more than one semicircular tube. This stationary light will appear to move when
orientation. Under visual meteorological creates the strong iliusion of turning or stared at for many seconds. The
conditions (VMG). aircraft altitude is accelerating in an entirely different axis. disoriented pilot could lose control of the
determined by observing the earth's The disoriented pilot may maneuver the aircraft in attempting to align it \fIith the
surface, which usually provides accurate aircraft into a dangerous altitude in an false movements of this light.
and believable visual information. attempt to correct this illusion. (10) Flicker vertigo illusion. A hypnotic
However, under instrument (3) Graveyard spin illusion. In a or soporific effect can be induced by
meteorological conditions (IMG), aircraft prolonged spin, the fluid in the regular flashing of a light, such as an
altitude can be determined accurately semicircular tubes in the axis of the spin anticollision or strobe light at nig,t. The
only by observing and interpreting flight will cease its motion (fig 1-1). The effect can also be induced by ciou ds or
instruments. deceleration that occurs during recovery r010r blades interrupting a bright light,
b. The .bsence of reliable visual to ievel flight will again set this fluid in such as the sun. Flicker vertigo s most
information causes a person to become motion. This creates an illusion of pronounced during long flights vith few
more aware of information provided by spinning in the opposite direction. The attitude or directional changes and can
motion-sensing and position-sensing disoriented pilot may return the aircraft to cause the disoriented pilot to experience
systems. Unfortunately, the sensations of its original spin. temporary immobilization.
motion and position during various flight (4) Graveyard spiral illusion. In a
maneuvers are often quite misleading; prolonged, coordinated, constant-rate
1-4. Demonstrations of spatia
the tendency is to believe them rather turn, the fluid in the semicircular tubes in disorientation
than information from the flight the axis of the turn will cease its motion a. Spacial disorientation can is
instruments, (fig 1-1). An observed loss of altitude in experienced in some controlled aircraft
the aircraft instruments and the absence maneuvers. Each maneuver willnormally
1-3. illusions leading to spatial of any, sense of turning may create the create a specific illusion. Howewr any
~
disorientation illusion of descending with the wings faJse sensation is an effective
a. The most hazardous illusions level. The disoriented pilot may pull back demonstration of disorientation. rhus,
leading to spatial disorientation are on the controls, thus tightening the spiral should there be no sensation dUing any
created by information received from the and increasing the loss of altitude. maneuver, the absence of sensrtion is
motion-sensing system in each inner ear. (5) Somatogravic illusion. A rapid still an effective demonstration il t hat it
This fluid-filled system consists of three acceleration during takeoff shows inability to detect bank orroll.
semicircular tubes connected to a sac. overstimulates the sensory organs for (1) Climbing while acceleratin;. While
Sensory organs in the tubes detect gravity and linear acceleration and the student has his eyes closed, th e
angular acceleration of the pitch, yaw, creates the illusion of being in a nose-up instructor pilot maintains approa:h
and roll axes, whereas a sensory organ attitude. The disoriented pilot may push airspeed in a straight-and.leveillti tude
in the sac detects gravity and linear the aircraft into a nose-low or dive for several seconds and then
acceleration. In flight, the motion-sensing attitude. A rapid deceleration by quick accelerates while maintaining tilt
system may be stimulated by aircraft power reduction can have the opposite attitude. The usual illusion crea~d during
motion alone or by the combination of effect. The disoriented pilot may pull the this maneuver, without visual reerences,
head and body movement with it. a.ircraft into a nose-up or stall attitude. is that the aircraft is climbing.
Unfortunately, the system is not capable (6) Inversion illusion. An abrupt (2) Climbing while turning. Whle the
of detecting a constant velocity or small change from climb to straight-and-Ievel student's eyes remain closed an! the
changes in velocity (fig 1-1). Neither is it flight can overstimulate the sensory aircraft is in a straight-and-Ievel'ttitude,
capable of distinguishing between organs for gravity and linear acceleration. the instructor pilot executes, witi a
centrifugal forceßig 1-2) and gravity. This cr(>ates the illusion of tumbling. relatively slow entry, a well-coojinated
15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240 5
SemicIrcular TuDes
Q .~+,-1\""0\\-
.~ sensory hairs changes with every head movemenl
/
~ /
~ '. -,/
" with respect to gravity and with every linear accel-
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.
,"
: '--,.1; P'''h
-::,;',
eration (up, down, left, right, lorward, backward).
50 causing the sensation of tilting the head or body.
\~. "'$~-~..
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010
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stops its turning. the sensory hairs in the tube in the 'ø~P~...~
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-
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Sensory r,alrs
-;:'~-
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Nn sensation Sensation of turning as
moving ilLJIO deflec1s 't'1alrs
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turn of about 1 1;2 positive G, for 90 and immediately return his head to the (6) Becoming proficient in using flight
degrees. The usual illusion created upright position. The instructor pilot instruments and reiying on them.
during this turning maneuver without should time the maneuver so that the roll b. The sensations that lead to illusions
visual references and under the effect of is stopped just as the student returns his during instrument flight conditions are
the slight positive G is that the aircraft is head upright. An intense disorientation is normal perceptions experienced by
climbing. On sensing the climb, the usually produced by this maneuver, with normal individuals. These undesirable
student should immediately open his the student experiencing the sensation of sensations cannot be completely
eyes and see that a slowly established, falling .downward in the direction of the prevented, but they can and must be
coordinated turn produces the same roll. ignored or sufficiently suppressed. This is
feeling as a climb. b. The objectives in demonstrating done by developing absolute reliance
(3) Diving while turning. This sensation these various maneuvers are as follows: upon flight instruments to indicate the
can be created by repeating the (1) Understand the susceptibility of the attitude of aircraft.
procedure in (2) above except that the human system to spatial disorientation.
student's eyes should remain closed until (2) Demonstrate that judgments of 1-6. illusions leading to landing errors
recovery from the turn is about half aircraft attitude based on bodily Of all the senses, vision is the most
completed. When the eyes are closed, sensations are frequently false. important for safe flight. However,
the usual illusion is that the aircraft is (3) Lessen the occurrence and degree surface features and atmospheric
diving. of disorientation through a better conditions encountered in landing can
(4) Tiltinq to right or left. While the understanding of the relationship create iilusions of incorrect height above
aircraft is In a straight-and-Ievel attitude between aircraft motion, head and distance from the runway threshold.
and the student's eyes are closed, the movements, and resulting disorientation. The major illusions leading to landing
instructor pilot executes a moderate or (4) Instill greater confidence in relying errors are described below.
slight skid to the left with the wings or on flight instruments for assessing true A narrower
a. Runway width illusions.
rotor system level. The usual illusion is aircraft attitude. than usual runway can create an illusion
that the body is tilting to the right. that the aircraft is at a higher altitude
(5) Reversing of motion. This illusion CAUTION: None of these familiarization
than it actually is (fig 1-3). This is
can be demonstrated in any of the three maneuvers should be attempted at low especially true when runway length-to-
altitude or without an instructor pilot.
pianes of motion. While the aircraft is in width relationships are comparable. The
a straight-and-Ievel attitude and the pilot who does not recognize this illusion
student's eyes are closed, the instructor 1-5. Prevention of spatial will fly a lower approach, possibly striking
pilot smoothly and positively rolls the disorientation objects along the approach path or
aircraft to about a 45-degree bank a. Action can be taken to prevent landing short. A wider than usual runway
attitude while maintaining heading and these illusions and their potentially can have the opposite effect; the pilot
pitch attitude. The usual illusion is a disastrous consequences by- may level out high and land hard or
strong sense ot rotation in the opposite (1 ) Always obtaining preflight weather overshoot the runway,
direction. After this illusion is noted, the briefings. b. Runway and terrain slope illusions.
student should open his eyes and (2) Not continuing flight into adverse An upsloping runway and upsloping
observe that the aircraft is in a banked weather conditions or dusk or darkness terrain can create an illusion that tha
attitude. unless proficient in the use of flight aircraft is at a higher aititude than it
(6) Diving or rolling beyond the vertical instruments. actually is (fig 1-4), The pilot who does
plane. This maneuver may produce (3) Ensuring that when outside visual not recognize this illusion will fly a lower
extreme disorientation. While the aircraft references Bre used they are reliable, approach. A downsloping runway and
is in a stralght-and-Ievel attitude, the fixed points on the earth's surface. downsloping approach terrain can have
student should sit normally with eyes (4) Avoiding sudden head movements, the opposite effect.
closed or gaze lowered to the floor. The particularly during takeoffs, turns, c. Featureless terrain illusions. The
instructor pilot starts a positive, approaches, and landings. absence of surrounding ground features
coordinated roll toward a 30-degree or (5) Remembering that illness, can create an illusion that the aircraft Is
40-degree angle of bank. As the roll medication, alcohol, fatigue, sleep ioss, at a higher altitude than it actually is.
progresses, the student should tilt his and mild hypoxia are likely to increase This happens when the pilot is
head forward, look to the right or left,
n
7-------
A
----
wtder thin usual runway can create an lIIus.on
---
that the alrera" Is lower than It actually is. leading
the pilot 10 fly higher approach. .
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---------Þ NORMAL APPROACH .6
..
.
approach..
.
-
leading the pilot to fly a lower -
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-- J
--
Adownsloping runway can create the illusion
that the aircralt is lower than it actually is,
leading the pilot to fly a higher approach.
-
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.
APPROAC~ DUE TO ILLUSION
4=.' .g .
NORMAL APPROACH
VERTICAL
Chapter 2 COMPONENT
Flight Instruments and Systems
2-1. General
The efficiency and utility of modern Army
aircraft are largely dependent on their
flight instruments and systems accurately
depicting what the aircraft is doing in
flight and how weli its power plants and
components are functioning. Some of the
most important instruments that are used
for navigation are the magnetic compass,
slaved gyro compass system, heading
indicator, airspeed indicator, and
altimeter. They show information
\
conceming direction, airspeed, and
. Bltitude. The attitude Jndicatorailows the f'igure 2-1. Earth's ma9netlc field
15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240 9
north is known as magnetic variation.
2-4. Magnetic compass
The magnetic compass (fig 2-2) is Lines of equal magnetic variation, or
simple in construction and has a high isogonic lines, are shown on aeronautical
reliability factor. Requiring no external charts in degrees of variation east or
power source, it uses the earth's west (fig 2-3). The line on a chart
magnetic field to indicate the heading of connecting points of zero-degree
the aircraft. The compass card, which is variation is called the agonic line. Lines
of equal magnetic variation are replotted
seen through the glass window of the
periodically to compensate for shifting of
compass case, has letters for cardinal
headings (N. S, E, and W) and numbers, the poles or changes in local magnetic
with the last zero omitted, at each 30- deposits.
b. Deviation.The magnetic compass is
degree interval. Mounted on the float
with the compass card are two influenced by nearby electrical
magnetized needies which align equipment and metallic objects which
themselves and the compass card with cause the compass to deviate from its
the magnetic field of the earth. The float normal readings. The difference between
is pivoted on a pedestal attached to the the compass readings in a particular
aircraft and those of an unaffected
bottom of the compass case or bowl.
The bowl is filled with kerosene which Figure 2-2. Magnetic compass compass at the same point on'the
provides lubrication, rust prevention, and earth's surface is called deviation. To
a dampening action on the oscillations of 2-5. Compass errors reduce this deviation, the compensating
the compass card. A vertical lubber a. Variation.
In some types of assembly is adjusted I'\S much as
(reference) line is mounted behind the navigation, aeronautical chart possible. A deviation card is then
glass face of the compass bowl. The computations are based on the relation prepared and mounted near the
heading of the aircraft is indicated by the of a course to the true geographic North compass. Figures from this card are
Pole. During flight, the magnetic applied to the indications of the compass
compass card letter or number appearing
behind the lubber line. The compass also compass points to the magnetic north so that a desired heading may be flown.
contains a compass compensating pole which is not the same location as c. Magnetic dip. The tendency of the
the true North Pole. This angular magnetic compass to point down as well
assembly which is used to adjust (or
swing) the compass. difference between true and magnetic as north in certain latitudes is known as
TN MN MN TN
VAR WHEN VARIATION IS EAST. IT IS SUBTRACTED VAR WHEN VARIAtiON IS WEST. IT IS ADDED
THH:l60DI.VAR(10o E! MH(0500)
.
150 E
100 E
!
,
ì
ì
allowed to enter the. oase through a filter generated to ensure etlective lubrication
moved.
and nozzle. The nozzle directs a stream at altitudes where outside air
b. Precession. This is the resultant
action or deflection of a spinning rotor of air onto thè buckets recessed in the temperature is extremely low.
~
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xC()
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C. ERECTION MECHANISM
2-20. Components
Essentially, each slaved gyro compass
system consists of a compass
transmitter, an amplifier, a directional
gyro, a primary heading indicator, and
normally a repeater heading indicator.
a. Compass transmit/er. The compass
transmitter contains the flux valve unit
which is the direction-sensing device of
the system. This unit detects the
Figure 2-9. Turn~and.slip Indicator
FLUX
VALVE
.
UNIT
REMOTE COMPASS
TRANSMITTER
...,..
-- --
~J
.~
ANNUNCIATOR WINDOW
.: SYNCHRONIZER KNOB
PRIMARY SLAVED
GYRO COMPASS
HEADING INDICATOR (RMI) (ID.998/ASN)
,~
'1>-:
'-:,\,,-,.?:
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/ Ò>
I, l f,
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ó':1
1-ÆAI:Jt.4G COlJItSf
c. Directional gyro. The directional
gyro maintains a constant directional
reference by using the gyroscopic
Figure 2-12. Course indicator
property of rigidity in space. The case of
(1) Primary. Some primary heading
the directional gyro controi unit rotates in
indicators have an annunciator window
azimuth auout the directionally stabilized
and a gyro synchronizing control knob.
gyro as the aircraft turns. As the aircraft The annunciator window shows the
rotates about the gyro, the turn direction in which the synchronizing knob
information is relayed to the primary should be rotated. If the gyro controis
heading and repeater indicators. The are not on the primary heading indicator,
directional gyro maintains its reference to they are on the gyro control panel.
magnetic north by signals received from (2) Repeater. The repeater dial may
the remote compass transmitter. These look exactly like the primary dial, but it
signals operate a torque motor in the merely repeats the indications on the
directional gyro control. The torque primary indicator. The repeater indicator
motor precesses the gyro unit until it is does not have a synchronizing knob.
aligned with the transmitter signal, thus NOTE: The operation of the slaved gyro
slaving the gyro with the earth's compass system in each aircraft is
magnetic meridian. The gyro is free to described in the appropriate aircraft
operate within 85 degrees from the level operator's manual.
flight attitude, both in pitch and bank.
When these limits are exceeded, the Section VI
gyro strikes mechanical stops. This The Pitot-Static System
causes erroneous indications to appear
on the heading indicators until the 2-21. Operation
directional gyro is again slaved through The Pitot-static system (fig 2-13) is the
the compass transmitter to the magnetic source of power for the operation of the
differential pressure instruments-the
meridian. Induced errors may be as large
altimeter, vertical speed indicator,
as 5 degrees; however, the gyro will fully
instantaneous vertical speed indicator
erect in less than 5 minutes. (IVSI), and the airspeed indicator. The
d. Heading indicators. The heading differential pressure used to power these
indicators (figs 2-11 and 2-12) in gyro instruments is created either by impact
compass systems may be either primary and static or by static and trapped air
-or: repeater. -
pressures. The. f"ito\:static ßYstem.
18 15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240
ALT VIS
PITOT LINE
(SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM
OF PITOT HEAD)
- PITOT-PRESSURE
HEATING LINE CHAMBER
STATIC LINE
2-22. Impact pressure pressure due to erratic changes in the For this reason, it is advisable to break
attitude of the aircraft during flight are the glass on the vertical speed indicator
a. Impact pressure is required for the
operation of the airspeed indicator. The minimal. During preflight inspection, since this is the least important of the
vents should be checked to be sure that differential pressure instruments. If the
open Pitot tube is mounted on the
they are unobstructed. Also, a check glass of the vertical speed indicator is
aircraft, parallel to the longitudinal axis of
should be made to see that nothing has broken and the instrument is still
the aircraft, where there is a minimum damaged or changed the size of one or operating, its indications will be the
disturbance of air caused by aircraft
more of these vents. Distorting the holes reverse of normal indications. The
motion. Two major parts make up the or the surrounding skin area a few altimeter and airspeed indicators will lag
Pitot tube-the impact pressure chamber thousandths of an inch can cause in their indications, because the static
with lines and the heating unit. The Pitot pressure-sensing errors. pressure now comes from inside the
tube receives the impact pressure of the a. Alternate source of static pressure. cockpit and forces its way to the
air which increases with the aircraft Some aircraft have an alternate source instruments through the calibrated leak in
speed. Since the diaphragm of the of static pressure in case the normal the vertical speed indicator.
airspeed indicator is connected directly system becomes obstructed by ice or
to the Pitot line, it is expanded by this otherwise fails. The alternate static vent Section VII
(or vents) is usually located at a pOint in Altimeters
increase in impact pressure. The the airframe that is not susceptible to
expansion or contraction of the icing conditions. When this alternate 2-24. Pressure altimeter
diaphragm, in turn, controls the position The atmosphere surrounding the earth
source is located within the cockpit or
of the airsoeed needle by a series of cabin, there is usually a diflerence exerts downward pressure because of its
levers and gears. During preflight between the static pressure it supplies weight. The air near the earth is
inspection, any cover that is over the and that supplied by the normal system. weighted down and compressed by the
impact opening of the Pitottube should Also, opening storm windows and air air above and thus has greater density
be removed. vents or operating the heating and than the air above. This difference in
ventilating system may introduce a pressure at various levels is used by the
b. Pitot tubes contain a heating
further change in the pressure supplied altimeter. The pressure altimeter (fig
alement to prevent and remove ice
by the altemate source. When the 2-14) is essentially a pressure-measuring
formations which can obstruct the
normal system is switched to the device calibrated to convert atmospheric
pressure chamber and cause erroneous alternate source, airspeed and altitude pressure to an altitude indication. The
instrument indications. (The appropriate will usually change and the vertical conversion is bssed on a fixed set of
aircraft operator's manual contains speed indicator will momentarily indicate values known as the US Standard of
proper Pitot heater preflight procedures.) a climb or descent. The amount and Atmosphere. A portion of these values is
direction of the instrument errors are tabulated in table 2-1 Although these
.
2-23. Static pressure normally available from charts in the atmospheric vaiues exist only on paper,
aircraft operatòr's manual. Corrections they were constructed by a formula
To obtain the required difference in
indicated by these charts should be which approximates the average
pressure for the operation of the
applied to the airspeed indicator and pressure and temperature of 45 degrees
differential pressure instruments, static
altimeter during flight. north latitude in the United States. Up to
air pressure from the atmosphere is an altitude of about 15,000 feet, pressure
supplied to the instruments through static NOTE: Refer to the appropriate aircraft decreases approximately 1 inch of
vents or ports. To minimize sensing operator's manual, because selection of mercury per 1,000 feet. A pressure-
alternate static air in some pressurized setting knob compensates for
errors, the static vents are located in an
area that has the least disturbed airflow. aircraft may cause depressurization. nonstandard conditions of surface
Some airc~ft have these vents located b. Emergency alternate source of pressure that exist from hour to hour.
static pressure. If the normal static
on the Pitot tube. However, the majority
system is inoperative and the aircraft has
of subsonic aircraft have them located
no alternate source, static pressure may
on both sides of the fuselage. These be obtained by breaking the glass on any
vents are connected to a common line of the differential pressure
one
by a V-fitting. 'By placing and connecting instruments. It is difficuit to break the
.the vents in this manner, errors in static. -giass..wilhouLdamaging the instrument.
.
14,000 17.57
13,000 18.29 -11 mercury equals 1,000 feet; 0.20 inch of
12,000 19.03 -9 mercury equals 200 feet.) In effect, the
11,000 19.79 -7 hands have been assigned a different
10,000 20.38 -5 pressure for their zero indication.
9,000 21.38 -3 Rotating the setting knob on the
8,000 22.22 -1
7,000 23.09 1 altimeter merely displaces the hands a
6,000 23.9B 3 given amount with respect to the aneroid
5,000 24.9B 5 '
7
wafers.
4,000 25.84
3,000 26.81 9
11
2,000 27.82 Figure 2-16. The MB-2 altimeter dial
1,000 28.66 13
Sea Level 29.92 15
2-25. Construction
The basic component of the pressure
altimeter is a series of aneroid wafers (fig
2-15). The aneroid wafers are airtight
cells from which nearly all of the air has
been evacuated. This series of
interconnected wafers contracts or
expands with changes of atmospheric
pressure. As the aircraft altitude
""'t~S', .
-~-::""'-""~-
":""'~.~, '" .._,,~~,:~.~
increases, the static pressure
surrounding the wafers decreases and
allows the wafers to expand. When the
aircraft altitude decreases, the static
""
:~t" '~
,(~,
",,',' ~',
~: ""''"',
-', ~J~~-Iwr'
";Iâ,)~
1 #("
~'~J~
'\
Iij:\:' f~;.,,' ..,~!,~J5'
I.,
~.~~ ".')' '~:;,'
.
;,
.
";':!I'
I'~ r
.
"-
. .
,
'ii'"
r
A linkage and gear assembly Is also ,;
connected to the shaft. Expansion or
contraction of the wafers causes the
shaft to rotate. This rotation through the
;' .
:','
,'.
..
\
~
", L
lJ
""
;,'
v~\~,
'pr-'
,.//
,V .
"
'I" ,~!!/y
gearing mechanism positions the hands
on the altimeter dial to indicate the
altitude.
;,.(..:~ ...: '
5
1. 10,OQO-Foot Counter
2. 1 ,OOO-Foot Counter
3. 100'Foot Pointor
4. 10D-Foot Drum
5. Koll,man Window
.
._~:~TlTUD'-1Al
29 96 "'- -
Cl
~
'Iv
-~------
Ii""'---<;
9
-
-- ---
.
l-
I-
~
oCt
WARM AIR ....
Q
w
~ COLD AIR È
'" I-
I- ~
oCt
:J
'"
I-
30.23 IN Hg
b. Altimeter error due to nonstandard (1) The altimeter is set to the known engine(s). This!s done to eliminate the
atmospheric pressure. Figure 2-19 field elevation. This elevation should be effect of any pressure changes caused
shows the error in altimeter readin9 that the one nearest the aircraft; examples by the turning rotor blades. For fixed-
would result if the altimeter is not include airport elevation posted on an wing aircraft, the check may be made
adjusted for variations from standard airport building, elevation printed in flight either before or after starting engines.
atomspheric pressure. The figure shows information publications (FLIPs), or
NOTE: For instrument approaches, the
a pattern of isobars in a cross section of altimeter checkpoints on certain US Air
altimeter setting provided by ATC is
the atmosphere from Pensacola, Florida, Force bases. The instrument panel is
lightly tapped near the altimeter to checked with the forecast altimeter
to New Orleans, Louisiana. The pressure
setting. If there is a large difference,
at Pensacola is 30.00 inches of mercury overcome any friction error within the
verification is requested from ATC.
and the pressure at New Orleans is instrument and to allow the altimeter
i 29.60 inches of mercury-a difference of needles to assume their .corrected b. Altimeter setting system. The
,
0.40 inch of mercury. On a flight from positions. This is not necessary when altimeter setting provided by navigation
using a counter-drum-pointer altimeter, radio stations, control towers, and other
Pensacola to New Orleans at an altitude
air traffic control agencies is a correction
of 700 feet, a decrease in mean sea because it has an interl)al vibrator.
only for nonstandard surface pressure.
level (MSL) pressure of 0.40 inch of (2) The altimeter setting is read on the
Atmospheric pressure is measured at
mercury from Pensacola to New Orleans barometric scale. The assumed reading
could cause the aircraft to gradually lose is 29.90 inches of mercury on the
each station and the value obtained is
altitude. Although the altimeter would corrected to sea level according to the
Kollsman window. The current altimeter
station's surveyed elevation. Thus, the
continue to indicate 700 feet, the aircraft setting is obtained from the proper
altimeter setting is a computed sea ievel
could actually be flying approximately source. If the altimeter setting is 29.96
300 feet over New Orleans. inches of mercury, the difference
pressure and should be considered valid
only in close proximity to the station and
between the field elevation setting of
near the surface. Nonstandard lapse rate
2-28. Altimeter settings 29.90 inches of mercury and the current
errors may exist at all altitudes. However,
a. Currenl altimeter setting. The altimeter setting of 29.96 inches of
at low altitudes the error is usually small.
current altimeter setting is normally given mercury is 0.06 inch of mercury or 60
during radio communications with feet. If the difference between the two
Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) settings does not exceed 0.07 inch of
flight service stations (FSS), airport mercury or 70 feet, (0.01 inch of mercury
control towers, and other ATC personnel. on barometric scale equals 10 feet) the
However, the altimeter setting may be altimeter is considered reliable for
requested at any time. The first altimeter instrument flight. During flight, the current
setting is received prior to flight which altimeter settings should be placed on
allows opportunity to check the accuracy the barometric scale as they are
of the altimeter while aircraft is still on received.
the ground. The altimeter accuracy (3) For rotary-wing aircraft, it is best to
check will be. made as fonows:
.
700FE~
Û
300 FEET
I
I
NEW ORLEANS
ÆNSACOLA
29.60 in.Hg.
30.00 in.Hg.
Figure 2-19. Altimeter
error due to nonstandard atmospheric pressure
(1) The obstruction clearance limits pressure patterns at high altitudes. For a
published for airways and instrument complete discussion of this type altimeter
approaches will normally provide the error, see FM 1-230.
necessary ",argin of safety for aircraft
operating under instrument flight rules 2-29. Types of altitude
(IFR). Altitude separation between The following types of aititude are most
aircraft is maintained as long as the often used:
current altimeter setting is used. For
a. Indicated altitude. Indicated altitude
example, in figure 2-20, aircraft A is is altitude as read on the dial with a
assigned an altitude of 5,000 feet current altimeter setting (sea level
eastbound and, with the current altimeter pressure) set in the Kollsman window.
setting applied, indicated altitude is 5,000
feet. However, due to nonstandard
conditions aloft, actual aititude is only
4,700 feet. Aircraft B is assigned an
altitude of 6,000 feet westbound and,
with the current altimeter setting applied,
the indicated altitude is 6,000 feet. The
same nonstandard conditions affect
aircraft B and the actual altitude is 5,700
feet. Even though both aircraft are 300
feet below indicated altitude, they will still
maintain a 1,000-foot vertical clearance
as they approach and pass each other.
(2) At higher altitudes, pressure and
temperature deviation from standard
conditions could combine to cause
altimeter errors that would place the
aircraft below a sefe terrain clearance
altitude. A high altimeter setting,
combined with a pressure level aloft
which is lower than standard, is
particularly dangerous in mountainous
terrain. For this reason, the weather
forecaster is. always consulted to analyze
15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE oFM 1-240 2:
AIRCRAFT B-INDICATED
ALTITUDE ALTITUDE 6,000 FT
6,000 FT
AIRCRAFT A-INDICATED
~
I
I
I
I z
0
...,J
I t: i=
ALTITUDE 5,000 FT I I Ii< <(
~I I ~.~
<(I I~ ~fu
01 (J)
,
~I 1<(-
,a::
....
~...,w
(J)I
z
I~
0 I ,<( ..J
Z', I I
4,000 FT ~
3,000 FT
2,000 FT
1,000 FT'
I 2-33. Airspeeds
: There are three kinds of
! airspeeds-indicated, calibrated, and PRINCIPAL PARTS
true.
indicated
a. Indicated airspeed. (1) Diaphragm
.
airspeed is the airspeed read directly
I from the indicator.
(2) Rockònq Shaft
!
b. Calibra ted airspeed. Calibrated
airspeed is indicated airspeed corrected
(3) Pinion
for instrument installation error. This. (4) Sector
In the
. error is caused by the difference
: static pressure at the Pitot head and the (5) Topered Stoff
static pressure at the static vents. The
(6) Pointer
error is usually small and. may be
!
.
computed by reference to the
appropriate aircraft operator's manual.
c. True
airspeed. True airspeed is
r>'"
I
_~5"'.
calibrated airspeed corrected for error , 2
due to air density (aititude and 43
temperature). This may be computed on
the dead reckoning computer: Figure 2-23. Cutaway view of the airspeed Indicator with component parts
"
S6ction IX
The Vertical Speed Indicator
2-34. Construction
The vertical speed indicator (fig 2-24)
has a sealed case connected to the
static pressure line through a calibrated
leak. Inside the case is a diaphragm
similar to that in the airspeed indicator.
This diaphragm is connected directly to
the static pressure line. A system of
levers and gears connects the
diaphragm to the indicating needle on
the face of the instrument. The vertical A.INDICATOR FACE B. INTERNAL VIEW
speed indicator contains a mechanism
which enables it to compensate
automatically for changes in air Figure 2-24. The vertical speed Indicator
temperature. .. .. --.
. -
to the sensitive diaphragm by pneumatic around its lateral (pitch), longitudinal to smooth aircraft control.
circuits. Velocity is added, as necessary. (roll), and vertical (yaw) axes (figs
3-1 b. Rotary wing. Maintaining trim in
to the pressure-leak velocity to obtain and 3-2). rotary-wing aircraft is accomplished by
the almost instantaneous vertical speed continually cross-checking the
indication. As the pressure-leak 3-3. Instrument cross-check instruments and using the cyclic
Ob~erving and interpreting two or more centering button. II the helicopter is so
component approaches the actual instruments to determine attitude and equipped this relieves all possible cyclic
speed, the integrated component fades
performance 01 an aircraft is called pressures. Trim also refers to use of the
out. The sum of the pressure-leak and cross-checking. pedal adjustment to center the ball of
acceierometer velocities is the total a. Although no specific method of the turn indicator. Pedal trim is required
vertical airspeed. provided the normal cross-checking is recommended, those during all power changes. (See paras
axis of the aircraft is within about 30 instruments which give the best 3-17b and 3-23d for trim procedures.)
degrees 01 the vertical. information for controlling the aircraft in
any given maneuver should be used. The Section II
a. Since the accelerometers are not important instruments are the ones that Power Control
vertically stabilized, some error is give the most pertinent inlormation for'
generated in turns. If a zero indication is any particular phase 01 the manewer.
maintained on the IVSI when the aircraft
:Hi. Lift
These are usually the instruments that Power produces thrust and gives motion
is entering a turn. some loss in altitude should be held at a constant indication. to the wings and rotor(s), thus creating
will be encountered. A corresponding The remaining instruments should help lift. Sufficient power. combined with the
gain in altitude will result when the maintain the important instruments at the appropriate attitude of the wing,
desired indications which is also true in overcomes the forces of gravity, drag,
aircraft is recovering from a turn. The
using the emergency panel. and inertia and results in the desired
IVSI should not be used for directly
b. Cross-checking is mandatory in aircraft performance.
controlling vertical speed when the instrument flying. In visual flight. a level
aircraft is rapidly banking in excess of 40 attitude can be maintained by outside
degrees. However, the indicator is not 3-6. Power instruments
relerences. However, even then the Army aircraft is powered by a variety of
affected once the aircraft is in a steady altimeter must be checked to determine power plants. Each power planf has
if altitude is being maintained.
turn. certain instruments that indicate the
b. The fade-out of acceleration in a amount 01 power being applied to
steady turn happens when a turn has 3-4. Trim operate the aircraft During instrument
Proper trim technique is essential lor flight, these instruments must be
been started and the accompanying smooth used to
and accurate instrument flying. make the required power adjustments.
change in normal acceleration has been The aircraft should be properly trimmed
completed. Fade-out occurs because the while executing a maneuver. The degree
accelerator masses will settle to of flying skill which will uitimately develop
new bal-
ance points corresponding to the normal depends largeiy upon how well the
acceleration maintained in the turn. When aviator learns to keep the aircraft
a 3D-degree bank is trimmed.
being established, al-
titude deviation should not exceed 90 feet a. Fixed wing. A lixed-wing aircraft is
correctly trimmed when it is maintaining
while the IVSI is maintained at zero. In
a desired attitude with all control
more steeply banked turns. the turn error
pressures neutralized. By relieving all
IJipidlyinçreases wjthbank angle. --control pressures,-iHs much easier-to
--
-
\ !
PITCH
CONTROL
POWER
CONTROL
----.------.--
,
,
,
,
,
-----------
~ .....
A
----------
--- ---- "
-- ---
---..
-',
-- -'
-........,,,,,
,
,
,
,
"
:/
,"
..
. . . --------------"
.
"X
.....
Figure 3-3. Effects of power changes while constant airspeed Is maintained
2f
-
-
I
-
II
I
i
1\
-
I \
/ \
II
/ \
/ \
/ \
/
I \
I \
I \
I \
I
I - ,
I
I
I
I - I
I I
I I
II
I I
I
.8- ~::
II ..
.
C'I
I -
-
<(
.
.
II Figure 3-4. Airspeed converted to altitude and vice versa
II
fixed or rotary wing. As airspeed
changes, the pitch attitude must be
adjusted to maintain desired attitude for
the maneuver being executed. The bank
must be adjusted to maintain the desired
~-~ "-..J:
~---
figure 3-5.
NOSE LOW
NOSE HIGH
~~
3-14. Altimeter
If the aircraft is maintaining level flight,
the altimeter needles will maintain a
.....
~ /'
constant indication of altitude. If the
altimeter indicates a loss of altitude, the
pitch attitude must be adjusted upward to
-----+--
-~-
sfop the descent. If the altimeter
-;-
indicates a gain in altitude, the pitch
attitude must be adjusted downward to -;-
stop the climb (fig 3-10). The altimeter
'3
0--
~
can also indicate the pitch attitude
in a JJ.I
~
A. NOSE LOW
(DESCENDING)
......,
B. NOSE HIGH (CLIMBING)
pitch attitude
FI9ure 3-10. Altimeter Indications of
I 2
.5 3
,
~
\VSI
--
~
~::..5
SPEED
2
3
'"
'"
"
'"
.
" '" /'
'"
" .--
"
"
,
......
....
.
"'...
'... ,
HJN TURN
and-slip indicator (fig 3-14). 4
-- -..
-~
--
Figure 3-15. The attitude Indicator as a
bank-attltude instrument
a bank-attitude instrument
15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE oFM 1-240
37
The turn needle b. T urn-and-slip indicafor bal/.
a. Turn needle. Although the ball is combined with the
indicates both direction and rate of turn.
turn indicator as one unit,
it is a separate
In balanced or coordinated flight, the
aircraft is not banking If the turn needle and independent instrument with its own
is centered. If the needle is displaced
specific function. The two parts of the
from center, the aircraft is banking and turn-and-slip indicator are, however,
together. If
turning in the direction of displacement. normally read and interpreted
Re-centering the needle with smooth and the ball is off-center, the aircraft is
coordinated control movements will yawing (slipping or skidding). If the
remove any banking attitude and the aircraft is slipping, the ball is off-center
(low wing) toward the inside of the turn
aircraft will fly straigl1t. Any deviation
from the exact center position must be
(fig 3-18, A). If skidding, the ball is off-
promptly re-centered to prevent
turning center (high wing) toward the outside of
(fig 3-17). Accurate interpretaäon of the the turn (fig 3- t 8, B). The ball of the
needle position requires close indicator shows quality of control
observation. In turbulent air, the needle coordination (fig 3-18, C), whether in
will oscillate from side to side. Accurate turning or straight flight. In fixed-wing
interpolation of these fluctuations must aircraft, the displacement of the ball to
wings-level flight
be made to detect attual turning. if the one side of center in
indicates the need for rudder. trim
deflection is equal on both sides of
straight. If the adjustment and possibly aileron trim. In a
center, the aircraft is flying
distance of deflection is greater on one rotary-wing aircraft, the displacement of
side than the other, the aircraft is turning the ball to one side of center indicates
in the direction of the greater deflection. pedal adjustment. To keep the aircraft
from turning, a cyclic movement must be
made in the opposite direction.
e
-
~ .',
-
--
-
-
"'....
.....'- -....
-
--
Figure 3-17. The turn-and-slip Indicator as
a bank-attitude instrument
SKIDDING C. BALANCED
A. SLIPPING B.
Section I
Fixed Wing
make straight flight co.rrections and ciimb, the pitch attitude is adjusted to
should then fly off the ground.
directional heading corrections on the magnetic maintain that rate of climb. The power is
c. The aviator maintains adjusted as necessary to maintain the
control after takeoff with the heading cámpass.
airspeed desired airspeed.
indicator, recommended pitch attitude c. Airspeed contro./. The As the aircraft
and level wings on the attitude indicator. indicator is cross-checked to see if the c. Lave/off from climbs.
The aviator then begins to include all desired airspeed is maintained. If no.t, the approaches the desired altitude, the
pitch co.ntrol instruments are adjusted in pitch a1titude is adjusted on the attilude
o.ther flight instruments in the cross-
order 10 maintain or co.rract back to the indicato.r.This is done so that the rate of
check. The aviator waits for the altimeter
desired airspeed. Power control will be climb slowly decreasas and the altimeter
and vertical speed indicator to begin
adjusted as required to maintain a sto.ps onthe desired altitude, As a guide,
indicating a climb befo.re performing any
constant altitude. If the airspeed indicato.r 10 percent of Ihe vertical speed indicator
after-takeoff checklist. If necessary, the
is used to compute th,e altitude to start
pitch attitude is carefully adjusted to becomes inoperative, power settings that
this pitch attitude adjustment. In other
cause the airspeed to. increase at a have previously produced the desired
.
steady rate toward recommended airspeed are used for any maneuver or words, when leveling off at 5,000 feet
configuration. with a rate of climb of BOO feet per
climbing speed. At the same time, the
d. Power contml. The power
normally minute, the pitch attitude adjustment is
vertical speed indicator should show a
required or recommended for a started as the altimeter moves past
'steady climb. The bank attitude is
maneuver is used by referring to the 4,920 feet. It is important to adjust power
controlled to maintain or correct back to.
the takeoff heading, The turn needle is power control instruments. If the po.wer as required to maintain a desired
appiication doesno.t produce Ihe desired
cross-checked to' see il the bank attitude
40 15 DECEMBER 19B4 UPDATE' FM 1-240
airspeed or adjust to a computed
power Î. Errors. Common errors in straight
setting for cruise operation. e. Ërrors. Common errors in level
climbs and descents are failure
d. Constant airspeed, constant rate (1) Maintain heading. to- turns are failure
to-
(1) Coordinate aileron and rudder
descent. To enter this type descent (2) Coordinate pitch attitude and
when a change in airspeed is not pressures during the entry and recovery.
power adjustments where necessary. (2) Correct any loss of pitch attitude
desired, it is necessary to adjust the (3) Lead properly when leveling
pitch attitude on the attitude indicator. At off. during entry and recovery.
(4) Make pitch attitude adjustments (3) Stop the bank at the desired angle.
the same time, power is reduced as with the attitude indicator.
required to maintain the airspeed. As the
(4) Stop the rollout when the banking
(5) Adjust pitch attitude and power as
vertical speed approaches the desired
pointer returns to zero.
altitude or configuration changes. (5) Maintain a constant rate of
rate of desce~t, the pitch attitude is turn.
adjusted to maintain this rate. Two
methods are recommended for entering
4-6. level turns
this type descent when a reduction in a. Entry. To periorm a level turn
(figure 4-1), it is important to first
airspeed is desired. In both methods, establish a bank in the direction of turn
once the descent has been stabilized, it by coordinated pressure on the ailerons
is necessary to use pitch attitude
and rudder. Both pitch attitude and bank
adjustments to maintain the desired rate
attitude are controlled by the attitude
of descent and power to maintain the indicator during the entry. As the banking
desired airspeed. pointer reaches the desired angle of
(1) If there is not a requirement to bank, it is necessary to relax the control
leave the altitude immediately, the power pressures or use slight opposite control
is reduced to that setting which will
pressures as may be required to stop
normally maintain the desired and hold the bank. The indicalion of the
descending airspeed. Altitude is
turn needle is cross-checked to see if it
maintained with pitch attitude is deflected in the direction of the
turn
adjustments until the airspeed and that the deflection is proportional to
approaches the descending airspeed. the angle of bank. Cross-checking of all
Then the pitch attitude is lowered 10 instruments is continued. Loss of vertical
enter the descent. lift may require an adjustment of pitch
(2) If there is a requirement to leave attitude to hold altitude. Any pitch
the altitude immediately, the pitch attitude adjustment may require a power
attitude is lowered to enter the descent. change if it is desired that a constant
At the same time, power is reduced to a
airspeed be maintained.
setting well below that which will
b. Recovery. To recover to straight-
normally maintain the airspeed in the and-level flight, coordinated pressure is
descent. This will allow the airspeed to applied to the ailerons and rudder in the
gradually decrease to that desired for the opposite direction o.f turn. Pitch and bank
descent. attitudes are controlled by reference to
e. Leveloff from descents. The altitude the attitude indicator. The control
can be computed at which pitch attitude pressures are continued so that the
must be adjusted to stop the descent on banking pointer moves steadily to the
the desired altitude. This is done by
zero bank position. Either the control
using 10 percent of the rate 01 descent
pressures are relaxed or opposite control
indicated on the vertical speed indicator. pressures are slightly used as required to
To level oft at 5,000 feet from a descent stop and hold the heading painter at
rate of 500 feet per minute, the leveloft
zero. Cross-checking of all instruments is
should be started at 5,050 feet. As the
resumed. If the pitch attitude was
desired altitude is reached, it is adjusted during the turn, it's important to
maintained with pitch attitude control and be prepared at the first indication of a
the power is adjusted to maintain the climb on the altimeter or vertical speed
desired airspeed. indicalor to re-adjust the pitch attitude to
f. Heading control. Heading
control is maintain altitude. If the power was
maintained as recommended in adjusted during the turn, the former level
paragraph 4-4b. flight setting should be
set when the
g. Trim. Adjusting trim maintains desired airspeed is reached. After rolling
desired aircraft attitude and balanced out of a turn, the attitude indicator
flight. display may be slightly inaccurate
, h. Emergency panel. If the attitude because of procession errors caused by
indicator is not operational, level flight the turn. Until the attitude indicator is
and heading control is maintained as operating properly, the heading and pitch
recommended in paragraph 4-4. During attitude control instruments are cross-
a constant airspeed,
constant power checked for any required attitude
climb, using the airspeed indicator makes adjustments.
possible the required pitch attitude
c. Trim. Trim is adjusted as necessary
adjustments. The trend of the vertical to maintain the desired attitude and
speed indicator also aids in pitch attitude balanced flight.
control. During a constant airspeed- d. Emergency panel. Without the use
constant rate climb, or a constant of the attitude indicator, the turn
entry,
airspeed-constant rate descent, the rate of turn, and recovery from the turn
vertical speed indicator is used for pitch
are controlled by reference to the turn
attitude adjustments.
needle,.
.w.
I
c::::=::J -8 9.
,
J 1
(
2-
G
.1: ~!. -7
I
6
,..
n.
5
4 '
3-
,
.. ....t;IoI"
~ 130Kr
"" /
--K-J~~--
first indication of any altitude loss. After deflection for a standard rate turn and
the desired angle of bank has been the angle Of bank is noted on the
established, there may be a requirement attitude indicator. As the second hand
to hold aileron and rudder pressures passes a convenient point to start the
opposite the direction of turn. This is to timing, the heading is noted on the
prevent the bank from increasing. The heading indicator. At each to-second
tendency in steep turns for the bank to interval, the heading is noted again. If
increase is "overbanking tendency." The the heading change is 30 degrees at
slight extra speed of the wing on the each interval, the turn needle deflection
outside of the turn increases as the bank is correct for a standard rate turn (3
increases. At steeper angles of bank, degrees per second). If not, the angle of
this extra speed Will overbalance the
bank and resulting needle deflection are
lateral stability of the aircraft. This will changed until the turn is standard rate (3
cause the bank to continue to increase degrees per second). When the turn
unless control action is taken to resist it. needle has been calibrated in both
Power is increased as required to directions of turn, the corrected
maintain the desired airspeed. On the deflection is noted, if any, and applied
rollout, the pitch attitude is decreased as during all timed turns. .'
required Ie maintain altitude and the
c. Timed turns are normally entered
power is adjustéd as required to maintain from straight'and-Ievel flight. T 0 enter a
airspeed. The' use of instruments in the timed turn, hooding is maintained until
steep turn is the same as in standard the second hand arrives at the desired
rate turns. position, then, roll.in starts.
c. Common errors in steep turns
include failure
to-
(t) Maintain altitude.
(2) Maintain proper airspeed.
(3) Use proper power and pitch
attitude control during entry and
recovery.
(4) Use proper bank attitude and pitch
attitude control.
. ...
I >S
than 20 degrees, at half-standard rate. -,'
~.-~3~
in the
Normally, turns to headings will be ~9
shortest direction of turn. For example, :', .
turn.
(1) Enter in the shortest direction of
./ N
I.
I
~,Wl~
;J.iJ. instrument can be detected by
comparing its indications with the other
instrument indications. Common failures
are those of the attitude indicator,
especially if it is the spillable type, and
the heading indicator. A quick reference
is needed to the turn-and-slip indicator
for verification. This would show whether
E
or not the turn indicaUons on the attitude
indicator or heading indicator are normal
for the maneuver being performed.
Reference can be made to the other
pitch attitude control instruments
(airspeed indicator, altimeter, and vertical
,
S
speed indicator). This will verify whether
"~. -".-::;~'
, .'
or not the pitch attitude on the attitude
indicator is normal for the maneuver
being performed. However, if the aviator
~âuili ili1~ cannot confirm instrument failure with a
quick cross-check, prompt application of
MAGNETIC COMPASS
the procedures should be made for
.
OVERSWINGSWHEN MAKING recovery from unusual atUtudes.
TURNS TO THE SOUTH c. Recovery. These procedures should
be modified or supplemented by any
instructions contained in the operator's
manual for the aircraft. When a recovery
from an unusual attitude is required, the
initial control acUons should be made.
This can be done by using the power
Figure 4-4. Compass turns instruments, altimeter, airspeed indic~
vertical speed indicator, and turn<a1iÕ-slip
AFTER
(5) Indications of the attitude indicator
and heading indicator should be
(-)\I, ANGLE BANK disregarded as they will probably be
erroneous or too difficult to use for a
recovery. After spin recovery procedures
are applied, the turn needle should be
closely checked for a sudden movement
back toward center. This indicates that
1800 the rotation of the aircraft has been
stopped. The rudder pedals are promptly
centered so that the aircraft will not
begin rotation in the opposite direction.
30. The recovery is completed by using the
SOUTH procedure for recovery from a dive. Pitch
adjustments are made carefully while the
Figure 4-5. Compass ~urn maneuver procedure airspeed is still low and reference is
--- ---
--
- -
Airspeed isa nesuifofattit\Jde control; (3) During the initial climtiQut: minor :
altitude is à fE!SLItt of power control. To corrections to heading shoúld .be made
properly charige'\o or hold any desired with pedals only until sufficient airspeed
altitude, there must be a tentative is attained to make a transition to
estimate ot'b~cpÒwer settings for coordinated flight. A rapid cross-check
climb, cruise, and descent. must be started at the same time the
b. The method of performing each aircraft leaves the ground and should
maneuver presupposes full panel and include all available instruments.
.
14020
/
_'20
10Ó~o,~0-
/80 60
II' ,""1
",
>' \,'
'
~\~.. It.-'~/
<':I' 1:,'
:
'"
,,,, c.
=:-~~ "/
/ I ~
U,I~:..
~,
~
.
-'
,<ï.. ,,'"
9
'J 'J \ ,'\
I I ~\ \
~
Figure 4-6. Flight lristruments during the takeoff
'140
20
120
.JTS40
.-cfcK -
IU'
060
/ '
12 :3
L~:--'-
.
~
;'f 3
,; 2
~
-
Figure 4-7; Straight climb
,,~
.
...:: 'b.:-
-
'-.. -
<f)
." ----+v..
-
":~c;. '-.."'--"'-
//,4 9 'î-
~,~
í
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II I' 1\ 1\
\
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"
0
10
I
-,"9'"
"'f"1 '''.
20' (~,
1201: _J\18
,
K~ .ITS
40- '4':'L----
~
-
'-7
~:~
~t::-
:3;-
------t- ,~.
.
lOG
8060
I
~ ".þ .
-,
S.
j,
J I \ \
4,."
,
,...1.. ./ II.
:'-,\'2\ 24 lþ'~
< .:;,
:~ '\~
--:. s;
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ìoC..
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""
;'-
~-,,~
"
-
I
9 \
,'..
'.
:
I{ II 111\"'
-------
----
Figure 4-9. Straight descent
4-19. Turns
Determine the angle of bank necessary
to produce a standard rate turn by the
true airspeed of the aircraft. The angle of
bank required to achieve a standard rate
turn is to figure about 15 percent of TAS
and this is applied to the attitude
indicator. At an airspeed of 70 to 90
knots, the angle of bank of the standard
rate turn is approximately 12 degrees to
15 degrees, as read from the attitude
indicator. The number of degrees to be
turned governs the amount of bank to be
used. A change in heading of 20 degrees
or more requires a standard rate turn (3
degrees per second) and is shown as a
2-needle deflection on the 4-minute turn-
and-slip indicator. For changes of less
than 20 degrees, one-half standard rate
is sufficient and is shown as a 1-needle
deflection.
"20 \
"
.~~
,
II,.
140
,"9 ""..-
120 2;-,
--8 AU ,
/?
10i:TS40 \..
.
'~";
---7 ,
"
,
, 3::-
80 60/
//,þ "
I I
~
I'. \
~""
'.
ee
rate turn is established with reference to the second hand passes the 3-, 6-, 9-, or
the attitude indicator. Necessary changes 12-0'ciock position. The standard rate 01
are made to produce an indication of a turn must be maintained until the
y predetermined time has elapsed, then
the rollout is started. The rate of rollout
\,\,'1101,
\" \~' N ~ 'f~.-:.
is the same as the rate of roll-in. After
" '!I'\ straight-and-Ievei flight is established, the
"'-.....
\\
.-'Ii'
","
G'
-=::--....:.~
:3 0
--:.
.....~
~"'-~
d
i;:)
'4\'IJ{~11tté
"
:;..~ /,:- :. ,-...
h S ,'''''' '
"'I' 1\'\
"
t
\
.w.
I
, c::::=:::,
.
y .i:1.
" ~'H 'Ji~
0
,c20
...~. ~
.:/~~t;~:;:~:;:~~~~~~:})::}:}8:::::::::::;::::::;::;':;.:;'"
/40
120t40
K' ,TS
lOG
..
80 60
...
,
~
.::.
..",,"TIlAIoI
140
20
120 !)
= <,oij, 40
80 60
.W'.
\
~,
.::.~.,,,f~
used in a leveioff.
(3) Familiarity with the pattern and
(2) Power must be smoothly adjusted
to the approximate setting for desired DESCENDING
TURN 400'
'*'~URNSOO'DESCENDING
knowledge of the power settings for the
different airspeeds used.
descendino airspeed. At the same time,
pitch attitude is adjusted to the b. When the aircraft is in straight flight
and a few seconds have been allowed
C'*. ,~;~~Gt
approximate position for desired rate of
descent. The same control technique is for the magnetic compass to stop
used in changing from a descent to a oscillating, the compass heading is
climb. The frequency of reversing the TURN 400' ~ noted. If the aircraft is not on the correct
vertical direction depends on the type of DESCENDING compass heading, a correction is made
TURN 300'
aircraft. toward the desired heading before
OfSCEN~G
TURN 200' changing the airspeed. On headings of
b. The climbs and descents will be at
north and south, this correction must be
/'-
the same indicated rate as the amount of
altitude to be gained or lost. Normally in + a timed turn. However, in the vicinity of
'*'~
...
~ east and west, a shallow bank and turn
aircraft with a low rate-of-climb capability, . CliMBING
the maneuver is accomplished by ClIMBING \.
ÌÙR;:'-3òõ. / directly to the heading is possible since
TURN 200'
climbing 500 feet, descending 500 Jeet; there is no turning error on headings of
climbing 400 feet, descending 400 feet; east and west.
climbing 300 feet, descending 300 feet; c. The airspeed should be immediately
and, climbing 200 feet, descending 200
feet. This completes the maneuver. High
performance aircraft may accomplish the
*" changed if a correction of heading is not
required. When the turn-and-slip indicator
is the only bank instrument available, it
maneuver by changing altitudes of 1,000, Figure 5--2. Vertical 5-1 must be closely observed at all times.
4600'
4500'
4400'
4300'
4200'
,6
figure 5-1 Vertical S
.
"* /
CHANGE TO
Ãcr
SLOW CRUISE
Z
Z
~ '"
~ ~
'" N
START
"D
..
NORMAL
CRUISE + I
~
CHANGE 10
NORMAL S,RUISE
~
~~CHANGE 10
.c- r-.ORMAL
CRUISE
BEFORE-
LANDING
-+ CHECK
I
EXECUTE
GO \ROUND
-+
z
z
~ ~
'" I
~ START
DESCENT 500 fpm
T
CHANGE TO z
NORMAL ~ ~
CRUISE In'"
\ :t~
\
START DESCENT 500fpm
/'"/
-
(~) .
/'"
~
-
/ I \"
Figure 6-1. West to east rotation of the earth and Its revolution around the sun
Coordinates
~.
To identify point on the surface of the
a
NORTH POLE
1050 22'W
-, ::=i{W
C\::::
:;:;;::;.:'
\1;IliI11!,;
;~i ~;;
,i.~I;
";:;:;.;:::::;:;
." .
SP
<3>
CD
e
THE EQUATOR is A THE GREENWiCH ANY CIRCLE THAT A PARALLEL IS NOT
GREAT CIRCLE. MERIDIAN IS A CUTS THE EARTH A GREAT CIRCLE.
GREAT CIRCLE. IN HALF is A
GREAT CIRCLE.
Section III
Measuring Direction on the Earth
6-13. Points
In air navigation, directionsare indicated
by cardinal points (north, east, south,
west); intercardlnal points such as
~-.u
expressed as 360 degrees. East is 090
degrees and west is 270 degrees.
40
RADII
Figure
6-4. Angular and linear distances
c 2700 090'
D 1800
RHUMB
LINE
(BCD)
DEVELOPABLE
,
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i' /.,'\
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'(..... ).
'-
I, r-
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I 1---'
,-,- r-,-+--.::~::::::: ì-,-I-j-), ì-......""'i.::-r::.. ......~-\-\_,-"
",:-"",-~:",\-:.-,_-t-,1---t \
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.l--S-t:-:.
J-.J.\'-t-'-1-....\--;..~~-;'..
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11"
/
':-...,-.2'-'-.
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.... ...,...;-,-4._1 T-r-- I
~ -,'" '
....
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..... ... "...',....,
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....
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)'
DEVELOPABLE
~iONDEVELO,'ABLE
Once the graticule is drawn. features spheroid onto a flat surface is a bodies on plane surfaces.
may be plotted in their correct positions projection. The actual projection of a b. Purpose of charts. Charfs are
with references to meridians and graticule is accomplished by mostly used in navigation for chart
parallels. mathematical formulas. reading, plotting and measuring. Charf
Projections are reading is the location of one's position
b. Form and size. The form of the a. Ciassifications.
graticule determines the general primarily classified by the developable by identification of landmarks para 9-1.
surface (fig 7-2) where the spherical Plotting refers to establishment of points
characteristics and appearance of the
chart; its size determines the scale. surface is transferred. But there are and lines on a chart. Measuring means
Since meridians and parallels cannot be classifications for projections centered measurement of direction and distance
shown on a plane surface exactly as on the equator (equatorial), pole (polar), on a chart (para 10-1).
LIMITS OF PROJECTION
STANDARD PARALLELS
STANDARD
99%0 %
of the scale uniformity, areas retain true
shape (fig 7-6).
d. Great circle vs. straight line. Any
straight line on a Lambert conformal
conic chart is neariy a great circle (fig
STANDARD 330 -100%
7-7). Using 2,572 statute miles between
San Francisco and New York, a great (SCALE EXACT)
circie and a straight line connecting them
on a Lambert chart are only gY2 miles
apart at mid-longitude. For shorter
,
distances, the difference is negiigible.
For all practical purposes, if a flight is
230 -
102 Ih %
only a few hundred miies long, a straight
line may be considered a segment of a
I great circle.
A
e. Rhumb line on a Lambert chart.
i rhumb line on a Lambert chart is a
curved line that cuts all meridians at the
.
20
15
10
7-12. Photomaps
These maps are prepared by the Army
Map Service, Corps of Engineers, and
are used for air navigation over small
areas. These maps may be constructed
by using a single photograph or a mosaic
of several Qhotomaps. They can also be
printed on the reverse side of tactical ...
maps. The scales are 1 :25,000, 1 :50,000,
and 1:100,000. Meridians and parallels '^"".
,
"'-"."""'"'\';"-"-":'""".,".DOI "''''::::'~~:~~'''~:.'
~\"
(north through east to south, fig 8-2).
Since these directions are to the right on
the chart, the outer scale has an arrow
~'-
pointing to the right. The inner scale,
reading from 180 degrees to 360
degrees (right to left), is for directions in
the third and fourth quadrants (fig 8-3). Figure 8-3. Measuring course In the third and fourth quadrants
The center of curvature of both scales is
marked by a small hole.
c. The 60-degree center scale.
This ~
scale is an aid when measuring courses r",s OF
eo.~-
that are nearly north or south. The outer SC4iE~
scale reads from 150 degrees to 2f 0 ì;
degrees and the inner scale reads from
30 degrees to 330 degrees.
CE"'r
d. Measuremen Is. To measure OVEI>~kc~
a
',J'''''''''"", 1\~6.r'
".". ,.,,~,,' '..1\''''('''''"\
intersect the course line, the line is '''''.-''
1100000 1
I'
1'__jfll~..._It.
extended and the straight edge of the
plotter Is moved parallel to the course
line. This is done untii the center hole
~I
'IDOOOO
,I. I. 'I
()
, 1
,I::JJ :lnlHll JJJdIJU'
) "'""HI IJlJ~UI
":~IG"r DIRECTION Of +
COURSE lirE
shows the method of reading direction. lift ~DGf
The small arrows on the circular scale / '1>t c
oUl/BE
determine correct direction. The scale on
which the small black arrow points in the Figure 8-4. Measuring course
direction of the course shouid be noted.
The scale should be read "up" from the
smaller values toward the larger values. ",~\l\O\,.,14
...., .
... ,.,," ."'\ \
.'....to. ''''''''''
..
Chapter 9
Instruments Used for Dead
Reckoning Navigation Figure 8-6. Drawing a course line from a known point
9-1. General
Dead reckoning is the method for 0
determining position with a heading 0
I
temperature gage, airspeed indicator, l'
altimeter, clock, and the magnetic
compass system or slaved gyro system.
These instruments provide information
\
,\; ,
.
and time and must be correctly
interpreted for successful navigation. .
(General information is provided , 1j
here,
but for complete description, theory, and ! ...J
for navigation.
a. Applying compass corrections. The
.-
..
compass heading required to fly a given
cour'~ is derived by correcting true .
(2) Place known information under FROM A TO B, REAO INNERSPECIAL S(ALE (100)
1.
FROMB TOA, READOUTER SPECIAL
2.
each factor as shown below.
NOTE: REVERSING
SUlf (1900)
TH :!: V = MH PLOTTER POSITION FROM 0 IGHT EFT
188'12" E SIDEOFTHE(OU SE LINE DOESN T A F CT REA
MH:!:D=CH
5'W Figure 8-7. Courses near 0 degrees or 180 degrees measured with a circular scale
tt
20 MPH
L
I. 20 MILES
MOVEMENT OF BALLOON
20 MILES
MOVEMENT OF AIR MASS
CD 10-3, Correction
aircraft through the air. In calm air, the
speed of the aircraft over the ground is
equal to its TAS, If the aircraft is moving
Drift correction must be applied to a
x course to determine the heading, The against the wind (head wind), the ground
amount of drift correction must be just speed is equal to the difference between
enough to compensate for the amount of the TAS and the wind speed, If the
Figure 10-3, Drift
drift on a given heading, The drift aircraft is moving with the wind (tail
correction angle (DCA), sometimes wind), the ground speed is equal to the
NOTE: Track must not be confused with
called crab angle, is equal to, but in the sum of the TAS and the wind speed, if
course, wr;ch is the plotted course or If the aircraft is moving at an angle to the
opposite direction from, the drift angle,
intended track,
an aviator attempts to fly to a destination wind, the ground speed may be any
(1) Example of drift, As shown in
due north of a point of departure on a speed between the extremes of the
figure 10-3, an aircraft departs point X
heading of 360 degrees and a west wind ground speeds determined by head
on a heading of 360 degrees and flies winds and tail winds, Those ground
is blowing, the arrival is somewhere east
for 1 hour in a wind of 270 degrees/20 right drift speeds that are less than the TAS are
of the destination because of
knots, The aircraft is headed toward the result of hindering winds; those
point M directly north of X, Its heading is
(fig 10-5, A), To correct for right drift so
that the aircraft will remain on course greater than the TAS are the result of
represented by line XM, Under no-wind helping winds, Wind directions that are'
and arrive at the desired destination, the
conditions, the aircraft would be.at point of approximately 90 degrees to the
nose will have to be pointed to the left
M at the end of 1 hour, However, in this
the course, or upwind (fig 10-5, B), longitudinal axis of the aircraft (abeam
example there is a wind of 20 knots and winds) have a minimum effect on ground
the aircraft moves with it. At the end of 1
10-4. Points to remember speed, Winds may be classified as head
hour, the aircraft is at point N, 20 wind its winds (hindering winds), tail winds
When dealing with the and
nautical miles downwind from M, The line (helping winds), and crosswinds
XM is the intended path of the aircraft effects, remember the following points:
Wind from the right causes drift to (quartering head winds or quartering tail
through the air, the line MN shows the a,
the left. winds), Average ground speed is
motion of the body of air, and the line by dividing the total distance
b, Wind from the left causes drift to calculated
XN is the actual path of the aircraft over
the right. flown by the total time (in hours) required
the earth,
If heading is greater than track or for the flight. Airspeed factors to be
(2) Drift and ground speed change c,
course, drift is to the left. considered in computing average ground
with heading change, A given wind
d, If heading is less than track or speed include-
causes a different drift on each aircraft drift
.
8 2700
NO DRIFT ~
I
NO DRIFT
(~/
------- 9{)'-----
- - - - -
I
I
I
. WIND I
I
I
I
I
I
J
1800
G)
-------- DISTANCE TRAVELED
-
TRAe K
Figure Effects of
1~. a given wind on track and ground speed with aircraft flying on different headings
. ~ & r,,
,
((f',j'1-(<::
w
,
,
"',
,
,
. U';.,"Vo
WINO
U)
<r
:0
Z'
õ~
'1-""G'
"1-
w
U)
WIND ~ <r ,
. 0
U
.
,
<M
w,
r,,
. "
,
,
,
5
u
Ii!
~
,
, ,
. ,
,
,
,
,
"<
: <"",'I-",
,
.
\S'~""1<>
,
, '1-""G'
"1-
i ~
: I
,
,
,
,
,
$-~_ß
0
CORRECTED DRIFT
0
Figure 10-5. Drift and drift correction
TAS 100KT ) ~ 30 KT
j 4
X ~ 70N M ) y
OUTBOUND COURSE
.".,
TAS 100KT
oil(
~30KT
j r
X 10NM ) y
(,
INBOUND COURSE
@ GS =
130 KT; THEREFORE. TIME = 32 MIN
1:-:-
division past 21 will be read as 21.4 kilometers equal 90 nautical miles?
or í:-: "-
2,140. Spacing of these divisions should (2) Solution. Refer to figure 11-2 and !"'" .
(~:-
be studied because the breakdown of solve as follows:
-~:
dividing lines may be into units of (a) Sel 90 (inner scale) under NAUT
1, 2, 5,
or 10. index (outer scale).
(b) Read 104 SM (inner scale) under .
b. Indexes. Three of the indexes on STAT index (outer scale).
the outer stationary scale are used for
(c) Read 166 under KM index (166
converting statute miles (SM), nautical
kilometers).
miles (NM), and kilometers (KM). These Figure 11-2. Distance conversion
indexes are appropriately labeled
"NAUT" at 66, "STAT" at 76, and "KM" b. Addibonal guidance. When several
distance conversion problems are to be
at 122. On the inner rotating scale are
solved between statute and nautical
two rate indexes. The large black arrow
miles, set the STAT index on the inner
at 60 (speed index or 60 index) is the
scale under the NAUT index of the outer
hour index. The small arrow at 36 is the
second (SEC) index (3,600 seconds scale. Then read any ratio around the
entire slide rule. For example, 13 statute
equal 1 hour). The STAT index on the
miles is 11.3 nautical miles, 13 nautical
inner scale is used in mileage
miles is 15 statute miles (fig 11~3).
10 INDEXES
(REFERENCE MARKS)
STATUTE
INDEX
KILOMETER
NAUTICAL INDEX
INDEX
SPEED
INDEX
MINUTES
SCALE
.
.
\ I,','" ~
\.i,:,).'\~'
; :
,~
".
Figure 11-3. Converting several distances
.
simultaneously
...
.a approach.
.
solve as íolíows: ..
- .
Gasoline: 6.0:1.
.
11-11. Rate of fuel consumption
a. Gallons. Rate of fuel consumption
equals gallons of fuel consumed divided
by time.
Figure 11-9. Rate-Ume-dlstance problems
(1) Problem. What is the rate of fuel
using minutes
consumption ij 30 gallons of fuel
are
c. Problems Involving More Than 60 consumed in 111 minutes (1 hour and 51
Seconds. minutes)?
(1) Problem. What is the time required (2) Solution. Refer to figure 11-11 and
to fly from the outer marker (OM) to the
soive as follows:
middle marker If the ground speed is 95
knots and the distance between the two
points is 5 nautical miles? Figure 11-12. Fuel consumption
(2) Solution. Refer to figure 11-1 0 and
11-12. Maximum range
solve as follows:
Aircraft perlormance data charts used in
(a) Set 36 (inner scale) under 95
determining maximum flying range
(outer scale).
(b) Under 50 (5 NM) (outer sometimes base fuel consumption rates
scale), on nautical miles' flown per pound or
read 19 (190 seconds) or 3 minutes and
10 seconds (inner scale).
gallon of fuel consumed. This conversion
is accomplished as follows:
NOTE: When using the minutes scale a. Formula. The relationship between
as
a seconds scale, the hours
scale nautical miles per pound and pounds
per
becomes a minutes scale. hour is expressed as shown below.
Nautical miles per pound (or gallon)
TAS (miles flown per hour)
.
, pound (or gallon)
Pounds (or gallons) per hour
b. Problem. The maximum flying range
based on fuel consumption is indicated
Figure 11-11. Determining rate of fuel on the aircraft perlormance chart as
consumption 0.231 nauticai miie per pound. At TAS of
15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM
1-240 85
196 knots, what is the aircraft fuel
consumption rate in pounds per hour?
to figure 11-13 and
c. Solution. Refer
solve as foilows:
(1) Set 10 inde. (1 pound inner scale)
under 0.231 (outer scale).
(2) Under TAS (196 knots) (outer
scale), read 850 pounds per hour (inner
scale).
AND DENSITY ALTITUDE movable scales are rotated on the off course in 120 miles, or 2.5 miles off
COMPUTATIONS" provides a means for computer so that the FAT is set above course in 150 miles, a correction of
1
computing TAS when CAS, temperature, the pressure altitude in the window degree will be required to parallel the
and altitude are known or vice versa. To labeled "FOR AIRSPEED AND DENSITY intended course. To converge at
change from one to the other, it is ALTITUDE COMPUTATIONS." When set destination, an extra correction must be
in this manner, the density altitude is
necessary to correct for altitude and made based on the same rule of 60.
temperature differences existing from read above the pointer in the window correction
FAT labeled "DENSITY ALTITUDE." Using a. Formulas. The degrees
those that "e standard at sea level. required to converge at destination is
is read from free air thermometer and the same flight condition as in paragraph
a
determined by adding the results of the
the pressure altitude is found by setting 11-13, density altitude is read as 6,200 following formulas on the computer.
the altimeter at 29.92 inches of mercury feet (fig 11-14). Accurate results can
only be obtained by using pressure (1) Correction to parallel course.
and reading the altimeter directly.
calibrated airspeed is altitude. Pressure altitude can be read
a. Problem. The directly from the altimeter when the
MILES OFF COURSE DEGREES CORRECTION
125 knots, FAT is -15 degrees Celsius, MILES FLOWN 60
and the pressure altitude is 8,000 feet. altimeter setting is 29.92.
What is the TAS? (2) Additional correction to converge.
b. Solution. Refer to
figure 11-14 and 11-15. Altitude computations
solve as follows: The window marked "FOR ALTITUDE MILES OFF COURSE DEGREES CORRECTION
(1) Set 8,000 under -15 degrees COMPUTATIONS" provides a means for MILES TO FLY 60
computing corrected altitude by applying
Celsius in the airspeed computation temperature
b. Problem. An aircraft is
10 nautical
window. any variations from standard
(2) Over 125 (Inner scale), read TAS to indicated or calibrated altitude. miles to the left of course when 150
altitude is nautical miles from departure point A.
137 knots (outer scale). a. Problem. The pressure
9,000 feet, indicated altitude is 9,100 How many degrees correction are
NOTE: To solve CAS when TAS is feet, and the FAT is -15 degrees Celsius. required to parallel course? If 80 nautical
known. locate TAS on outer scale and What is the corrected altitude? miles remain to destination S, how many
read answer (CAS) in inner scale. b. Solution. Refer to
figure 11-15 and additional degrees are required to
solve as follows: converge? In what direction is the
(1) Set 9,000 under -15 degrees correction applied?
Celsius in the altitude computation figures 11-16 and
c. Solution. Refer to
window. 11-17 and solve as follows:
(2) Above 9,100 feet indicated altitude
(inner scale), read 6,700 feet corrected (1) Set 150 (inner scale) under 10
altitude (outer scale). (outer scale) (fig 11-16).
made to the right or added to the original flight. These formulas can be
calculated
heading. For example, if the original NOTE: The drift correction window,
as ratio and proportion problems and
heading were 090 degrees, the new together with the D
2 -D, data and the appear on the computer as they appear
heading is 101.5 degrees latitude scale on the face of the in mathematical form.
or 102 degrees
to the nearest degree. computer, is also used in pressure
pattern flying. (Since the Army does not
GS, + GS, GS,
(a) =
T
use this navigation technique, it is not t,
explained in this manuaL) GS, +
(b) GS, GS,
(2) To find the angle to intercept the T
=
.\""
'_"..",."./,
~..',"...,;:',...
"'Q
the index. The common center of the
(.0"" ",~".'j
concentric arcs and the point at which all
.).. .
.
,:';..'~ .,~
.:~;;~'\
J,;(..;>'~
converging lines meet is located at the
lower end of the slide. On one side of
the sliding grid, the speed arcs are
.~~
l. """ \ \Vý~
scaled from 0 to 270; on the reverse
side, from 70 to BOO, The low range
of
'..
~;- \"-! \".".,',:-. .'j"
-il
.
"
'1'"
speeds on the sliding grid is especially
.~ '..~
~;:" ,.
heipfui in solving navigational problems
\\:, ;;:,..:", ;:/.~l7 for aircraft having slow flight speed
characteristics.
/'~~~-,
~';'''4-
~...;. ~";"~'<;:::::';,"~',
'~.'''''.
"
0". "-- .. -
~..!:..
Section \I
computation
~~; ~!~j.j
l:i~o~o~t~;}L
Wind Problems 'COR~~ :~:':,'
11-19. Disk and correction scales
,i",.}.', ,;/i x
drift
scale Is used for calculating drift or
correction and is labeled DRIFT RIGHT
and DRIFT LEFT, A small reference
~ ~
the
circle, called a grommet, is located at
center of the plotting disk,
REVf RSI8ll
11-20. Reversible grid SLIDING
GRtD
A reversible sliding grid (fig 11-22) (fRONT SID!
inserted between the circular slide rule
and the plotting disk Is used for wind
computations. The slide has converging
lines spaced 2 degrees apart between
the concentric arcs marked 0 to 150 and
1 degree apart above the 150 arc. The
Figure 11-22. SIIdin9 grid side
...
.. .... ...~ ~..-
-... "" _... ...
~
+. '..-.
+.-. .... _.-.. .-.-.
--.. -.~. ---
.
~.- --..
....
.
--- COUI/s,
.-- -... .... ...-. .~.
'... ----
,.- -.- '90.
a,fou-\,o
50 5PEiD
-'-'. "', ....
".. '-' "'.
"'''-
k,
-.. '..,
.
"
~ -
:".,
~:
-l
~,\!~~~~.\\\\\\\IIII~!''0.\'J~JI~''':~
:
..
.180 J~ "S',//,J,11íIIIZU
''ilk&/.
",-.?Jft~~"
, ..
~
.
'~
(1) Set 160 (direction from which the .
~
(2) Plot the wind vector above the
grommet 30 units (wind speed) and t '.
place a wind dot within a circle at this
~'
point.
(3) Set 90 (course) at the TRUE
INDEX (fig 11-28).
\'
(4) Adjust the sliding grid so that the
TAS arc (120 knots) is at the wind dot.
(5) Note that the wind dot is at 14
degrees converging line to the right of
centerline.
(6) Under the 14 degrees correction
'''~
""1,4.
~/.
~':::,..:/::~
.
... ."
.. -'..
.
,,",
..
.",....a.
ct"~\,\
~.$~\
.
"-'
scale (DRIFT RiGHT) to the right of
center at the top of the computer, read
the heading (104 degrees).
(7) Under the grommet, read the
,
""""."1,
".. 0,.
AI
-. " ~ ',,,.'Y
....
".. O"/rltI,,,,.
'1--.:.....~.,.~
~,,,..,,,,,..
- ""of....",,,'.
-""I,,, I 0It Ot<' (lItE \ ---
,.
~
;:""",.."1....1.."\,,,, .11
1)",,' ~
~""-".'
." .
'\"'\"~.., ...t,-<I-
....
...'tJ.::
-
'\'''''11.'
.O"\,V-
.,." ..~'
\
.,.."
Ð~
.
~
TC8).!..:-,"",'
ground speed (106 knots). "
11-25. True airspeed computation Figure 11-27. Plotting the wind vector to solve
a. Problem. The wind is from 090 for heading and ground speed
degrees/20 knots, the counse is 120
degrees, and the ground speed is 90
knots. What is the heading and true
airspeed?
,
)
~--'JfJ&;ç'7
-
/,~ ~
-. 'f~"
(3) Move the siiding grid so that the '
(108 knots).
""'0..
degrees, the true airspeed
is 100 knots,
"x#:'
~""'I",~ ~
~
r
" -
~ ':;"'"
~\"~":~,
I
.
~\\\\\\'., ~'t>..'
the track is 140 degrees, and the ground 08t M r;jIf.
"'11/1
'... ~ :ri~:':;lïIJJWJlli.IjII1.lLl\!\J,I\I\\\\'\\\'c\,.;~.'
,Q"""'
speed is 90 knots. What is the wind ,..
0,,/, ,,-': .-..'t--~ "",,\' ~.....\'
,\
.'" 1 '" \'
-~.O"
.
'<;In!
velocity? !f
'" c
"
Î'~.
--J
V*,." I
--"".I! 'fC"~ -
~.'
.
~"u;rt..:'r-r--
~~\\I\\I'::J1'I,(;~t;~~
..
~.. ,lIIW"~~I.,
'10""
'''\,'1.
;'i>.},~~ -.
..
~ .
-..g
~';"'~
-
""';;:"/
~""
~'ìp
,
".i~' ...
I' ". "'Ð
...,:,
~
'.
.
-;:.
,', "'"'Î'-:t ~
.
~;\. ""
...
.
'"
..~
'-::"'.I:"t" '~
~'io.""
.t:r'*'"
-3
". ""I.~
"'4""1 ~ ,.
...
""/"'11 Oft ClOt
..,oez r:J#-
1\,'1'11
I~i:"'\\'-"'.~:,
t."
~1'['
.
l."d"ol"lllnLilW\\\I\1'<~'-I'"
o,j~' ,o,'f"
,D,,/.
'. ...
!!tit
D',I,It"'1
~
'9101
~
.",
,,'t>- \,'t-"
..,
",- ~
Q"\,
~Q"
'V..:',.~"'I 'II:"~
"'~<I
<
<
"
1~
"
'- '"
"
~;:"..I""I""!",,h\'o\>>
:fII!:~
rÞ"
,,\~..iI'I., ~..,
>10' ,~...'
,...,
~"', ~ .~
letter "5" appears under the TRUE .. .~
~
~" ""'9~'
.-'. 'O,,':,~~'.
-
.
.
r
INDEX (fig 11-34). : -...:' æ::: TC.or!! ~o"
------~~
,
1 adequate for flight planning with Army
aircraft. Therefore, a complete discussion
of the variations mentioned in 8 above is
.~ I~ -
not essential or within the scope of this
manual.
1-'~-
8'1<>-
"<::
-.'00"':
I '''''
'~
-",t- I' ~"" Chapter 12
0.". ... Radio Principles
l ...''''''~ ~~~
"
.
~'-~'
"~/'?;I.
~.
..'>1'\1'\."
os CII'A:
iIII!I"
~ ~.\~\"..'
\I\\\\\~.' ~~.."
/
"oI1nl~I'IIJI'IIIIII"I\I\Ù~\\\~""~~.''f.~Q~'' 12-1. General
,,"'. ...~ -'Ir a~.~I I
r--- ..,
I
-----1 instrument flight. All aviators must be
familiar with radio principles and the
capabilities and employment of Army
Figure 11-33. Plotting the reported wind
aircraft radio equipment.
B F
w
a
::>
I- c
0 E
0
--'
Cl..
~
<I:
A
0
0 M
~
CARRIER WAVE
OSCILLATOR
AUDIO fRE~UENCY
AMPLIFIER
MQDULATOR
\\\\\
1/ ) )
I
ww.
MODULATED CARRIER WAVE
/'---,\
\.~
AUDIO WAVE
-I
receiving stage since it is still a E. CARRIER WAVE II. with _10 w8",,(D_'oupeoI.....-
combination of the radio wave (carrier byompilludo-IAMI.
wave) and the audio wave (voice).
~ /
DESIRED
MODULATED CARRIER WAVE
nJ\Jv~
.
TUNER
( ~KE.~))).
(SELECTS AND
DETECTOR
t
AMPLIFIES DESIRED
SOUND WAVE
FREQUENCY)
-
~ AUDIO FREQUENCY
-=
AUDIO WAVE AMPLIFIER
IONOSPHERE
~\\)/JJ ~I~
'
'\'\'\ ~
,:.'<. ,,'" /)) \ ~
0';- '\'\
~~
,,"\)))))))) \\\
\ '\'\
'\'\
~
~
.
Y'\" )~'\'\ ~
~ \\J~!)Np..\Jf.SKIPZONf.
",\<f~O,-\ .il'1r ~
~ì
A~~
J ~
~~::,:n\J.
KANSAS
CITY /J
---- -------./L
.'
~
Gf\p..I\SOf\I\f.OSKIP
...
B .... ~Ù
SKIP
------...~~A
\..05
~G~\..
po:
>ö:.-----
OISTANCE DISTANCE
'v;~ C
Þ.
MAGr-.E T IC NORTH
..
o.
-
~ ~ 0-
31~'
v ?\ ~
45.
\J
270'
~/~
-
^O0~8
=.~I\ 18011
~
\.YJ
135'
6. TO-FROM INDICATOR
ON-COURSE INDEX
0 0
0 0 0
A A
v
I
STATION
(~~.a
I
I 2
;::,-...
I
:--.. ""'..liOo I
,,~
"
0
Jm,......::::::-.. I 8
~~ /8 V
~-b
""~............~ I
~ruA~~ì( Ð\
~ '-...... 0
'" I --"--"..........
C
/' c
"'-......~8 -"""""':"'--
"""""',
0 0
.' C .......~
/'/'
"'8'''''
@..'Oo"----"CD-"""""""'""""
..........
V
'.' .
~
~ "
-
"
0
0 0
'"
Figure 13-5. Deviation indicator operation
POINTER
FUNCTION
SWITCH
BEARING
POINTERS
CAUTION: Bearing pointers will n01 function in relation to the instrument landing system,
radial. Aircraft A is on the 090-degree away from the station is known. This to station are illustrated in figure 13-9.
a
radial following a 270-degree course course is also the radial upon which the The aircraft maintains a 360-degree
inbound to the station. Aircraft B is on aircraft is located. When an RMI is used course to the VOR station.
the 090-degree radial following a 090-
degree course outbound from the
station. Aircraft C is crossing the 090-
DASHED LINE
\
degree radial flying a heading of 320 \
degrees. In each position, the Number 2
bearing pointer indicates the course to .
0 0 0 0 0
VOR COURSE
INDICATOR
..
"fJR~
0 0
ffi'OiA , I
I
Ie
I
I
I
I
I I
0
I
A I B C I
~
STATION
090"
RADIAL 8 8 0 ..
A B C
--------------------
Eþ
....
:.:
~
~
Q
1.1.1
Q
Z
1.1.1
~
~
1.1.1
tJ)
a::
::J
0
U
0
(
,
~~ui
heading of 340 degrees is maintained,
the aircraft will fly through the course. If ~I
the aircraft is returned 10 the original
heading of 360 degrees, the aircraft will
be blown off course again.
e. Trial drift correction. To avoid both
1----------------- W' :
situations, the heading is changed by
turning toward the course by half the
amount of the initial correction. An
example would be turning toward the
course 10 degrees (15 degrees if flying
below 90 knots). The aircraft heading is
now 350 degrees. This results in the first
trial drift correction for the crosswind.
0
This drift correction may later prove to 0
~~G---~_____m__
(1) Correction too small. If the first trial
drift correction (10 degrees) is too small
(wind is stronger than anticipated), the
aircraft will again be blown off course
from point E to point F (fig 13-10). The
~
heading must again be changed to 340
degrees (fig 13-10, G) in order to
intercept the course. The aircraft
\ : 1j' G
0
~- 00
reintercepts the course at point H. A
heading correction (fig 13-10, I) is made
by turning toward the course 5 degrees
to a heading of 345 degrees. (The
aircraft is now using a total drift
CDF---~~_nm--!tJ-
correction of 15 degrees.) This
.~~.
bracketing procedure will be repeated
until a heading is selected that maintains
the aircraft on course.
(2) Correction too large. If the first trial
\ GD F
.
f
-----------
0
y ---------------- y
0 0
-- --------- ---- 1
x
----------- X
-- ----
------------------ w
..J
c(
õ
~
0
w
-
-
-
\ 0
0
!9
-
- -
--
-
-
-
--- v
---- -- --
-
v
0
0
--- -------- ---
u
....
.
0 0
(IDA
STATION
'8
0900
0 0
figure 13-.12. Course selector reset to fly outbound ,on a different course
108 15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240
STATION
~<v / B
.;)<f-~ ' /
Q
C
CP()~ /
Ø/~~ /:~
INDICATOR
CHANGING WHEN
ABEAM THE
STATION
/
A
/ B
I~
m
,~
.
..~, ~ /
''If
~090';~
STATION
0
/
/
/
/
/ w -B -~"" I
I
I
I
X
y' \
\
\
Z
\
\
\
,
w x y z
I ?!:JJ.O
y' , ,
,
,
BLUNK INTERSECTION
z
B
I~
--------
Q)
x
x (TUNED TO STATION B)
(j)w"""""" 0
......
......
......
....
w (TUNED TO STATION AI
STATION A
STATION
0 0
0
-
C
-- -......
-- --
-- ......
,.,
c
>
Figure 13-16. Course Interception at 45 degrees or 90 degrees from a known position (VOR)
STATION
..
0 0
0 0
"@ ~, 0
, A
,
0
Ii!
~
"
"r
'CD
A
...
B
0
I 1\
Figure 13-17. Double-the-angle course Interception from a known position (VDR)
15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240 113
the aircraft is located. A simple method Time Remaining to Station = (8) Substituting the data from figure
to become oriented with respect to a Minutes Flown x 60 Seconds Flown
13-8, assume the true airspeed is 120
desired track is as follows: knots.
Degree Change Degree Change
(1) Tune and identify the station.
Time Remaining to Station
Distance to Station =
Degree Change
NOTE: This procedure is true only when
the heading of the aircraft is within 90
0
degrees of the course indicated by the STATION
course arrow.
00 B
the station on the 200-degree radial.
Estimating the time and distance to this
station is shown in figure 13-18.
(1) Turn the aircraft through 80
degrees (left in fig 13-18).
(2) Move the course selector 10
degrees (from 020 degrees at point A to
030 degrees at point B) to a known
radial ahead of the aircraft.
(3) WaiUor the deviation indicator to
center and take a time check (1412:50
for example).
"
8/'"
VORTAC to the waypoint, and angle (1),
the bearing from the VORTAC to the
waYPoint, are set in the cockpit control.
The bearing from the VORTAC to the
aircraft, angle (2), is measured by the
VOR receiver. The airborne computer
(CJ
~~ WAY POINT
compares angies (1) and (2) and
determines angle (3). With this
infonmation, the computer, by means of Figure 13-21. Course line computer geometry
simple trigonometric functions, ,
13-26. Waypolnts
A waypoint is defined as a
predetermined geographical position
used for route-definftion or progress-
reporting purposes that is defined
relative to a VORTAC station position.
Waypoints are also defined by latitude
and longitude coordinates for the use of
airborne self -contained systems not
dependent on VORTAC inputs. Wfth the
course line computer, the aviator
effectively moves or off-sets the
VORTAC tn a desired location. A
"phantom station" is created by setting
the distance (Rho) and the bearing
(Theta) of the waypoint from a
convenient VORTAC in the appropriate
windows of the waypoint selector or "off-
set control" (fig 13-22).
Figure 13-22. Waypolnt selector
or "off-set control"
13-27. RNAV routes
The advantages of the VORTAC area
navigation system stem from the ability
of the airborne computer to, in effect,
locate the VORTAC wherever convenient
if ft is within reception range (fig
13-23). .
'\
A series of these "phantom stations" or
waypoints make up an RNAV route. A
number of RNAV routes have been
,
established in the high altitude structure.
High altitude R NAV routes are depicted
on the "RNAV Enroute High Altitude
Charts." In addition to the published
~... ~' .. .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
,
routes, the aviator may fly a random ,
.
,
RNAV route. under IFR if it is approved .
from distant stations at night. During can be received for tuning using the
periods of thunderstorm activity, the audio signal. When using this procedure,
Chapter 14
atmospheric static may interfere with be sure and switch back to COMP/ADF
Automatic Direction Finder (AD F) position after tuning is completed. The
tuning and identifying a radio beacon.
and Manual Loop Procedures
This will cause erratic operation of the response of the bearing pointer to the
bearing needle. Commercial broadcast signal may be tested by moving it left or
14-1. General right on the RMI with the LOOP switch.
The radio direction finder (RDF), stations should be used only if an NDS is
not available. These stations have This is to determine if it will return to the
sometimes referred to as a radio
It irregular hours of operation and are original bearing when the LOOP switch is
compass, is a radio receiver. is used to
the bearing to a radio subject to signal interference from other released. After tuning the radio receiver
determine
stations. Identification is not broadcast at and identifying the station, the function
transmitter from the aircraft. This
frequent or regular intervals. The stations switch on the radio control panel is in the
receiver has a loop antenna that is used
also frequently have highlydirectional COMP / ADF position. Also, the RMI
to determine this bearing. Sometimes the
loop antenna is placed in the signal signal patterns that may cause umeiiable function switch is in the ADF position.
indications while using ADF procedures. b. If the ADF is being used as the
pattern of a radio transmitter. If so, no
If a commercial broadcast station must primary means of navigation, the receiver
, signal will be heard when the plane of
I
be used, select a station that is volume should be adjusted. It should be
the loop is perpendicular to a line from
designated on an air navigation chart. adjusted so that the signal is just barely
the aircraft to the transmitter. This
position of the loop is called the .null. audible. Then, if the signai is no longer
Navigation with the radio direction finder 14-4. Receiver components heard, it is possible that the receiver has
failed. The receiver itself and the RMI
0
i uses the null for determining the Components of an ADF receiver are as
the trensmitting facility. This follows: have no warning devices to indicate
i direction to
failure. The bearing pointer may remain
can be done manually by using the ADF a. Receiver.
0
1999..... .50
receiver is set and the desired radio station if any crosswind exists (fig 14-1).
H...
.
."
HH. .2000 or more .75
When maintaining a desired course, the
.
. . .
~~r
j~ an airspeed of 90 knots or above. The
correction should be 30 degrees for
AIRWA Y
8 0900 ..
STATION C
"-':"~~..!~"~'~:-:
BEACON
0800-
-
<<':"'1;');'1'
~.;!;
f:'
(~,., i'
'I.,
-.
=0- ...:
A -" 'It
.~
.
.:;:>
\1.",.:)1
"'",,"
"",1.,,1'
--
x 12 =
completed, the procedures for 60.
maintaining a course, as outlined in
paragraph 14-6, will be followed.
A BEACON 0
VB ---
-~ ~. -c/$O~('
N
C
G1GIJ
ø ~o- 0
BEACON
\
(0 B
'"
..
00
CLJ
[ïiliJ
Figure 14-6. Relative bearing 01
060 degrees with three dlflerent aircraft headlnga
15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE oFM
1-240 123
(fixed
14-16. Courses to a station
card)
BeACON
The procedures for maintaining the :::.::~<:
course to a station using relative
bearings are illustrated in figure 14-7.
These procedures are outlined as
follows:
is inbound to
a. Point A. The aircraft E
the station on a course of 350 degrees, ...
the heading is 350 degrees, and the
bearing pointer is indicating a O-degrees
relative bearing.
D
b. Point B. Wind from the left has
caused the aircraft to drift off course to
the right. The bearing pointer indicates a
5-degree bearing to the ieft of the nose.
The course is now 5 degrees to the left.
20
c. Point C. To return to the course,
degrees of ieft correction must be
appiied. The new heading is 330
...
degrees. The bearing pointer indicates a
bearing of 015 degrees to the right of the
.:"1'..'
nose of the aircraft. ..-I'... \~.. C
,.~
d. Point D. The aircraft has returned to
the course when the bearing pointer
indicates a bearing of 20 degrees to the lli!:iJ
right of the nose.
e. Point E. The aircraft
is turned right
to a heading of 340 degrees (drift
correction of 10 degrees has been
applied). (The bearing pointer indicates
IWINþ
,~
10 degrees has been applied.) The
bearing pointer indicates 10 degrees to
the right of the nose. if the bearing
pointer remains in this position, the drift
correction is sufficient and the aircraft
will remain on course. If not, further A
corrections to course will have to be
made and different drift corrections must
be applied until the course is maintained. OIW
Figure 14-7. Maintaining a course to a station (fixed card)
14-17. Homing
Homing when using relative bearings is
done in the same manner as described
in paragraph 14-5. The aircraft is turned
until the bearing pointer is aligned with
; the index at the top of the RMI. The
I aviator liies to the station by turning the
aircraft as necessary to keep the bearing
pointer on the nose of the aircraft.
aircraft will be at this position when the degrees = 40 degrees). In the same
drift
bearing pointer indicates 30 degrees to example. a 10-degree right
the right of the nose (120 degrees 90 -
correction will result in the bearing
degrees ~ 30 degrees difference pointer indicating 20 degrees right of the
between the two courses). When drift nose at the fix (120 degrees 100 -
degrees 20 degrees).
correction is required to maintain a ~
lDLJ
~
0900 ~
~
300
I~ ,/
00
~
BEACON
QLJ
'Y
0800 -
~ Q
-<,,'\
1.,,-
;~
:--1")
=."
'So
~(/ 6
~",",'/}
..'"-
Lit-:-
~.:;-
-
A
",#, "
,~/\
~c~~ i9.s'~
B
GYm
aural signal caused by the BFO will be
heard on either side of the highest tone.
b. The selector switch
is moved to
LOOP if the selector switch is not
already positioned in this mode.
c. The loop drive switch
is moved and
'III 270
.
COURSE e STATION
degrees, the null is reasonably narrow.
After the null is located, the azimuth
COULD
BEACON Y
BE HERE 1 e e
BEACON
X
.
B A
AIRCRAFT TURNS
UNTIL NULL IS
NULL IS
SO" TO THE NOSE
LOCATED
T ACAN
. LOBE PATTERN
ROTATES
1& RPS. RECEIVES
AIRCRAFT
SIGNAL AS A 1. CP8 SINE
WAVE SUPERIMPOSED UPON w
E
A 16 CPS SINE WAVE
W?E 9 9 Q 9 9
: SEARINGTOSTATIoN! GROUND
~ I
Q
ROTATING:
0
15 : DETERMINES THIS TIME INTERVAL
RPS: ANTENNA: PARASITIC:
TO POINT OF MAXIMUM SIGNAL STATIONARY: ELEMENT:
A~: :
.
:
-, -L SIGrLS
!=LEMENT :
I,i + "-
Aux-LI:ILIARY~+
1 i i
V I I
MAIN REFERENCE: .
.
.:
I :~~~~~~~~GNALS 11~
CyL::~:~:: I
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tõ', :Ó', : 0"'. ~O\ '0' /0\ '0,' .to} "Ò\ '0'
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15
...-' ....,..' ....,4
: ~~~~~~~J~s \..,'
VH~~I~I~EINT~RVAL
T'O
'.....1 ~... '--.... \...../ \..,'
RPS POINT OF
::
.
~' ~
I
: MAXIMUM
t
I
SIGNAL:
, I
I':
I I
,
15CYCLE
I
1/13 -40:.10- SIGNAL
PER SEIC. 7400 M. SEC I
I I
135 CYCLE SIGNAL
þ REPLY
X
INTERROGA
TION- 1-~
>ì
,
-X
I
SLANT
RANGE
I
~
-
......
~
possible malfunctions or iimitations on
;'
~ NAVAIDs to be used.
(5) DISCONTINUE USE of any
suspected NAVAID and confirm aircraft
position with radar or other equipment.
8
A ground speed check
.'
can be made
8
while maintaining a
course to or from a
TACAN station. As a guide,
however,
ground speed checks should be
performed only when the aircraft's slant-
range distance is more than the aircraft
altitude divided by 1,000. For
example, ~
the aircraft is at 10,000 feet, ground
speed checks should be performed only ;:;------ ""'""""".,
.~ .-.'"
.
,
::r----
.,co
..,,-
can be considered accurate at any
distance from the stabon. To perform the
ground speed check, begin bming when
the range indicator shows a whole
number. After a predetermined time has
elapsed, check the range indicator and
note the distance flown. On a computer,
set the distance flown over the elapsed
Figure 15-8. Indication of station passage
.e.
i~"""",-~, V ~
~~...-
..
'"
i ,. ----..
i
~
-----
PAtato:: N'9 CON
119.t5 358.3 ~ R.2931
PAftIOt TOWER *
t26.2
ON> CON
121.7
348.4
335.8
/ ./o.UTfC)N: 1Ight8d boDoon
OJ!unmarIaed cab18
to W.DOO' in R.2931.
.
'-----
~~
QNe DEL "">
118.. / ;~~
....
ATIS
273.'
*
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.,
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110"-
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\
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(W)
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/
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r'"
~~
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"'-- ~ERO BEACH
............
..-/'
EMfRG SAf
ATLAS
AL T 100
NM 1. 000 - -
--- BEV 9
1-090 10 DMf $EtA, MISSED APPROACH HIll ~ 2-20
5õëõ~DrME
I
1-1'U
I 7
c.-. draight ah80d to 25QO,
un right to AnAS. ...
1E11
..,. 2
DMf
..
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2500 IO~.~1 .
"':'"
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I TACAN
I
1.... 0...-1
I
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tv<. 1 I
1""^~
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93
..............
CATEGORY A . 0
5-2 :WO--Yo "
S6C>-2
CJOa.N:; .æ-1 471 (500-1)
. 2
...
@
5-_2 :WO--Yo 333 (<<10-"1
~>
OW' to
TACAN
Figure 15-12. TACAN arc used to make a transilion 10 flnal approach radial
'" _LIoIAIIINS'AÆ
TACAN 1 RWY 14 AWD2 cuW) W_"""""""
~
~
y
rnm:J
---
----
1""..1
III"."
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-
-as
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",. (1~1
11..,1
11,.
w1WiC8, MdYUHD
TACAN 1 RWY 14 -.....- OUNN ~ 00IAI"" STAIt
"'
Figure 15-13. TACA:N arc used for entire final approach pattern
I
I
.I
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1":,: I
" /
~ /
Q /
/
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/ LEAD POINTS '\\f-
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;0800
~Þ.O\Þ.l.
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tJ/Hf.'ff.''f'!:''''''''. .
..........',;.i::,
\
AIRPORT
I I
LEADPOINTS
NAUTICAL MILE LEAD FOR TACAN
1% X GROUND SPEED =
1.1/2 "!SEC RATE OF TURN STATION IF THE TURN WILL NDT BE CDMPLETED AT
THE DESIRED RANGE, ROLL OUT WITH THE
1/2 % X GROUND SPEED = NAUTICAL MILE LEAD FOR
30 SEC RA TE OF TuRN
Q BEARING POINTER AHEAD OF THE
WINGTIP TO DECREASE THE RANGE
ANO BEHIND IT TO INCREASE
THE RANGE
\ /
EXAMP,LE:
RATE OF TURN 3" PER SEC
-II
GROUND SPEED 200 KTS
1/2%.2=1 NMLEAD
.::!i::::.;.....tf~
""
.::::'
.
.. '"
",.''''"
d~::' ..
~(~.q
D"O'I\I
8
.:.
,::i::' ,. INTERCEPT ARC BY TURNING
.::::' TO PLACE STATION ON
WINGTIP AT REQUIRED DISTANCE
./~/::' -
Fig,ur~ 15-15. Intercepting TACAN arcs
Q----~~~~-----
I~ ------
-==:O'e. ("~,,,},É_~.- 'wi'~:~'.
þ.9-c'
, "fI",,.r-
CORRECT 10 20DEGREES FOR
~r";;;':;;;':!.~.
'.'.
0
interception (c above) from nautical mile
to degrees is a technique that can be
used to determine an approximate lead
point. Use the relationship that 1 degree
is 1 nautical mile wide at 60 nautical
miles from the station and its width
15NMARC1D = 114NM
increases or decreases in proportion to
the distance (fig 15-17). For example,
with a 150-knot ground speed using a
standard rate turn, a three-fourth nautical
mile lead point would be used to
3ONMARC10 = 112f11M
intercept the 15 nautical mile arc. Since
1 degree of travel along the 15 nautical
mile arc represents one-fourth nautical
mile, the lead point when intercepting a
radial from the arc (no wind) would be 3
45NMARC 10 =
J/4NM
degrees (fig 15-18).
6ONMARC1D", lNM
CHANGE THE
NAUTICAL MILE
lEADPOINT USED
INTEACEPTIO~'"
FOR THE ARC
INTO DEGREES.
.
.:'
~v :::.'
.'
~
",'
','':,:.
i>~
..." ""~':"
~'::"..:.314
NM LEAD POINT
.,.q;. .
'..:::.
,
i>~ ,',','"
,/J '\:::::~~..
follows:
than those normally used in VOR or ADF LDA Rwy 4, NDB Rwy 21, VOR Rwy 15, a. Bearings, courses, and radials.
holding. For example, 6 degrees off VOR/DME Rwy 6, ILS or TACAN Rwy 9 Bearings and courses shall be expressed
course at 30 miles is a 3-mile course are examples. A slash (I) shall indicate in degrees magnetic. Radials shall also
error; whereas 6 degrees off course at that more than one type of equipment be expressed in degrees magnetic and
10 miles is only a 1-mile must be used to execute the final shall further be identified as radials by
course error.
approach such as VOR/DME, or ILSI prefixing the letter "R" to the magnetic
DME. When procedures are combined, bearing FROM the facil~. For exampie,
the word "or" shall indicate either type R-027 or R-O 10.
Chapter 16 of equipment may ba used to execute b. Altitudes. Units of measurement for
Instrument Approach Procedures the final approach such as ILS or altitude are expressed in feet. Published
TACAN, ILS or NDB, VOR/DME or heights below the transition levels shall
16-1. General TACAN. When the same final approach be expressed in feet above MSL.
The instrument approach is a simple guidance is used to the same runway, Published heights at and above .the
blending of two skills: basic instrument the procedures shall be identified as transition levels shall be expressed as
flying and precise navigation. Both must follows: TACAN 1 Rwy 36, TACAN 2 Rwy flight levels.
be performed regardless of the effect of 36, VOR 1 Rwy 18, VOR 2 Rwy 18. All c. Distances. All distances shall be
wind or weather. There is a third VMI procedures should be carefully examined expressed in nautical miles (60076 feet
element essential to any instrument to determine capabil~ of flying the entire per nautical mile) and tenths thereof. The
flying, especiaily to approaches. It is the procedure. In some instances, the exception is when applied to visibilities
judgment and personal discipline missed approach segments are whicih shall be expressed in statute miles
required to decide to go to the alternate designated to/from a NAVAID with which and the appropriate fractions thereof.
destination when appropriate. An Army aircraft are normally not equipped, Expression of visibility values in nautical
miles or metric equivalent is pèrmitted in
overseas areas where it coincides w~h
the practice of the host nation. Runway
visual range shall be expressed in feet
except in host nation procedures where
the metric equivalent is used.
d. Speeds. Aircraft speed shall be
.... .,...,- expressed in knots.
.''''0'''- -..-,..
-;
"'+4,
,:::::::i::/~+4",'i/::i ...NOTTMIRATICHI
provide for the differences in
performance by placing aircraft in one of
five categories and then establish
approach minimums for each category.
b. The five approach categories (A
through E) are based on 1.3 times the
TACAIII
RATION
- 'i:::inf
.)(' ~~i~~~I~F stall speed in the landing configuration at
maximum authorized gross landing
"",,,;:;:;'"
."P
Figure 15-19. TACAN holding
IAF
I'IALI)WIN
Q IIlli2F!AI
r:H ~<:.j -... LEE
-..
.
-'"
.
-', i:I
r".~" !)
.
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BLUNK
~
IN TERM
'='0
c:: lATE
MAP
IBI PROFILE VIEW
ft F
"---".
('~ I
þ
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-".X
"""~o
1''''''"'0'
.
~,cs ":'.:
'--'"
MAP
IBI PROFILE VIEW lEE GLiNKINSOP
BALDWIN
LEE IAFI
1142LEE:~1
Q 1092BAL :-:'"
~.L C~,::
.-..
. .
ð..1/
-...
').~f,)f,)~, 0
00
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KAREN
(/--'~" ,,,~~~:F:_.. ~
r:::::..
-- ---
\,
,
-- ---
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0---- -- )'
+
c
--
........
-
A
45'
~U-;;";~NON PROCEDURE TURN SIDE
(A)
B
,../ ------'"0- -- -
.
+
-- -
--.
--
------8
45' TURN FROM PROCEDURE TURN SIDE
(B)
A
la)
.....--
Ib)/-....
[e}/ fro
,/ I'(
-
-
-
....'- -
-
,
.....
I.
......
1.':'~:~"11~::!'J"
,
LEE
1\..1<'LEE
OAF
:-..
oil, "l"~"""".........
\ \ \ "".... .... ,
,ð.
....
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ø
...."":--'"
"-"'-.... ...:::-....~......
--/-
090. ..
-11-270
B" ""~Q;:
"
"
"
"
'(9,
Figure t8-6. Teardrop turn
:...
~
1\
~
UNDERSHOOT I OVERSHOOT
1
,
,
~ I
t
I
t I
I I
WIND
FACILITY
e -
-
OUTBOUND LEG
8-
Figure 16-8. Adjusting procedure turn for wind effects
19
Amch 13 CAIRNS AAF (OZR)
VOR RWY 6 Al 577 OJ 'us Arn'y) FORf RUCKER, ALABAMA
CAIRNS A.PP
\11.-340(' 133.45
CON
237.5
/ ---- ~. ---- l'ìv?;---
248.2
370.3 /
/
/
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-----
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FffDfÌj'--
10
""""
^'",
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ElE\( 298
R8moin VCR
wilhin KI NM' MISSED APPROACH
'13,0 Climbing right turn to
20DCI out R.157 aZR
VQR to REHOB
1700~
-.......... 0$/.
INT GIld hold
.~
4
"..../
..
A
HIRl
R~ 6-24. 16-36
I
FIX END I OUTBOUND
I END
, I
1
I
:/HOLDING
FIX
I
RECIPROCAL \ 1 INBOUND
HOLDING
COURSE /~ I
NONHOLDING SIDE COURSE
e
:E
~
w
'"
~
I
I
I
I
(2) Compensate for known effect of (c) Direct entry procedure-turn right
except when turning. and fly the pattern.
:wind,
STANDARD PATTERN
...
.... .... ....
,...... ..
.....
. .
.....................,..
..."'"''''
.............
........................
...........,.............
.
............
.............
.......,.....
............
...,........
......,........
... .................
.
,...,...............'"
. . . . .
.,...........,..,..........
........................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
(b('
pattern. The length of the outbound leg controller has specified a departure fime,
odometer reads 20 nautical miles.
will be specified in the procedure chart the holding pattern is adjusted so that
(3) Nonstandard holding pattern entry.
or by the controller. The end of the
The fix end and outbound end turns are the aircraft is over the holding fix ready
outbound leg is determined by the to depart at the specified time. If an
made to the left. Entry procedures to a
appropriate odometer reading. When the
nonstandard pattern are oriented in aircraft is holding on the published final
inbound course is toward the relation to the 70-degree line on the approach course at an approach fix and
navigational aid, the fix distance is 10 holding side just as in the standard receives clearance for the approach, the
nautical miles, and the leg length is 5 pattern. final approach is begun from the holding
10 NM . I
I.. 28 NM ~
I
NAVAID ~O
'\
-
N
- ~
aircraft must execute the procedure turn effect of wind except while turning. aviator has little control over the
on the procedure turn side of the final Sometimes no attempt is made to aircraft's track while turning. Therefore,
correct for adverse effects of crosswinds the track of the outbound leg is adjusted
approach course if a descent to
while holding. In this case, the turn to avoid turning short of or overshooting
procedure turn altitude is necessary.
inbound will either overshoot or the holding course due to effects of wind
NOTE: At some locations, beginning the undershoot the hoiding course drift.
final approach from the holding pattern depending on the direction of the wind
may be prohibited by notes published on (fig 16-14).
-- -----""""', \
I
I /,-- ------ ------ \
I
I Z'"
\ '
;
\
-
./
,
'-8
-----
íiì
(") RIGHT CROSSWIND OUTBOUND
I
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w
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I -- -- ---
\
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,
,
"""-~
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(8) lEFT CROSS WINO OUTBOUND
~
~-_.._--------- \
-',
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(AI LEFT CROSSWIND OUTBOUND
&- ,
,
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--
- -
-
- -
-- -
- -
- -
-
-- ---
III RIGHT CROSSWIND OUTIOUND .......
aircraft controls and approach course guidance and runway "ASR," "PAR," or "ASR/PAR." These
make the visual approach and landing if number. This is when the approach terms are applied as follows:
requested by the pilot. COurse is within 30 degrees of the (1) ASR-means an Airport
k. Be prepared to execute a missed runway centerline such as VOR RWY
6. Surveillance Radar instrument approach
approach.
procedure is available at the airport,
17~. Plan views (2) PAR-means a Precision
A plan view (fig wide-angle
17-11) is a Approach Radar instrument approach
view of the entire procedure. Information
procedure is available,
Chapter 17 pertaining to the initial
approach e, Initial approach,
Instrument Approach Procedure segment, including procedure turn, (1) In the initial approach, the aircraft
Charts minimum safe altitude for each
sector, has departed the enroute phase of flight
courses prescribad for the final approach and is maneuvering to enter an
segment and obstructions is portrayed in intermediate or final segment of the
Figures 17-1 through 17-20 (pages this section. Navigation
and instrument approach,
162 through 175) are located at communication frequencies are also (2) An initial approach may be made
the listed on the plan
end of this chapter. view. along prescribed routes within the
a. Formal. Normally, all information terminal area which may be along
within the plan view is shown to an are,
scale. radial, course heading, radar vector,
17-1. General Data shown within the 10-nautical miie or a
combination thereof. Procedure
The Cairns Army Airfield (AAF) VOR distance circle is always shown to turns,
scale holding pattern descents, and high
runway 6 and the ILS or NDB-1 runway (fig 17-7). The dashed circles,
called a~itude tear-drop penetrations
6 approach charts (figs 17-1 concentric rings, are used when all are initial
and 17-2) approach segments,
are typical of those found in current information necessary to the procedure (3) initiai approach information is
navigational publications. will not fit to
Their format scale within the limits of the portrayed in the plan view of instrument
and general data presentation plan view
are used area. These circles then serve approach charts by course lines with an
as a guide. (For current and detailed as a means to systematically arrange arrow indicating the direction, Minimum
this information in their
explanation of approach chart symbols, relative position aititude and distance between fixes
consult the flight information publication outside and beyond the 10-nautical mile are
also shown with the magnetic course,
instrument approach procedure charts distance circle. These concentric rings t, Approach
COUrse. The approach
and their legends that are printed with are labeled Enroute Facilities and Feeder
course is published on an ILS procedure
each volume.) Facilities. that does not require a procedure
b. Enroute Facilities Ring. (See fig turn
(NoPT),
17-2. Legend pages 17-7.) Radio aids to navigation, fixes and (1) In the case of a
intersections that are part of the Enroute dog-leg track and
Legend pages contain the plan view when there is no fix depicted at the point
Low Altitude Airway structure and used of interception on the localizer
symbols, profile information, and airport course,
diagram information. Figures in the approach procedure are shown in
17~, 17--4, the total distance is shown from the
their relative position on this Enroute facility or fix to the LOM
and 17-5 are legend pages to the or to an NDB
Facilities Ring.
instrument approach procedure charts. associated with the I LS,
General information and abbreviations c. Feeder Facilities Ring, (See fig (2) The minimum altitude applies
17-7,) Radio aids to navigation, fixes and until
are shown in figure 17-ß. the glide slope is intercepted, at which
intersections are used by the
air traffic pOint the aircraft descends
controller, They are used to direct on the glide
17-3. Concentrfc rfngs slope,
aircraft to intervening facilities/fixes (3) When the glide slope is not
Concentric rings (fig 17-7) are used
between the enroute structure and the
when it is necessary to chart facilities initial approach fix, This is shown in their
utilized, this minimum a~itude is
Which lie beyond the maintained to the LOM (or to the NDB if
chart area If the relative position on the Feeder Facilities
procedure was charted to scale. The appropriate),
Ring, Sometimes the initial
rings are normally centered approach fix g, Procedure turn, A procedure turn is
on the is part of the
emoute structure, If this is
approach facility. prescribed when it is necessary to
the case, there may be no
need to reverse direction to establish the aircraft
15 DECEMBER 1964 UPDATE
oFM 1-240 {59
prescribed The S-Iocalizer 2 minimums are the
inbound on an intermediate or final procedure turn, altitudes over
the same for Categories A and B, but
required fixes, distances between fixes, and
approach course. It is a different for Categories C and D. The
symbol NoPT missed approach procedure. A
maneuver except when the approach glide slope circling minimums are the same for
is shown, when radar vectoring is a. Precision B individually different for C and
and and
provided, when a holding pattern is intercept attitude. This is a minimum
published in lieu oj procedure turn, or altitude tor glide siope interception after D.
Rwy 13R procedure (fig
completion of the procedure turn.
It c. The VOR
when the procedure turn is not 17-15) authorizes minimums for aircraft
applies to precision approaches and,
authorized. The altitude prescribed for with VOR receiver. Lower minimums
the procedure turn is a minimum altitude except where otherwise prescribed, also one
if the aircrait also has a
applies as a minimum altitude for are authorized
until the aircraft is established on the
in case DME receiver and the Intersection is
inbound course. The maneuver must be crossing the final approach fix
is inoperative or not used. identified. (See fig 17-13 for minimums.)
completed within the distance specified the glide slope
in nonprecision The requirement for dual VORs is not
in the profile view. b. Stepdown fixes applicable to Army aircraft. Off-tuning
(1) A barb indicates the direction or procedures. A stepdown
fix may be NAVAID to identify an
provided the final, such as between from the approach
side of the outbound course on which on
approach fix is authorized. Dual VOR
the procedure turn is made. Headings the final approach fix and the airport for
approach minimums apply. Extreme
using the purpose of authorizing a lower MDA
are provided for course reversal This caution should be used when the fix is
the 45-degree-type procedure turn. after passing an obstruction. of the missed approach
within two miles
stepdown fix may be made by an NDB
However, the point at which the turn may point. Knowing capabilities and
be commenced and the type and rate of bearing, fan marker, radar fix, radial from proficiency should be the deciding
turn is at the aviator's discretion. Some another VOR, TACAN, or by DME. identify a fix.
Normally, there is only one stepdown fix factors when off-tuning to
of the options are the 45-degree fix the The weather planning minimums
and d.
procedure turn, the racetrack pattern, the between the final approach
missed approach point. If the stepdown must be recomputed when the MDA of
tear-drop procedure turn, or the 80- to identified DH has been raised due to using a
fix cannot be for any reason,
260-degree course reversal. Some remote altimeter setting. In some cases,
the altitude at the stepdown fix becomes
procedure turns, specified by the straight-in the new minimums will be shown in the
procedural track, must be flown exactly the MDA for a landing.
minimum box (fig 17-16). When not
as depicted. However, when circling under this figure 17-17 will
condition, the aviator must refer to the shown, the method in
(2) There are limitations on procedure to compute the new weather
minimums section of the procedure for be used
turns. circling minimum (figs planning minimums.
(a) In the case oj a radar initial the applicable
pre-flight planning prior to
approach to a final approach fix or 17-14 and 17-15, for example). e. During
approach point. It should be departure on an IFR flight plan,
position, a timed approach from a c. Missed .
should be made to instrument
specifically noted that the missed reference
holding fix, or when the procedure approach This is to determine
approach points are different for the charts.
specifies NoPT, the aviator may not
exception is ILS (with glide slope) and the whether an IFR departure procedure for
make a procedure turn. The complete
obstruction avoidance has been
when the aviator receives final
approach localizer only approach. The MAP for the
ILS is 1he decision height while the established. Take-off minimums are
clearance, he advises ATC and at
a
usually the standard unless the symbol is shown
clearance is received. "localizer only" MAP Is over
(straight-in) runway threshold. In some under the minimums box indicating that
(b) When a tear-drop procedure turn is MAP the separate listing should be consulted.
depicted and a course reversal is non-precision procedures, the may
prior to reaching the runway threshold (Fig 17-19 shows an example of this
required, this type turn must be be
listing.)
in order to clear obstructions in the
in
executed.
climb-out In f. The minimum rate of climb quoted
(c) When a holding pattern repiaces missed approach area.
the IFR take-off minimums and departure
the procedure turn, the standard entry nonprecision procedures, the aviator can
in
determine when he is at the MAP by procedures section quotes figures
and the holding pattern must be followed feet-per-nautical mile. The rate-of-climb
provided tirning from the final approach fix. The
except when radar vectoring is indicators in aircraft are measured in feet
when NoPT is shown on the approach FAF has been clearly identified by use of
or
the maltese-cross symbol in the. profile per minute. Therefore, a rate-of-climb
course. As in the procedure turn, the FAF to MAP table has been developed (fig 17-20)
section. The distance from
descent from the minimum holding will appear in Instrument Approach
fix and time and speed table are found and
pattern altitude to the final approach Procedure volumes in the near future.
altitude (when lower) may not commence below the aerodrome sketches (fig
VORl The proposed location will be
until the aircraft is established on the 17-18). This does not apply to
when the facility is immediately following the IFR take-off
inbound course. DME procedures or
facility is the MAP. minimums and departure procedures
(d) The absence of the procedure turn on the airport and the
tabulation.
barb in the plan view indicates thaf a
procedure turn is not authorized for that 17-8. Minimums section
procedure. a. The same
minimums apply to both 17-9. Alternate airport
(3) A procedure turn is not required day and night operations unless different Use of an alternate airport is sometimes
of required in filing an IFR flight plan (AR
when the symbol NoPT appears on an minimums are specified at the bottom should be made
approach course shown on the plan the minimum box in the space provided 95-1). If so, reference
the instrument approach procedure to
is desired, ATC for symbols or notes. to
view. If a procedure turn selected to
the straight-in and be used for the alternate
approval must be obtained and b. The minimums for
procedure turn altitude must be circling appear directly under each determine alternate airport minimums. If
the is the airport is not authorized for use as
maintained until established on aircraft category. When there no
will follow
inbound course. division line between minimums for each an alternate, the letters "NA"
straight-in circling the symbol under the minimum box.
category on the or
17-7. Profile views lines, the minimums apply to two or more NOTE: If the aviator must proceed to the
Profile views (figs 17-12 and 17-13) categories under the A, B, C, or D.
alternate airport, the alternate ceiling and
show a side view of the procedures. 2 visibility minimums are disregarded. Also,
NOTE: For figure 17-14, the S-ILS
These views include the minimum the published landing minimum is
altitude and a maximum distance for the
minimums apply 10altfour categories,
15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE' FM 1-240
160
applicable for the new destination climbing to altitude, executing a turn for
utilizing facilities as appropriate to the be accomplished by NOTAM and by air
obstruction avoidance, or for other traffic advisory. Sometimes RVR
procedure. In other words, the alternate reasons. Examples include the following: minimums for take-off or landing are
airport becomes a new destination and (1) "Climb to" means a normal climb published in an inslrument approach
the aviator uses the landing minimum along the prescribed
appropriate to the type of procedure course. procedure, but the RVR is inoperative
(2) "Climbing right turn" means a and cannot be reported for the runway at
selected. climbing right turn as Soon as safety that time. In this case. it is necessary
permits, normally to avoid obstructions Ihat the RVR minimums which
17-10. Straight-In minimums straight ahead. are
Straight-in minimums are shown on specified in the procedu re be converted
(3) "Climb to 2400, turn right" and applied as ground visibility in
means
instrument approach procedure charts. climb to 2400 feet prior to making
This is when the final approach course of the accordance w~h Ihe M ETAR Conversion
turn, normally to clear obstructions. Chart located in instrument approach
the instrument approach procedure Is
b. When the missed approach procedure volumes.
within 30 degrees of the runway
procedure specifies holding at a facility
alignment. It can also be when a normal
or fix, holding shall be in accordance
descent can be made from the IFR with the holding pattern depicted on the
altitude shown on the instrument plan view, and at the minimum altitude in
approach procedures to the runway the missed approach instructions, unless
surface. When e~her the normal rate of a higher altitude is specified by
ATC. An
descent or the runway alignment factor alternate missed approach procedure
of 30 degrees is exceeded, a straight.in
may also be given by ATC.
minimum is not published and a circling
minimum applies. The fact that a 17-13. Procedural component
straight-in minimum is not published does
operation
not preclude the aviator from landing
a. Operative runway lights are required
straight-in if the active runway is in sight
for night operation.
in sufficient time to make a normal
b. When the facility providing course
landing. Under such conditions and when guidance is inOPerative, the
ATC has made clearance for landing on procedure is
not authorized. On VOR/DME
that runway. the aviator is not expected
procedures when e~er VOR or DME is
to circle even though only circling inoperative, the procedure is not
minimums are published. If the aviator authorized.
desires to circle at a controlled airport,
c. When the IlS glide slope is
ATC should be advised.
inoperative or not utilized, the published
straight-in localizer minimum applies.
17-11. ClrcHng minimums d. Compass locator or precision radar
The circling minimums published on the may be substituted for the IlS outer or
instrument approach chart provide middle marker.
adequate obstruction clearance and the
e. Surveillance radar may be a
aviator should not descend below the substitute for the IlS outer marker. DME,
circling altitude until the aircraft is in a at the glide slope site, may be
position to make a final descent for substituted for the outer marker when
landing. Sound judgment and knowledge published on the IlS
of his and the aircraft's capabilities
procedure.
are f. Facil~jes that establish a
stepdown
the criteria for determining the exact fix, such as 75 megahertz FM, off
maneuver in each instance. This is course
VOR radial, are not components of the
because the airport design, the aircraft basic approach procedure. Applicable
pos~ion, altitude and airspeed must all minimums for use, therefore, both with or
be considered. The following basic rules w~hout identifying the stepdown fix, are
apply. published in the minimums
section.
a. Maneuver the shortest path to the g. Additional methods of identifying a
base or downwind leg as appropriate fix may be used when authorized on the
under minimum weather conditions.
procedure.
There is no restriction from passing over
the airpor1 or other runways. 17-14. Runway vlaual range (RVR)
b. Recognize that many circling minimums
maneuvers may be made while VFR To authorize RVR minimums, the
flying is in progress at the following components and visual aids
airport.
Standard left turns or specific instruction must be available in addition to basic
from the controller for maneuvering must components of the approach procedure:
be considered when circling to land.
a. Precision approach procedures.
c. Notice airpor1s without a control (I) RVR reported for the runway.
lower. It may be desirable to fly over (2) High intens~ runway light (HIRl).
these airports to determine wind and turn (3) All wealher runway markings.
indicators and to observe other traffic
b. Nonprecision approach procedures.
which may be on the runway or lying in
(I) RVR reported for the runway.
the vicin~ of the airport. (2) HIRl.
(3) Instrument runway markings.
17-12. Missed approach c. Inoperative RVR minimums. Where
a. There are various terms in the RVR visibility minimums are pUblished
missed approach procedure which have and the runway markings become
specific meanings with respect to
unusable, the necessary adjustment will
IS DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240
161
13 .. CAIRNS AAF (OZR)
..... 6 ÂLA606.MA
VOR RWY -
Al.577.03 (US A.",yj
-
FORT RUCKER
--
CAIRNS TOWER / all;::-
126.2
GND CON
2.41.0
/ /"
---- -- FffDffi''''
,c-..qC'/~
'ifoS'
121.9 '2A8.2
/ "'.ð:~8IDE .
10
CLNC DEl / "'", '" /
\33.75 370.3/ ,/ i~' \
Þ-9.!PM
,..TlS
' /
12U5 37.4.3 \
I 7~9/!..
~ -:e b"iE~=;,.
I 1/3.B)
w_. '6B~Þ
--:::.....
~ O~ \
(23.8) ".,}
?" ~
0""'
0/, I
~~ f /
\(~ "'" ~~Ê.'HOB
~~.
.'\ ~
/
/
'Ig,,"!- -
"'--
DARED j" /-l
HoUND
'\
..-/' /'
-.....c
--- ElEV 298
RlIII\Oin voo
within 10 Nt;. M.ISSED APPROACH
'/.'!.,' Climbing riQht Nr'n to
2000 out A-157 OlR
VOR to REHOB
INT and hold
1700~
--........ 05,.
./
,...,"~...
~
c 0 TO"
CATroORY .. .
...
(soo-..I 7.0/50 7.o/6IJ ..~:i:'~
.... 7.0/.0 ... (300-,) 442 (500-114) 36
760-1
A4$'2
-- --
CAIRNS APP CON
11'~-344~ 133.45 137.5
34~8-1208 125.4 234.4
----- --- ------...
~
/
CAIRNS TOWER ~
126.1 241.0
/
OND CON
121.9 248.1
/
/----------...", ""
QN(:
133.75
DEl
370'13
/' "" '.ðABIDE
~;\
ASR/PAR:
/BOll WEE \Ill
ATIS
0
~BVG
121.15 37..3 / ~ 688 ".
r'Q " ^
10..,0 /
I
\ ~
\ ~
~\ \
\ \ '0
REHaB /
\ :(~" ":.., / \ 0.
,~~ ~d
:"/ .~
~~q, /
~r:I{I'
""t
~ t
'. -----"'8'~ -
-
~''Es 28; - /
I
.
061'_/
2000
to REHOB INT and .hoId
8115
climb to 700' bet<<e
"'0.
-
One miftllle OS 2.70'
holding paft8rn
,
""iëH'"16 ,
",,~./ ~
-~,--
~
CATfGORY . . C D to,.
S-ILS 68
S-tOC .
498/24
660/040
200 (200-~J 498/040 200 1200-"1
660/50 "', ~.:.:. ~
36
362 (400-\U
3621.&00-1) '@
5-NDII . 7040/040 "'2 {300-\'.J
7040/50 740/60 "-
061" S.6 NM
"'2 1500-1) 4012 (500-1V.)
From lOM
CIRClING 7.w-1 760-1 780-1~ 860-2
442 (.500-11 ~2 (SOO-I) .c82 1500-11;1 S62 (600--2)
HlRl awyt
S-I>... 498/24 2QO (200--1'l1 498/040 6-2., 18-36
2DD (200-,,) GS 2.7'
... ND6 lOC FAf to MAP 5.6 NM
Knob 60 90 120 150 180
Min:Sec $,36
ItS or NDB-l RWY 6 3,..., 2,14 1,~2
31816'N-8$80'W fORT RUCKER. AlABAMA
18 CAIRNS AAF (OIR)
.
"" L'"
...
A
^
Ob~10d.. A Gro....p
Higne~1 Ob~,ocle~
01 Ob!tode!
Proc",dute Trock
Procedure Ivr...
.-. ~ Doubtt....1 A.:.:...rocy
~'55
(151J MoIeog'-'
Routl?'
0 VOR V'TACAN If:JVORTAC
Pe"elrole, Spe~,ol Use A"spoce
0 NDB (Non d,rectionol Radio Beocon1
HOlDING PA.TTERNS
C2JO' Arrlyol
Holding .
,....-:','" M",\
A"1""""
,
<=::> c===> Marker Beacon~
-----
PRAY'::,
----.-_____.L-- I
Radial I,ne
3Bo5B.3'N
112,~ CAP 1871"
89"515W
561
------
R I'.U- cnd ,",olue
'90
j~ lead Rad,ol
--
,""h------- WOYPO;nl Nome.
Coord,nal..\
Frequency. òdO!"nt,lier. Rod'ol!O,~ton{t.
MINIMUM SAFE ALTITUDE (MSA) (Facllily to Woypo,n1'
RO!"terO!"nce Foc,hty I:levol,on
~
/-/..:'.1-
(Arrow~ on d'~lon.:e clrde identity Sectou) MISCElLANEOUS
Focillty Ident,f,er
....
r":
~':1
-
- - .
Internotioool Boundary
PROFilE
~'J.'19......- ......,.
IOlnNM
lOM
Glide Slope d. Alti1U.
-- II ./
W ith"11'1
2400
-
'
01D at Outer Marker/FAf
'_drop ~']
Turn"...,-
12S._,
Procecb. T...n 11~
FM (non'pre<"ion opproache1iJ
'--1270)1 ..
2~ I~.,~...,~_d~=:~t1e
Approach 'rocl.
Thrnhold (j~de .:~~ ::~HJ.:;
.....>'~
'/,
Glide SlosH' IntllKeDt Altitude
""-(Non.ProcedUJel
DESCENT fROM HOlDING PA'TERN
~~
~7.
-307"
1600
-
V~
Ie
127"-1600 -
:f)1
0
~
D /'_307" finol Àpþfooch
" ~.>o MAP WPT
~
~300 "'0'. f~ V~'''al
/'
Path Computer'
.....,.,
.,/
(RNAV Dftcentl"""" 3.028
/" .::::::.:
FACilITIES/FIXES Al TlTUDES
X Finol
5500 2300 4800 2200 Approoc;h Fi~ (FAf)
l I ~ Mi-;;;;;;;:;-m Recommended (tor non.preci1.ìon apprOOCAm.)
Mo_imum
FM I Alhtude Altitude Altitude A.hitude Glide Slope InIeI'r:epI
NDI (Rbn)
I AItitudeI. precede fix or are arrowed to show wh.e --
VOR I fhI.y appfy
V Visuol tmcent Point (YOP)
VQRIAC
I FIX
TACAN
WPT liNT -
.
n.. non-pfecilÒort FAf mini"",," altitude ,. th8 ~
the- Glkje Slop8 int8rcep1' attitude unleu otherwis.e -----~
Viwol F~ght Path
AIRPORT SKETCH
Runwa'fli
- áh æ
Hard Surface
c=:J
Other Than Hcwds.tonds/To.iwGy1o
18 III [E] H&licopter "'~""no ....~
Hard Svrtoce Nevøti- Symbok uwd to identify Cop- Procedure
. D Â 0
===::
Oosed Runways Under Construcr;an
::~::::~:~
Metal Surtace
Ia.ding po;""
II
and Tealw.
TOZE 123 Runway TDZ elevolion
+-
.
0-8'110 - '-II Total RunwcJ)' ~odi.Rt
~.rYh Dispkxed Thr"hold
(shown when runway grodie"t
ArrlHtin'll Gear
eaceed. 0.3%1
l uni-difectianal ~-diredionol J .181 Sorrier
MINIMA DATA
. C...ntrol Tower ... Alternate Minimunn not atiÞndcrd..
USA/USAf/USN pilcm rei.. to ~
NOTE NOT ALL
APPLICABLE TO ARMY,
When ConIrd
T~
and RotatirM;! 8eocon ore appropriatll r~lcrtiom.
-
LEGEND
AIRPORT DIAGRAMS
SCOPE
Airport diagrams me specifically de!l.igned to anist in the movement of ground traffic at
localions wan complex runway/taxiway configurations and provide information for updating
Inertial Navigation Sy,t.ms (INS) aboard aircraft. Airport diagrams are not intended to be
used for approach and landing or depotlure operations. Requisition for the creation of airport
diagrams must meet the above criteria and will be approved by the FAA or DOC on 0
cose-by-cose basis,
LEGEND
Airporl diagram scale, or. varioble. REFERENCE FEATURES
Building,
......
.
.8
Ob,trl.>diol't A
Coordinate yolue,; Ott! !Iohow" În OMI 0) minllte in.
cremenh. They Drt! fur.hl:!" broken down into six (6) ""irpart BeocOll
.....*
second ticln, wilhin eoch ono (I) minute increment.
Runway
Radar ReUeclor'
NOTE: ...1
All new and revi,ed Qirporl diagrams are ,hown refer. Control Tower.
enced to the World Geodetic Sys'em (WGS) (noted on <ßI æ
Helicopter Alighting Aroo,
approprlat. diagram). ond mO)' nol be compalible
ffiI&ò.1Ð
with locQI coordinate1. pubJi,hed In FliP. (Foreign Only) to, _nldCQ.er
~~~f~;op;rn7~~~.~.,.uMd loceii"
"rte"',,; Gear
l "ni.directlonal ~ bi.di'KliOllol 1J8ta.ar....
RUNW""V D"TA
.
I Ix x X xl X X )l
Hard Surface Other Thcln Clolod Rul'twoy, TOl:iway Under Con,truclion Overrun" TQl:iwoy,.
Hard S"rface Porking ""801
field Run~oy
Runwoy
Grod,enl Elevation Idol'tl,f'Co110"
,
0.7% UP ".
!
~I IN
t 900011200 023.2' 10001:200
E1EV " --............
Runway End Elevation
-
lOA ---
Runway Dimen,ions
(In Feet)
Runway Heoding
(Magnetic)
Overr"n Dimon,ion,
(In fH')
E~ in
C8tirtgI in .....
f... Mnin s.o l_1
aa-. oirparl
IMSt).
...cnion.
~.
,"',bec.iRgIAMdinva/t_18I ..8
. "'ÔCOl8l CCIIIIrOI
to-. ""''''ür ~ UfN.
-.,
C. . . Circl'..g
CAT.. . .
C-II"8'Y OOAI.. Omnidir.mo-l Appr~
a-...
ClNC DEl.
.
0.-
demaM."""""
tivhts,.......
IA.
.lIodoo~~""
. . . . , . . .
011..
.... .
.
.
.DMi-.ion H.;o;hl
DÍltI:mC8 Meoo..-inlill
E.....,. .
I'" 1Ieqund. . .
...-d
.
lIadao .-.oriOle
.... approodl
b
BIY. . .
.a...rtion tiQlhh
,... FinolApproadlFia ... Radio hcK-
,.. .f_Mor~.. ... t-.., EM! IÓ8nIif.... tighk
06 .Glid.SIop. KlS.
II~ c.n"'1me 1~h8
.
.... lWi...htA~londlloo
_v. "'_Ncwiga8oon
HAl. . .
"'''1# Abo..r'I Toud..:,..... '" .'~Poinlofl....<eptlÌOIIJ
_.. ... Hovh
I~ A~ tlightl
........ '-err bmafnmg lighk
. .
W.. lNtioiltJllWOGthFia
.ltItwrtationoi CiwiI.fmuboro
........
It_GJ1oudoc1ow8Z-. 'iRt 3000' of lIunway
ICAO. . .
'VO. Itu""err VOuocII_.
o.gatlllotHm
0_- '"..
. """"
_.
Nt, INDN.
.
.'''''II8C''I. SAt.
.
.
Stooi9hl-"
Short Approodl h9m ~
lOA l..aliz. T~Oir8diotoolAicl ...., .
sø..pt.Ñd $Ihorr Approoc:h
l~.. londi",
leod in hghl
ttght~...othIlAA
_..
.
.
T,--.., ~.....
Visuø D.Ken' PoInI
..... .
Miued Appr_h Point
-.
RADIO CONTROL
.
WoypoonI tRNAV)
A..-....
t_....thinS!IoKOMfr
l-h- in'-ly
lEa - -'...
.11.-'11
.-
...iII b8 ...do<-.I Of'
,..,,,-
Approodl P,<<.duo. (lAP!
ACIIVlt.n MIll 8..., 3ð-12:l8. ACtlVlt.tf MAl5ll1""Y 7-12'2.8
.... ~ Doto. os C--. --- follo'W",
ACtlVlt.n YIt.!oI ....a .11 itWI' l-12:U. AC.Tt\lATf Hill It..., 1-2s...ln.8
"
~/
133.75 370.3
'v'"
J.SR/PAR
I
\ CHART).
ATiS / '"\.."!)r::i"
\.'1.~.
\
/ 308 BVG \ \
0 IWiiliGRA~;, 1
I 1116 RR5 ::=::: I
I L Cho" 5:i
7
i
OPPTO, 2000
I c~/\
2."--,?
(15.2) /
I
~" 1/,
CRESTVIEW Iflel
1159 CEW ;-...:=.
Clio" 106
\
\
\
'"
"
~
,
/ÎI
,
I
THE FEEDER FACILITIES
RING PROVIDES FOR
FACILITIES/FIXES THAT
ARE NOT PART OF THE
(NORMALLY 10 MILE
\/",
"
,., ~~ËREHOB ~
/ ç..
,..r-'='
%
2.5
"v....
"
"
-
/
RADIUS) PROVIDES THE
BOUNDARY OF THE "jlokt
-/-l
~\)
~OUND--
PROCDURE THAT IS ""
CHARTED TO SCALE. DARED
# ~ /'
--. ---
Remain
withinlONM ~
VCR -.
MISSED APPROACH
ElEV 298
\J,
1,."''''~l'
"-
126.2 241.0
""'CON / / /" -- ~OfÄ
"'",,- "-
121.9 2".2
ClNC DE' /
133.7. 370,'/
/ ."
^'i;
\'1'1:'"
~.
/
'" ,
"'81DE
...IP..
~ I
'.....
"1><", \
~
12\.1' 374.3 eOLl """EVIL
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CRESTVIEW (Fie)
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7<<>/50
LANDING MINIMUM .... 7<<>/<<> M2 (500-")
.w2 (500-1) "42 t5DO-1")
SECTION "';"@ ..
7<<>-1 760-1 780-11'1 8HJ-2
CIIC""'G
442 [5(0.1) 462'SDD- 412 1500-1t1i) 2
498/24 4
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...... 2DO 2DD~) 2DO GS 2..r
...
SPACE FOR NOTES AS HIItlItwrt ~2". '\8-3ð
REQUIRED FOR AIRPORT C,?ORDINA
TES
PROCEDURE r- -
IDENTIFIER
-
133.7.5 370.;' \
A5A/PAA
A-TIS
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A HOlOING PATTERN IS IN
\ \..
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LIEU OF A PROCEDURE ~~"
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TURN. NOTE THAT ~4
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PROCEDURE TURN BARB
IS NOT PUBLISHED AND
'<,~ ~~/ll~ HOUND
/"
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INDICATES THAT -
,S/"
PROCEDURE TURN SHALL
~"s.---
NOT BE MADE
--
Á DARED
------ EIEY 298
Procedur. turn L~ MISSED Þ.PPIIOACH
Climbing rililht turn 10
noI allthorized 1'9
... 241. . 2000 yio OlR VOl ..157 TIME/DISTANCE FROM
061.~ / Ie REHOR INT ond hold
.IL5 climb to 7(10' betOl'. FACiliTY/FIX AS
2000
""n. SPECIFIED ON
MHo
PROCEDURES
en. minut. G5 2.70.
holding pottetn 'CH 56
.../
CATEGORY
S-IL56"
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~98/2~ 200
-5.INM-5
.
(200-,,) ~98/40
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200
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(200-1101
~,....@tI'..~.
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3ð2{~1) FACiliTY FIX TO MISSED
" APPROACH DISTANCE
S-NDI! . 740/40 44' (000-1101
740/SO 740/60 061" 5.6 NM
442 (500-1) 442 (.500-1\11)
from tOM
QaCLING 740-1 760-1 780-11> 860-2
442 1500-1) .t62 (500-1) 42 (500-I}I,) 562 (600-2) Hill 1:W'f' 6- .
18-36
...... . ~98/2~ 200 (200-~) ~98/ ~O 200 (200-110) GS 2.7' NOS L to MAP 5.6
a
KIKJt5 6Q 90 120 150 180
5,36 2.1.. 1..52
Min.See
3,44,
IlS or NDB-l RWY 6 31"\6'N-8S."3'W
FORT RUCKER. ALABAMA
CAIRNS (OZR)
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TURN TO BE MADE
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MISSED APPRO,6,.(H
Procedure turn
Climbinv righf turn to
MINIMUM ALTITUDE FOR not alJlhorized
..... 2410
2000 via OZR VOA R.1S7
GliDESLOPE to REHOII INT and hold MISSED APPROACH POINT
.ILS climb to 700' b.fOfe
INTERCEPTION AND (MAP) FOR ILS
turn.
MINIMUM ALTITUDE FOR PROCEDURE IS AT DH
NON-PRECISION UNTIL One minlJle GS 2.70'
PASSING LOM ItoIdinv p~1IITI "'Tëii56 MISSED APPROACH
TRACK
DEGREES AND
_-'.1_-
HUNDREDTHS, MISSED APPROACH POINT
(MAP) LOCALIZER ONLY
THRESHOLD CROSSING
SHOWN BELOW AIRPORT
HEIGHT IN FEET
SKETCH (SEE FIGURE
)7-18)
Figure 17-12. Profile view (precision)
FINAL APPROACH FIX
SYMBOL (FAF)
MAXIMUM DISTANCE OF
, .
--173 -í
~5~
TL lOM ond hold
FACILITY, FIX OR IDENTIFIED ON PLAN
WHATEVER THE ~ fl" VIEW)
PROCEDURE TURN IS
BASED ON,
2000
20001l~"D" ð
~
-
5 DME
PRECISION STRAIGHT-IN
TO RUNWAY 2 HEIGHT OF DH ABOVE
TOUCHDOWN ZONE (HAT)
NON-PRECiSION
'"~ ~::~.Y
STRAIGHT-IN LOCALIZER
207-17
(NO GLIDE SLOPE)
S-IOC 2
MINIMUMS. S6D--2
MILITARY
CIRCLING 480--1 PLANNING
551 600-2
S.ASR 2 40-\10 MINIMUMS
DME MINIMA
MINIMUMS AUTHORIZE~
WITH SPECIFIED
S.13 500-136SI-')
A . C D
CATfGCaY
1.500- 1 ~ lSOG- 2
CIKUNG 1500- 1 009 1100. I)
009 (1(>> I \1,) 009 1700-')
, C AUlMfTU SfnlNCi MINIM.
1600- 2 1600.2'.
CIICUNG 160(). 1 109 1100 1) 7CW (100.21 709 ,100- 2 '. I
;" AnderMJfl D19.",,"., 18ft.,." .he" not D"Dllobl.. U'8 Gt-.., olh"'''.' Mtt'''1
ANA
TAKEOFF MINIMUMS
NOT STANDARD OR
DEPARTURE PROCEDURE
PUBLISHED
"-
righi turn to 2000 direct
AMG VQRTAC and hold.
AMG .,..,,1800
'!,'l.1:i
'DM'
.." "F
rom AMG 7 DME "re,
"''''''', 800. 1080 when ulin;
ValdOlla altim81er 18~in
CATEGOIrY A . c D
When Jacal allimeter lening not available'. U~e Va,lda~la altimele, ","lng 2.
Ine,.o.. all MOAs 280 feet. 3. Strai;ht.. in minimums from 7 DME Are no1
authorized.
ACTIVATE MIRl and VASt Rwy~ 15-33.122.7.
MlRL 15.'3
ðNA
Knah 60 90 120 150 180
MindH{;
APPROACH LIGHTS
BEARING SYMBOL
AND DISTANCE
VISUAL APPROACH SLOPE
INDICATOR (VASI)
TOUCHDOWN ZONE DISPLACED
ELEVATION (TDZE) THRESHOLD
HELIPORT
iiJ
610A ARRESTING
" ;r;
:!J
.
7.3 GEAR
NOTE ON HIGH INTENSITY
RUNWAY LIGHTING - FINAL APPROACH FIX TO
~TDlICLllwy5 MAP
HIRl Rwys 5.23 and
(NOTE: MAY BE SHOWN AS
FAfto MA,P 4,3 NM LOC. SUCH AS FAF TO
Knoll 60 90 120 150 0
MAP,)
TIME AND SPEED TABLE /M;"S" .,1. "" 2,09 I,.' "
stoMe mile.
publtstted OS Stondard Im1rument o.pc.1vre (SlCbI.
MIlITARY USERS:
and (ivil
R*
'.&-oK
Sp.cial IFR
~e
procedures. not
minima ore induded below and en edobli,hed to cas~t pilon in obstruction cmJickmc8.
to appropriate service dirediv.. to.- toll.-oft rinirrturm.
minÎmUm5 O1her than 'Iondard or. lid'8d beaow olphabeticaUy by airport narN.
Airports witt!
IFR
"'~H ceiling YÎ:ubility minimum"
ani 8Itabli.hed to GUil' pilots conducting
IfR flivht in
0epcIrtur1l Pfocedure5 and/or
Ø'lotding obstructions during climb to the minimum erroute ohitude.
Toite-off minifnuml cmd dep~8S
.aJtitudes.. unles. otherwise mdicoted, ore minim...... .uftitu-
~..
011 specified.
app'" to runwØY' u"1eu
in feet MSl.
ALBA"Y~GHERTY
COUNTY. GA . . . . . . Rwy .- ATLANTA,GA
.
fAR 135. DEKALB-
Awys
" ~ dimb rwy hdg 10 700 belore turning. PEACHTREE. . . .
Rwy 9, 27, 34.. 200-1
Rwys 2OI.-2OR. 500-1
XIII
REQUIRED
CUMB GROUND SPEED (KNOTS)
RATE
(It. po< NMI 30 120 140
60 80 90 100
REQUIRED
aIMS GROUND SPEED (KNOTS)
RArt
(It. po< NM) 1~ 180 210 240 270 300
87~- _n'~5I1. ..
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2<48.2
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MISSED APPROACH
'/.'1'. Climbing riaht turn to
2000 OV'I R.157 OZR
.............. VOR tø REHOfI
1700 INT and ~d
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CATEGORY .. 8
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179
15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240
approach clearance time and advises the 18-8. Landing
aviator accordingly. When cleared for the Landing clearance will be issued by ATC
approach, the aviator may immediately during the approach. if visual reference
begin the descent from the 3,000-foot is lost while circling to land from an
hoiding altitude to the 1, 700-foot instrument approach, the missed
procedure turn altitude, regardless of his approach procedure will be executed. To
position in the holding pattern. The final become established on the prescribed
turn inbound from the holding pattern missed approach course, make an initial
serves as the procedure turn, so he climbing turn toward the landing runway
could extend the outbound leg to lose and continue the turn untii established
altitude if necessary, provided he does on the missed approach course.
not exceed the 10 nautical mi les (fig
1 B-1) prior to turning inbound. Since this
18-9. Missed approach
approach is an ON airport VOR If for any reason the landing is not
approach, the final segment on the accomplished, execute the missed
approach begins with completion of the approach procedure. To accomplish the
procedure turn. procedure as specified in figure 1 B-1,
CAUTION: No extension would be perform the following:
allowed for those procedures using a a. Adjust power and attitude, as
holding pattern in lieu of a procedure necessary, to begin an immediate climb.
b. Turn right to intercept the 157-
turn.
degree radial Of Cairns VOR.
b. Descent from the procedure turn
altitude may be initiated when the aviator c. Set the course selector to 157
has intercepted the final approach
degrees. This results in a FROM
indication and a right needle deflection
course inbound. So that visual reference
with the runway environment can be on the course indicator.
d. Report a missed approach and
established as early as possible before
include the reason (unless initiated by
reaching the missed approach point, the
ATC) to the controller and request further
descent to the MDA should be made
clearance, either for another approach or
without delay. An effort should be made
to the alternate airport as appropriate. (If
to arrive at the MDA with enough time or
you request clearance to the alternate,
distance remaining to identify the runway flight plan data must be given to the
environment and descent from the MDA
controller.)
to touch down at or near the normal
approach angle and descent rate for the e. Check for centered needle at the
157 -degree radial.
aircraft. If the approach clearance did not
f. Continue to climb to the missed
state that circling to another runway
approach altitude (2,000 feet).
would be required, the aviator will use
the MDA for a straight-in approach to g. Comply with subsequent ATC
instructions.
runway 6 (S-6) according to the category
of his airci dft. If circling to another
Section II
runway is required, the MDA is used for
circling according to the category of the Typical NDB approach
aircraft.
18-10. NDB approach chart
c. Descent below the M DA is not NDB approach charts (fig 18-5) are
authorized until the aviator establishes
similar in appearance and format to VOR
visual contact with the runway
approach charts discussed in the
environment and can reasonably expect previous section. The approach
to maintain visual contact throughout the
landing. In making an ON airport VOR procedures are essentially the same as
those for VOR. In the event of an RMI
approach, the VOR is the missed
malfunction, fixed card ADF procedures
approach point. Should visual contact
must be used.
not be made by the time the VOR is
reached, a missed approach is executed
(paragraph 18-9).
I~:~~
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ELfV I....
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Rw' IIId.
Rwy 23 'do 8220'
438"
828"
-.. '0- '1Y' CMrtb 10 3ODO direct 10 LOM
Oftd hold.
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CIIQING 1300.1 "'1""''' 656(700.1) 656(701).2)111
Cirdine
V
I'IOt outtloriud Sf. of rvnwG)' '.23.
~_""NM MI:08r'1 !nt/LOM
,. TDZtCL S
Mill hyI...J.23 and 11-36
'A' 10 MA' ".5 NM
Knot. 60 90 I 20 150
4130 3:00 2:15 ..... 1:30
Mia,.
NDB RWY 5 33':U'N-I6'd'W
8IRMINGIIAM MUNI
IIRMING~, ALAIAMA
(BHM)
II
~
NOTE: The above actions are performed ,.." ~
'ü
.
~ -
e-
to the station (119 degrees).
o"""''l~ 224 SH -:-::: I
......
A McOEN
b. Point B. The aircraft has flown -
-
/~,
,
"
the turn, the aviator monitors the heading ,. /
C \
I,BW
.
'...
course to the beacon. ~;:?'"
/
0
c. Point C. The aircraft is inbound to 'J.">~ Ò.
c
the station on a heading of 054 degrees ~ CHELS
as shown. The bearing pointer indicates Figure 18-7. NDB holding pattern entry
that the magnetic direction to the station
is also 054 degrees. Therefore, the
B
.
ø '~'~~CDA'I.'!>t:
~
c
/' ,ø/ /\' A
.0/ D
S-<'
18-14. Descent
Figure 18-9 shows the NDB descent
procedure from the holding pattern and Me DEN INT/LOM
should be used in conjunction with figure
IAI Profile View
18-5.
a. At point A, the aviator has received
approach clearance and has begun his
descent to procedure turn altitude (2,500
feet) while in the holding pattern.
Because he is established in the holding
pattern, the published turn is not required Æ!!L
as the turn inbound serves as the
procedure turn.
NOTE: After receiving approach
clearance, the aviator may disregard the
time restrictions for the outbound and ~o
inbound legs. However, he must remain
within his airspace limitations as depicted
on the approach chart-t 0 nautical miles ........_--'*'
in this case. No extension would be
allowed for those procedures using a f--4.5 NM-j
holding pattern in lieu of procedure turn.
b. In the event the aviator has been "
issued approach clearance while inbound -'
to McDen LOM, he would have turned -' -'
and intercepted the outbound course of
0\ "r/
234 degrees after arrival at McDen and A
(8) Plen View -
"
pOint. However, descent below the
appropriate MDA is not authorized until
the aviator establishes visual contact
with the runway environment and can
reasonably expect to maintain visual
contact throughout the landing.
c. In this approach, the
facility
(McDen) is located OFF airport (para
18-3) and the aviator would continue to
Figure 18-10. NDS Intermediate and final approach
fly toward the airfield at the MDA for the
time computed based on the distance to
the missed approach point and the
estimated ground speed (fig 18-10). For
this approach, the distance from the final
..
BLUE SIDE
~;~L, ~e:4///7ø:~LF<
TRANSMITTER WIDE
YELLOW SIDE
the right of the aircraft and the yellow deviation indicator, disappearance of the localizer (approximately 2V. degrees
sector to the left While flying inbound in "OFF" flag associated with the course either side of the centerpoint). The
the back course (extending from the deviation indicator, and reception of the amount of correction to the localizer
transmitter to the left), the blue sector is coded identifier. No "TO-FROM" course should begin with 5 degrees and
to the left of the aircraft and the yellow indication will be displayed. When a be narrowed down to 2 degrees as the
sector is to the right (fig 19-1). Both the localizer frequency is tuned, the course transmitter is approached and the signal
front course and the back course may be selector setting has no effect on the pattern narrows. These recommended
approved for instrument approaches. course deviation indicator as it does corrections may be modified as
However, only the front course will be when a VOR frequency is tuned. necessary until the wind correction is
equipped with associated compass (Operation of the localizer receiver is determined.
locators and lighting aids. Some major described in the operator's manual for
airports are equipped with more than one the aircraft.)
complete ILS system, thus providing a c. Localizer tracking (fig 19-2). When
front course for each end of a selected the aircraft is proceeding inbound on the
runway. Normally, only one ILS will be front course or outbound on the back
operated at a time. The localizer course, the indications of the course
provides course guidance throughout the deviation indicator are directional. That
descent path to the runway threshold is, if the deviation needle is deflected to
from a distance of 18 nautical miles from the right of center, the localizer is to the
the antenna. Proper off-course right of the aircraft and a turn to the right
indications are provided throughout the will be required to return to course and
following angular areas of the center the needle. However, if the
operational service volume. aircraft is flying inbound on the back
(1) To 10 degrees either side of the course or outbound on the front course,
course along a radius of 18 nautical the deviation indicator is no longer
miles from the antenna. directional. That is, if the deviation
(2) From 10 degrees to 35 degrees needle is deflected to the left, the
either side of the course along a radius localizer course is to the right and a turn
of 10 nautical miles. Generally, proper to the right will be required to return to
off-course indications are provided to 90 course and center the needle.
degrees either side of the localizer
NOTE: Some aircraft ILS equipment has
course. However, some facilities cannot a reverse sensing capability and the
provide angular coverage to that extent
deviation needle is always directional.
because of siting characteristics or
d. Sector coiors. Some course
antenna configurations or both.
indicators have blue and yellow sector
Therefore, instrument indications of
possible courses in the area from 35 colors printed on the face just below the
r~~'($" I
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NEEDLE DIRECTIONAL:
TURN TOWARD NEEDLE
,
NEEDLE NONDIRECTIONAL: ,
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TH ICKNESS UP TO 1.40
C\1~0
RUNWAY
750 FT TO 1,250 FT
(VERTICAL ANGLES EXAGGERATED FOR ILLUSTRATIVE PURPOSES.)
0 0
.. A
~---
0
PLAN VIEW
(LOCALIZER) OUTER MARKER
.
,
RUNWAY r-t
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(GLIDE SLOPE)
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5 MILES(STATUTE}
IS TYPICAL ~
FI9ure 19-6. Outer and middle marker locations and signal pattern
15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240 189
.~
d. Inner marker (1M). The inner f. Compass locators. Compass locator 19-6. Arrival
marker, where installed, will indicate a transmitters (fig 19--7) are often situated Figure 19-8 shows the Cairns AAF
point al which an aircraft is at a at the outer marker site and occasionally instrument landing system and
designated DH on the glidepath between found at a middle marker site. They have surrounding airways and related facilities.
a power of less than 25 watts, a range of Figure 19-9 shows the ILS runway 6
the middle marker and the landing
threshold. This is for Category IIILS at ieast 15 miles, and operate between approach chart for Cairns AAF. Unless
200 and 415 kilohertz. At some being radar vectored to the ILS final
approaches. The 1M is identified with
iocations, higher powered radio beacons
continuous dots keyed at the rate of six approach course, aircraft inbound to an
up to 400 watts are used as outer
dots per second. airport for an ILS approach will usually
marker compass locators. These
Back course marker. A back course generally carry transcribed weather be cleared via a feeder route from a fix
e.
on their route of flight to the locator
marker, wherever installed, normally broadcast information. Compass locators
indicates the ILS back course FAF where transmit two-Ielter identification groups. outer marker to join the localizer course.
Figure 19--9 also shows several feeder
approach descent is started. The back The LaM transmits the first two lelters of
the localizer identification group and the routes to the Cairns LaM. These routes
course marker is identified with two dots
at a rate of 72 to 95 two-dot LMM transmits the last two letters of the are indicated by an arrow to the LaM
combinations per minute. localizer identification group. and contain information concerning the
COMPASS LOCATORS
,
,""... ...
LOCALIZER TRANSMITTER ,
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_...
, MISSS) APPROACH
--_2.1' ,-.
I Climbing right
2DDO via Oll val ..157
""'1'1 to
061"- ./
2ODO
to RÐIQ8 INT and hold
-I.S cIiIIIb 10 700' betcn
-
....
Oao ......
....... -
GS2.W
"'i'õïi6 j 10
D mZE .e
'" .98 2. ... ....... o'!!i'
&-as ... C--~I -/.0'"
1--10)
1--10)
660/54
~::::.
,,@
0'
..
s-<oc, 660/.0 ... ... 1--1)
7<<J154 7.0/60 "-$.6 NM
~,
CIIOING
7.0/.0
74.0-1
442 C500-"
..2 C500-"1
760-1
462 1500-1)
442 1500-1)
711O-11'J
421500-'10,
4i2
1501)..1111)
860-2
5621600--21
061'"
HIRI
"""OM
6-2" 18-36
~..,
. _2. 200 ('lQO-Vt) .98/.0 ... 1200-"1 OS 2.7' ~.
.... LOC f lID 5
I.not!. eo 90 120 150 18)
2,14 ta
Min.s. 31..
ILS or NDB-l RWY 6 318\6'N-'W 43'W
fORT RUCKEIJ. ALABAMA
"
CAIRNS AA1 (OIR)
a localizer approach. A missed approach along the runway. A full RVR system
will be initiated if at the DH, the runway consists of the following: g. Ten minute maximum and minimum
approach threshold, approach lights, or (1) Transmissometer projector and RVR values for the designated RVR
markings identifiable with the related items. runway are reported in the remarks
other
(2) Transmissometer receiver section of the aviation weather report
approach end of the runway are not
clearly visible. After the missed approach (detector) and related items. when the prevailing visibility is less than
(3) Analogue recorder. 1 mile and!or the RVR is 8,000 feet or
is satisfactorily initiated, the aviator
(4) Signal data converter and related less. RVR is reported when the
reports that the approach has been
prevailing visibility is 1 mile or less and!
missed, includes the reason (unless items.
initiated by ATC), and requests clearance (5) Remote digitsl or remote display or the RVR is 6,000 feet or less.
2DOO NofT
120.8 317." /
--IIENQE to M.tta Inl
[15.:1')""""""
fAt.1AKÞ.$SEE TOWfR- In-
1 t 8.7(CTAF) 257.8
ON) CON
121.1 348.6
CLNC DEL
/ ,/ --- -- -.......
"'-..
""-
':;'7 38.6 BACK COURSE
/ /
ATIS 11'.4'. / "
TAlWlASSHïaAl>lO
122.'
/ TALlAHASSEf
/ /
117..5 fLH
ChaJ'I
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12'';.'
~ kill
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I"' I! '700
179. (2.71
1'-.2&"
-
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z
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'" 2000
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(,.m.
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:::::-- /
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'-.....
/'~
--- _V -- --
HU""" 'LEV 81
HT
-..
.;""0"'" ~ Ml$SED A""<)ACH
C6mb to 1600 dtr.et
- 179'"6 NM ho...
MuIRa" I",
~'!I~
3QQ!!-
I
I
n 10M and hold
81
TDlE
81
t(i)
-,~:
~
(
.
CAIEGOIY "
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!
.
I ,("7
TWII
"' (6QO.2)
~;I ICIXIlliIO
,;~
Wt.en conhol tow- cIos8d ACTIVATE SSALR Itwy 36-111.1. IEIl Iwy 91
TOllel 2n
I Mill Iwy 9l-271
I Hl8L ~I.., 0I-27L Oftd ''''36
AltoM>>6HM
Knots 60 90 120 150 180
111111\ 1\ aDD white. Each iight projects a beam having 12 degrees as necessary to provide
a white segment in the upper part and a maximum lIyability and optimum course
red segment in the iower p~rt. The light quality. Identification consists of a three
units of astandard FAA 2-bar VASI are letter identifier transmitted in code on the
SDF frequency.
ABOVEGLIDE PATH arranged so that they appear as
illustrated in figure 19-11.
glide
c. From a position above the
path both bars appear as white. Moving
down to the glide path, the color of the
upwind bars changes from white to pink
to red. When on the proper glide path,
the aircraft will overshoot the downwind
bars and undershoot the upwind bars.
Thus, the downwind bars appear as
white and the upwind bars as red. From
a position below the glide path, both light
bars appear as red. Moving up to the
glide path, the color of the downwind
bars changes from red to pink to white.
When below the glide path, as indicated
ON GLIDE PATH by a distinct red signal, a safe
obstruction clearance may not exist.
d. Approaching the runway threshold,
the visual glide path will separate into
individual lights. At this point, the
approach should be continued by
reference to the runway touchdown
zone.
~~'k
JIOItLAIt ILUFf, MISSOUII
-CINT!.
127." 3IU
Þ'8COM 122.' {CTAP}
..~~
~'Ji.
^ 169
J.\,719
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-- -.-. 1-.69
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wiIhiIIlONM
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,~ di,., IE8rIi ND8!1ftI.nd hoW.
21oo~ 2100
",:I;
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I
CAIIGaIY
....
.
680-1
I
350 ("'I
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-ICID.''')
610-1'"
.
-~
-
330
CAlI GIIAaAU ALIIMfTU SIT1'1NG MNMUMS IG/Mw
.... 810-1 ""(101).11
-~~) "I""
SIO(....,) -Iwr~~' 'I->>
.
M8l""
C8CLING
1-,
--
670 (7aO.1) looo-nt
670(700.'''1
1000-2
61OfJQO.21 FAfto MN 5.9 NM
60 90 120 150 110
ACnVATE VAIIIwy 36 .UNCOM V'å ....
.
Chapter 20
Radar
20-1. General
Radar was first installed at airports
in the
a. Airport surveillance
b. Precision
approach radar (PAR). --- l~1'E~IJT~- ----
Airport surface detection equipment E!fY 799
c. ...,
.-
M
......
(ASDE).
0.- I
to 4000 'Iio VNY 1-101
a..Mh
--
I
.. II. and hoW.
I
Section I ..2568
mP U16~1
Radar Capabilities, Uses, and ...............
Limitations
O~~I Ð
~ I
CAUnQN, D6...-d [
81181.... iRIIk:oIlonI
20-2. Operation
is based upon the precise D
a. Radar
.
c.1tGOII1"
timing of a returning RF echo from a -
140-2\4
611 (700-~""
target and displaying this information to
the radar op.erator so the distance and Iwy
1611
Idt ü7O'
bearing to this target can be instantly CIIC"",, I..., 16L1dt251O'
determined. The radar transmitter must ..... ~16I-3'L
161..341
MI.. .., 16)oIId SM
high
be capable of delivering extremely tEll"""
fAi to M>> 5.9 NM
power levels toward the airspace under
surveillance. The associated radar
....
Man"s.c $-.'" 3:" 2: T ':58
Öo
~
~
\
>;-
~
>"A:) %
A:)
.,:10
>"0
"5-
eþ..S~
OUTER
FIX
/
20-18. Operation
In addition to traffic control, there are
other applications of radar which
contribute to efficient aviation operations.
The Nationai Weather Service, the
United States Air Force, and United
States Navy operate radar storm
detection sites. Some ARTC centers
have access to radar sets designed tor
weather observation. As a result of these
efforts, a large part of the continental
United States and some oversea areas
provide radar weather service.
\
might exist on a high thr~at battle-
EARL Y WARNING AND TRACKING
field. Hostile aircraft may be present
RADAR RANGE
/
/ \ -;-/---
- -
/-- ~~F;;C~IV-;R:~E-O;
over the entire combat lone.
/-
I I
AIR DEFENSE MISSILES
I I {
,
I I
,
I FRONTliNE ANTIAIRCRAFT MISSILES
I
\
,
; '
L FRONTliNE ANTIAIRCRAFT ARTY
-- I.k'-L
I
--- --\---------
~---
FLIGHT
ROUTE
_. )(
T
CORPS
---
~ -- --
I
I
'i
-- --:;--- ----L--l-----
HOT
num I
I
COVERING
/
ENEMY
REAR BOUNDARY FORCE AREA AREA
element or a ground tactical unit to relay instrument flights with an ATC element Although he may be beyond the range of
the flight plan. The aviator should follow prior to takeoff. Iflandline ground-based weapons, he may be
the original tactical instrument plan as communication is not possible, secure engaged by enemy aircraft.
closely as possible until either direct radio channels should be used. Close a. As the aviator continues to move
contact with an ATC element is made or initial coordination with the ATC element forward toward the FLOT, he will come
a ground unit relay is established. is essential prior to initiating the flight to within the effective range of the air
(5) In-flight transition from terrain flying eliminate unnecessary radio defense weapons. At this point, he must
to tactical instrument fiight. When the communications during flight. remain Jow enough to avoid acquisition
, tactical mission requires the transition (c) During a radio silence environment, by the early warning and tracking radar.
from VMC to tactical instrument flight, voice radio communica tron for naviga. tion In doing so, the flight altitude is reduced
the aviator must carefully analyze his and fiight.foilowing is not possible. The to a level below the enemy threat, yet
map to select a route and altitude to aviator must coordinate in detail prior to high enough to provide a safe clearance
provide obstacle and terrain avoidance. takeoff when possible, serve as his own of terrain obstacles. As the aviator flies
(a) When communication with an ATC clearance authority during in-flight toward the FLOT, the capability of the
element is not possible, the aviator transitions from VMC to tactical enemy radar to acquire the aircraft will
serves as his own clearance authority instrument flight, and often operate a continue to increase even at lower
until direct communication with an ATC flight-following facility or unit while levels. He must continue to adjust the
'
element is made or contact with a enroute. flight altitude and route accordingiy to
ground un;: relay is effected. remain below this threat or to be masked
(b) Where communication with an ATC 21-5. Flight altitudes by the terrain.
element is possible, the aviator should Flight altitude is determined by the height b. Upon reaching the forward area or
report his location and Intended flight of terrain obstructions and the availability the destination point, the aviator will use
plan. He should also maintain direct ATC of terrain for masking. Flight altitudes will a tactical instru ment beacon to make the
communications as long as possible until be dictated by the enemy air defense approach if visual flight conditions are
flight termination. If enroute threat. The limits will be less than those not encountered. If visual conditions are
communication is lost, the reported flight specified in AR 95-1 and may be as encountered at the destination, or while
plan is followed as closely as possible close to the ground as the terrain enroute, he descends to terrain flight
until contact is regained, either direct or obstacles permit. Figure 21-1 shows an altitude and continues the mission.
through a relay, or the flight is example of how the AD threat will c. Conversely, as the aviator flies from
terminated. If communications with an appear on the modern battlefield. The a forward location toward the rear of the
ATC element cannot be reestablished, overriding concern in tactical instrument battlefield, he can progressively increase
flight-follow with a ground tactical unit. flight is to remain below the enemy air the flight altitude. A unit's forward or rear
(6) Flight in a severe EW threat or defense threat and continue to maintain boundaries cannot be used as a reliable
radio silence environment. a safe altitude above terrain obstacles in indication of the altitude to be flown to
(a) Of necessity, much of tactical flight order to complete the mission. The avoid the enemy air defense threat. This
will be conducted in a severe EW threat aviator can use instrument is because these boundaries are highly
environment. To avoid electronic meteorological conditions and mobile, are not always the same
detection, NAVAJOs must be restricted to procedures in rear areas where the distance from the FLOT, or subject to
operation only when they are to be used effective range of the enemy air defense the same terrain formations. The unit
and then only intermittently. In order to missiles and other weapons are not a boundaries depicted on figure 21-1 are
avoid detection and destruction, the threat. However, he may be within the presented only to show how the threat
electronic signature of NAVAl Os and range of the enemy early warning and will increase as the aviator flies nearer
aircraft must be kept to a minimum, tracking radar. It is important that the the FLOT and is forced to select iower
thereby making radio silence a requisite aviator is aware that the aircraft is within flight aititudes. Each mission requiring
for mission accomplishment. the radar range even though he is still the use of tactical instrument flight must
(b) The aviator should use landline outside the effective range of the enemy be individually planned, along with an
communications when available for air defense missiles and other weapons. appropriate altitude profile planned to
coordinating and clearing tactical
c. The enemy will deploy highly Pathfinder Mode (V 1) Tactical Mode {V2' Semi-fixed Mode
sophisticated electronic warfare systems. .
Antenna
One of the most effective tactics will be
to keep radio communications to a Range (km) Below 15 km w/15 h. Masl Antenna
500 ft AHO
minimum. In selecting a route,
communications security and a capability Range (km) Above 28 km w/15 ft. Antenna 93 km w/60 ft 185 km w/60 ft
for maintaining communications should 500 ft AHO 46 km w/30 ft. Mas1 Antenna Mast Antenna Mast Antenna
be prime considerations. Using terrain to Power ÛlJlDut 28W 60W 1 BOW
mask the aircraft from possible Weioht 391bs. 1751bs 1751bs
acquisition by the enemy, early warning
Channels 964 672 672
radar may also mask the aircraft from
NAVAIDs and from communications with Power Source SA 4840/U 24 VDC
E~rnal Source External Source
friendly units. Considering also the threat External Source 28 :t4 VDC 2B VDC 2B
:t' :t' VDC
15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE .FM 1-240 205
as backup NAVAID to return the aircraft be available upon being assigned an coincident with AD weapon locations
to VMC or to a rear area. aviation support mission. have not been declared restricted flight
(c) Tactical instrument flight at night is d. When planning for a mission areas.
conducted primarily in the same manner requiring tactical instrument flight, use a (5) Weather. An in-depth weather
as it is conducted in the day. However, checklist to ensure completeness, The briefing is desirable in determining
during the transition from tactical following factors are essential preflight mission feasibility. Enroute weather and
instrument flight to visual flight at the planning considerations: destination weather at all intended points
point of letdown, a light source must be (1) Mission requirements. When the of landing should be acquired, Pilot
present to provide a visual reference mission to conduct a tactical instrument reports (PIREPs) are helpful when
point landing. The lighted "T," "Y," or flight is recaived, the aviator can finalize available. The US Air Force weather
reference symbol may be used. If the the premission planning that has already service provides a valuable source of
landing site is located at a location other been performed. The following factors weather information, especially in
than the letdown point, a second light should be identified in the mission forecasting area trends and changes.
source to assist in landing is also request: Whenever possible, contact should be
necessary. (a) What The nature of the aviation attempted with destination units to
support mission such as medical further enhance the accuracy of overall
Section II evacuation or resupply must be weather factors for the proposed
Tactical Instrument Flight Planning identified. Also, the number or weight of mission.
materials to be transported must be (6) Communications. The frequencies
, 21-7. Initial planning known. and call signs of the supported unit, ATC
,
The situation requiring an aviation (b) Where, The location of the pickup facility and artillery units must be known.
support mission to be flown using tactical and dropoff point must be identified. This A current CEO I should be available and
instrument procedures will be most information is required to determine the the aviators must be knowledgeable
demanding, To perform this mission enroute course to the dropoff point and concerning its use.
i while minimizing the exposure of the to compute the enroute time and fuel (7) NAVAIDs, Aviators should know the
i aircraft to Threat weapons and requirement. location of the radio beacon, its
I avoidance of terrain features and (c) When. Once it is known when the frequency, and when and where it will be
,
obstacles, the mission must be pianned mission is to be performed, you can use relocated. Other information includes the
: in great detail and the flight maneuvers the backward planning sequence to FM radio frequency of the personnel
! must be very precise. This section determine the takeoff time and when operating the beacon and any known
I discusses the planning considerations NAVAIDs should be turned on. "dead spots" created by terrain features.
, and explains the procedures for (d) Who. The unit being supported (8) Special equipment. The mission to
: determining the MEA, takeoff and climb must be known. Coordination is required be performed will dictate what special
requirements, tactical instrument to ensure the success of the mission. equipment will be carried aboard the
i approach, holding pattern, missed (2) Enemy situation. The aviator aircraft, such as litter, tiedowns, or night
approach procedures, and emergency should know the location and posture of vision goggles, Survival equipment
procedures for tactical instrument flight. friendly and ene,\,y forces. (To gain this should be carried aboard the aircraft.
information, study the unit's tactical map
, 21~. Preflight planning or contact the supported unit for detailed 21-9, The course line
,
Prior to actual weather conditions information concerning the tactical As the information becomes available,
requiring tectical instrument flight, the situation.) location of NAVAIDs and the supported
aviator should have completed a portion (3) Threat air defense weapons, It is units should be plotted on a tactical map,
of the preflight planning procedure. important that unit operations personnel An analysis of this information will allow
When the mission is received, an obtain all available information which the aviator to select a route to his
additional leg or legs can be added to identifies the location of enemy air destination that will minimize the
thepreplanned route. By developing defense weapons. These locations vulnerability of the aircraft to Threat
preplanned routes, the time required to should be piotted on the tactical situation weapons and obstructions, Ideally, he
complete the preflight planning is map for review by the aircrews. would select a route that would mask the
reduced and less time is required to Intelligence information on the enemy's aircraft frol11 Threat weapons. However,
respond to a mission request. tactical air capability must also be made the terrain features that mask the aircraft
8. Because electronic emission of available. Based on the Threat and route may require the minimum enroute
radio beacons can be easily located by of flight, consideration should be given to altitude to be so high that the aircraft
the enemy, they will operate at specified requesting suppression of Threat can be detected by electronic devices.
times or as needed and will be frequently weapons. To ensure that all factors are considered
relocated. Each time they are moved, the (4) Friendly air defense weapons. It is when selecting the tactical airway, the
aviator should construct new tactical also important that unit operations following guidelines are provided:
instrument preplanned routes. personnel obtain-the locations of friendly a. The availability of radio beacons
b. There is no existing document that air defense weapons and that these and where they are positioned is a factor
provides information as to the location, locations are plotted on the tactical in route following. In some situations,
frequency, or date-time group for situation map for review by the aircrews. there may be only one beacon available.
relocation of the radio beacon. It is Whenever possible, flying routes should Because the reliable reception distance
proposed that this information be be avoided over or near friendly AD unit of the beacon signai is approximately 15
contained in the Communications- locations to minimize possibility of kilometers, it may be necessary to use
Electronics Operation Instructions friendly AD engagement. When it is not dead-reckoning navigation during some
(CEOI). possible to avoid flying such routes, portion of the route, Even when two or
c. Although it is the responsibility of coordination as to flight routes and times more radio beacons are available, they
the aviator to compute the information must be made between the aviation may be so far apart that a segment of
required for tactical instrument flight, element and the Army air defense the route must be conducted using dead
flight operations personnel should element located at the division airspace reckoning (fig 21-2), To avoid the danger
routinely develop tactical instrument management element, G3, In either of exceeding the limits of the safety
preplanned maps. These maps should case, coordination must be made with zone, the dead-reckoning segment of the
the DAME to ensure that areas route should not exceed 15 kilometers.
206 15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240
remain clear of both the threat and and the terrain, routes should be down or continuing the mission. Aviators
terrain obstacles. selected which provide reliable and air traffic management personnel
communications whenever feasible. must be highly proficient.
21-6. Flight routes (1) Approaches. Tactical instrument (2) Navigational aids. Because of the
Flight routes will be determined by the fiight approaches will vary according to threat in forward areas of the battlefield,
availability of NAVAIOs. The threat, the area where the approach is to be it will not be possible to operate
terrain, weather, and availability of radio performed. In rear areas where standard NAVAl Os full time. Operating
beacons all affect route selection. instrument flight procedures may be nondirectional beacons and surveillance
Considerations for each factor essential followed, ground-controlled approach radar NAVAIOs full time would risk enemy
in establishing tactical instrument flight (GCA) radar can be used for instrument acquisition of both the NAVAIO and the
routes include the following: approaches. Approaches in forward aircraft as targets. It would also risk
a.
Straight-line flight between takeoff battle areas will be limited to using enemy acquisition of the enemy
point and destination will be preciuded in non directional beacons. The altitude to disrupting the mission by jamming the
many instances by both the terrain and which descent can be made will depend NAVAID signal. In rear areas where more
the enemy air defense threat. In on factors such as crew proficiency, sophisticated NAVAl Os can be used
selecting the flight route, the aviator aircraft instrumentation, approach along with standard IFR, efforts should
must carefully analyze the threat as it NAVAIDs, terrain, and visibility. The also be made to limit the signal
affects potential flight routes. I n most uitimate goal of an approach is to allow transmission time to only those times
instances, the threat will be the the aircraft to descend through restrictive when needed as an aid. In the forward
overriding factor in selecting flight routes. weather conditions to an altitude where battie areas, radio beacons should be
The aviator should make a thorough map conditions exist for misston operated in the low power mode and
reconnaissance of the possible route to accomplishment. Tactical instrument turned on intermittently or only upon
the destination and return to determine flight approaches may be classified request. This procedure lessens the
the best route which will provide threat according to facilities as follows: chance of enemy detection.
avoidance and terrain obstacle (a) Class I-Approach using GCA or a (a) Portable radio beacon sets ANI
clearance. In tactical instrument flight, derivative of the national microwave TRN-30(V)1 and AN/TRN-30(V]2 are
terrain obstacles can serve as valuable landing system (MLS) with its OME. currently used by field units. They
assets to deny enemy electronic Guidance to 1 00 feet above ground level transmit a radio signal that can be used
detection just as they are used for (AGL) is reliable for property trained in conjunction with the ADF sets ANI
concealment and masking during visual aviators in appropriately Instrumented ARN-59 and ANI ARN-63 installed in
terrain flying in forward areas of the aircraft and air traffic management most Army helicoptens. These sets
battlefield. personnel trained in installation and provide an amplitude modulated radio
b. The availability and location of operation of the equipment. frequency signal on anyone of the 964
navigational aids are signfficant factors in (b) Class II-Approach using one of channels in the frequency range from
route selection. Regardless of what the the following: An ILS or an NOB. 200 kilohertz to 535.5 kilohertz and 160f
weather condition may be, the aviator Centerline guidance is reliable with a kiiohertz to 1750.5 kilohertz in tunable
should know the location and availability positive position indication (fIX) prior to increments of SOO hertz. The beacon car
of the NAVAl Os within his area of start of letdown. Descent to 200 feet be operated in either of three
operation. NAVAIDs in the rear area will AG L is allowed for properly trained air modes-pathfinder, tactical, or semi-
be more widely spaced because the traffic management personnel and fixed. The range of the beacon depends
radio signpl range can be received at a aviators using appropriately instrumented upon the wattage and configuration of it:
greater range due to the higher alii tude helicopters. Visibility must be such that operation. The capabilities of the radio
where the aircraft is flown in this area. aviators can proceed visually following beacon for each mode of oparation are
NAVAIOs must be placed closer together the approach. shown in table 21-1.
in the forward area due to the limited (c) Class III-Approach using (b) Frequency modulated homing can
range where the radio signal can be frequency-modulated homer. Reliability of be used for short distances as an
received at low altitudes. Route selection directional guidance and station-passage emergency tactical instrument
in the forward area will be restricted Indication close to station is navigational aid when the onboard AOF
because of the reduced range of the questionable. Descent altitude is equipment malfunctions or the ground-
beacons and limited number of beacons. dependent on terrain and visibility based nondirectional beacon becomes
To increase the unit's capability to conditions must be such that aviators unreliable or inoperative. Frequency
conduct tactical instrument flight, can operate visually before touching modulated homing should be used only
NAVAIOs must be mobile and highly
Table 21-1
responsive. Routinely, they must be
Radio beacon C8D8bRities
capable of rapid displacement on short
Mode of DDBration
notice. Capabilities
c. The enemy will deploy highly Pathfinder Mode (V ,) Tactical Mode (V 9) Semi-lixed Mode
sophisticated electronic warfare systems.
1605,-1750,5 kHz -
30 ft.
Defeating this capability and protecting Frequency Range
Antenna 200-535 kHz 200-535 kHz
200-535.5 kHz -
Antenna
One of the most effective tactics will be
Range (km) Below 15 km w/15 h. Mast Antenna
to keep radio communications to a 500 ft AHO
minimum. In selecting a route,
Range (km) Above 28 km w/15 ft. Antenna 93 km w/60 fI. 185 km w/60 fI.
communications security and a capability 46 km w/30 fl.. Mest An1enna Mast Antenna
500 ft AHO Mast Antenna
for maintaining communications should
be prime considerations. Using terrain to Power OutDul 2SW SOW 180W
located at the beginning or end of the be oriented in relation to the actual route ..-"ÞJDD/o
,~.,
enroute course, the maximum safe planned. Grid course must be converted -- - .. .... -
would be 30 kilometers (fig 21-2, number c. The exact scale of the map is not ..~
" "
...
2). Before final selection of the tactical
critical. The distance (kilometers) of each ."
~T"II.T 0" "
.. ..
"/ ..
.s.
airway is made, the terrain should be
leg and magnetic course should be
recorded on the map (fig 21-3). If a
ONU.
flllDDI'
"" ~ "
-y "
u.
studied within the enroute safety zone to
determine the MEA. After determining portion 01 the lag is conducted using .. u, ~ .
'Y ..
STAInOf' ... u.
the MEA for each leg of the route, the dead.reckoning navigation, the point PfZ 1.1'&
"" 'Y ..
aviator may find the MEA subjects the where radio reception can be anticipated
aircraft to detection by Threat weapons. should be marked. Because the enroute Figure 21-4. Flight log
To avoid this danger, another route altitude is normally below 1,000 feet
should be selected that would permit the AG L, surface winds should be used lor 21-10. Minimum enroute altitude
aviator to fly at a lower MEA. After it has computing enroute time and wind Due to the low altitude the aviator will be
been determined that the selected route correction. This information should be flying when conducting tactical
providas the bast protection from Threat recorded on the flight log (fig 21-4). (If instrument flight, it is essential to perform
a thorough
weapons and terrain obstacles, the the diagram is too small for sufficient map analysis to determine
azimuth and distance of each leg should detail to be included, a separate 5- by 8. the highest obstacle within the safety
be measured. The grid course of each inch sheet of paper may be used.) If the zone bordering the course line. Failure to
leg must be converted to magnetic leg is flown using both radio and dead- recognize the highest obstruction could
course. Also, when conducting dead. reckoning navigation, the aviator should result in the aircraft being flown at an
reckoning navigation, correction for wind compute the time for each portion of the altitude below an obstruction within the
drift and instrument error must be leg separately. After completing preflight
applied to ensure accurate navigation. planning, the minimum enroute altitude
b. After determining the magnetic for each leg 01 the route can then be
course and distance of each leg, draw a added.
CD 60 KM
^
(' '\
@ 15 @ @ 15 @ 15
". ;'1):::::>':::
I
,".0,''''
\. )
v
@
@ 30 KM
DEAD-RECKONING NAVIGATION
@ RADIO NAVIGATION
\..:::.:.."16151 ~::1:~.~.5
0090 ~ 850
@~f~t} 720 f 090 ::~I?
12 13
TAK EOFF
lANDING
I~
IJ,PPROA,CH
'l-~#
/ "
~O!::...E
S4F fry
"-/ ')
0- V
~/':.\iii;..Îl;;
, ,
12 13
'<-", fIVAOUl"fS~ft.''< 1.0 N~ ~i!w\ I ;:r
"1:
'5 ---:':":'::':::----1:1~
'" -
3KM
/--../
3KM
.
Figure 21-6. Safety zone for radio navigation
~90-
of the centertine for that portion of the
leg flown using dead-reckoning
T AICEOFF t I~
.)0
navigation.
3KM
J2
'-"-1-,,-
(3) Radio and dead-reckoning
navigalion. When Ihe course leg is flown
~ '-
using both radio navigation and dead-
reckoning, the length of the leg should Figure 21-7. Safety zone for dead-reckoning navigation and turning
not exceed a total of 30 kilometers. The
wid1h of the safely zone should be 2
kilometers at the beacon (1 kilometers
each side of the beacon) and gradually
broaden to a point equal to one-fifth the
total distance of the leg at 15 kilometers
from the beacon. Then maintain that
wid1h for the length of the dead-
reckoning leg.
c. When the enroute course changes
more than 45 degrees, the aircraft can
be flown outside the enroute safely zone
during the turn. To ensure obstacle
clearance, a turn safely zone should be
constructed on the side of the enroute
course where the turning radius of the
aircraft would extend outside the enroute
safely zone. The turning safely zone
should be 3 kilometers wide and extend
3 kilometers beyond the radio beacon or
fix where the turn will be performed (fig
21-7). Taper the safely zone as shown
in figure 21-8.
Dr-lme from OU18lde
8dge of 3K tQlJI'" 10
81IW11V'..midpoi"t
approach. reception altitude, the safety margin for SAFETY ZONE + 400 FEET
TAKEOFF
~
SAFETY BOUNDARY LIMITS
Figure 21-10. The highest obstruction for each leg of the route determines MEA for that leg
TAKEOFF HEAOING
LESS THAN 900
DIRECT TURN TO
C\OURSE
('~(~~--
-- --- -:f-'~"''''"'
- -
H ~
-, ""''''~
.~. '".w::;;\'
TAKEOH HEADING MORE THAN 900 TEARDROP
15
TURN TO COURSE
1-",-1 1
boundary of the takeoff zone. The
aviator should identify the height of the
obstacles by a safe margin.
e. The aviator should determine the
AKE Ff
\~
8:)0
2'
I
"
highest man-made or natural obstacles
within the climb zone and the distance
highest terrain feature or obstacle within
the takeoff safety zone. This altitude plus
CLIMB lONE
J<:;;ô>
1 from the takeoff paint. The difference 100 feet is the altitude the aviator must
between the height of the highest climb to before turning to intercept the
2'
I obstacie in the climb zone and the enroute course.
elevation of the takeoff point should be (1) The aviator locates the altitude of
r--DEAD.RECKONING SEGMENT--j
plotted on the takeoff óbstruction chart. the highest terrain feature or obstacle
If the highest obstruction in the climb within the takeoff safety zone and the
Figure 21-12. Takeoff climb zone, zone is 790 feet and the elevation of the safety zone for the first enroute leg. The
dead.reckoning segment takeoff point is 490 feet, then there aviator adds 400 feet to the highest
TAKEOFF
;;r
CLIMB ZONE
~
60"
f 5
1
4K
'1 '5
!
-- 3K-
::~
w
w
~
O4OC
w
"
.. TOWER
~nJ
w 225 FEET
>
0
'" ,1/
<"" '^'
15
"
15
\ ~
~"'l'''
I/,,----8-------"', \
--8- '-----------_.,,(/
- -
~~.
\.' LANDING POINT
I 4.
3KM ...1.. 3KM
... I
@--=1
'4
ffè-l.
\
, . /
,
3KM
_:::::_----
I
lKM
15
APPROACH
SAFETY
ZONE
~,=
I ".,,~, ""'"" aoo MSL
I,---B----
II. .,'\ , MIN \
I
MEA. l000MSL \, .
.
LAN[\ING
L -,. ,..'
~400'
600MSL
'--MDA600MSL
400MSL
'; ,
- -
.... ,
LANDING
VERTICAL VIEW
-.-~ f ~
360
0~1:
LANDING ......,:.'
14
\ILDR ...-,: ~ Z691
.)1<.,
\--:..ß::
v
/0 LANDING
3KM 3KM .1
\. .1 \-
,- ~400T-l-
I .13KM
APPROACH SAFETY
ZONE
~
~ ~~
--'\~
,~.,.
-
~ ~^..~~ ~,.,,(I"I
r-
I ~""o~ ~
~.,.
-~.,
Figure 21-22. Approach safety zone (straight-In approach)
21
15 DECEMBER 19B4 UPDATE. FM 1-240
ZO~
APPROACH SAFETY
"II
I /---B ----,
I FOR DESCENT}
HOLDING OR
\ TO LOWER AL TITUDE;:Eï::!,: I
:~~;!ì~e
-~T~ I
G'ROUND
SPEED DISTANCE
~"---- TIME
MDA 600MSA
FIELD ELEVATION
275MSL
![beYond
,
intersection to a point 3 kilometers
the landing point. The guidelines
I for the construction of the approach
. safety zone are applicable both when the
should be constructed as discussed in
paragraph 21-10c,
EXAMPLE (Fig 21-23),
"
direction of turn wili be determined while
on the ground during preflight planning.
Idealiy, the holding pattern wili be flown
over the lowest terrain obstruction and
: approach '.g is aligned with the enroute Minimum
enroute altitude, 1,000 on the upwind side of the course line.
~inimum
, , . . . . . .
i course and when offset from the enroute maneuver altitude within the b. The holding pattern is limited to the
course, approach safety zone. 800 standard I-minute inbound leg. Airspeed
'r
. . . . . . . . . . .
locate the highest obstruction. He adds safe area for holding and is planned for
200 feet to the highest obstacle within (6) Airspeed should be decreased to in every approach, Holding should be
r
! (4) The aviator measures the distance time on the approach visual contact is approach safety zone. 800 MSL
Minimum descent altitude., ,., 600 MSL
I from the FAF to the landing point and made with the ground, transition is made .,
'"
, computes the time required to travel this to VMC flight. If visual contact is not
:
distance at 60 knots indicated airspeed possible, a missed approach IS executed c. Airspeed should be decreased to 60
! corrected for winds. It when the inbound time has elapsed. knots upon crossing the fix, After passing
may be necessary the fix, the aviator turns to the outbound
! to enter holding if a high rate of descent
,
heading. Direction of turn should be
is required to descend to MEA from a 21-13. Holding procedures
toward the maneuvering side as
straight-in approach. Missed approach a. Upon arrival at the destination, the
procedures wili be executed when the aviator may have to enter holding due to determined in preflight planning. The
the tactical situation or may have to let descent to minimum maneuver altitude
time inbound from the fix elapses.
(800 feet) is begun after passing the fix,
,
I
'bedrawn
to, Vi,SU,
P,ro,v,','de,a
ali,z,a"t"io"n,
"O,f
: maneuvers to be performed during the
executionof the approach, Also, the
the
down to a lower altitude before executing
the approach. The time flown in the
holding pattern must be minimized to
avoid detection andengagel11ent by
d. The aviator should fly 1 minute
outbound initialiy, On subsequent legs,
time should be noted abeam the fix and
~ J
- -
LAN biNG
--0 '.
.
I (1_1MIN_1
0.,
~ <@400
I
',- __-i"
[APPROACH
J ZONE
SAFETY
--1---
STRAIGHT.IN APPROACH
F- I-~
-
I
. APPROACH SAFETY
I
J ZONE
/
,
"
,,----
1-' MIN-I
\,Q
.....
I\!f'"
400
I I
_=.1"
"~"G r-o
600
@j)
~
~""';:::i;'
.:::: .
) 0::::'
.
,
the aviator should allow sufficient time to to the radio beacon. if the missed climbing turn. He continues the turn until
fly outbound to achieve a l-minute approach procedure is to intercept the on a direct course to the radio beacon 01
inbound leg. If abeam position cannot be reciprocal of the enroute course, the on an intercept heading to reciprocal of .
determined, the aviator starts the time aviator should use a 45-degree or more the enroute course. The climb should be
upon rolling out of turn to outbound leg. intercept heading. expedited to the minimum enroute
Wind correction is applied as necessary, b. During the preflight planning, the aititude. An airspeed of 60 knots should
both outbound and inbound. The aviator aviator must determine the direction of be maintained during the climb.
continues flight with holding pattern as turn. Normally, it is on the same side the e. Radio contact should be
required. holding pattern is flown. HIowever, the established with the FCC to advise of th,
aviator is not restricted to this procedure aviator's intentions. If contact cannot be
21-14. Missed approach procedures provided he plans a missed approach mede, the aviator should contact the
a. Weather conditions or the enemy safety zone (fig 21-25). The location of ground unit to relay his request to the
situation may not állow the aviator to highest terrain obstructions and wind ATC personnel.
land at his destination after initiating the direction will dictate the direction of turn.
approach. When either of these c. A diagram of the planned missed 21-15. Emergency procedures
conditions exists, the aviator must approach should be drawn to provide a The emergencies that the aviator may
execute a missed approach. The visualization of the maneuver to be experience while conducting tactical
requirement to perform a missed performed during the execution of the instrument flight will vary. The best
approach must be anticipated for every missed approach. procedures to cope with the emergency
tactical instrument flight. To ensure will be determined by the conditions tha
EXAMPLE (fig 21-25):
obstruction clearance for the missed exist at the time of the emergency. Goo,
approach, a safe maneuver area is Minimum descent altitude. 600 MSL . . . . .
judgment and positive action are
provided for in the approach safety essential to ensure survival of both the
zone. Minimum maneuvering altitude. . . . . . . . .
The manewer for the missed approach MSL aircraft and aircrew. Although not
.. .. .. .. .. .. 800 MSL
. . . . . . . . . . . . .
I
I
ri ~
/' I \
I )
APPROA
-
~
2g~EsAFEry
'
I
)L =t
'~:;f!:?:'
~600
.:;:X'.'%::':
-....... .
280 ,...ø.:,
...0,' ."."
~......
~..........
,.'.-..
~. :0.:::. -
.:...-.".
'.'.'.'.'
~:::,:::.,
I
I ''''0:;;; <Am, I
-
TERMINAL APPROACH
I ~..
ZONE
I
/-('\ '\ I
,. A)
~
-y.~~
@600
-
-\./
.~
0:- ./
..~:.(~.
~ao J
Figure 21-25. Missed approach procedure
descending. To minimize the danger emergencies can be categorized as land required to conduct tactical instrument
involved, he should decelerate the immediately, land as soon as possible, or flight, the training must be continuous.
aircraft to the minimum controilable land within a specified time. The first two Command emphasis is essential to
forward airspeed. He should emergencies are simple go or no-go ensure that the aviators assigned to the
simultaneously initiate a descent. At a indications of flight. The third condition unit achieve and maintain the required
specific altitude, he will lose radar line-of- must be evaluated to determine if the proficiency to conduct tactical instrument
sight. Descent below this altitude is not aviator should continue or abort the flight in an actual combat environment.
required unless he has flown into VMC. If mission. Factors that must be evaluated Where possible, the synthetic flight
he is still in the clouds, he must decide to determine what emergency action training systems (SFTS), in conjunction
whether to continue to his destination or should be taken include the following: with actual in-flight training, should be
reverse course. Primary factors that he (1) Has the aviator reached the point
used to obtain and maintain the required
must consider include the following: of no return where it would be closer to
degree of proficiency.
(1) What are the weather conditions? continue on to the intended point of
landing? c. Tactical instrument
training flights
(2) What is the altitude above the
highest obstruction? (2) Can a safe landing be made at the conducted during VMC require no
(3) In which direction are the lowest landing point based on the emergency, unusual precautions. However, when
obstructions located? the nature of the landing area, the load conducted during actual instrument
(4) Is the landing point or takeoff point and the enemy s~uation? conditions, the commander must ensure
closer? (3) If the emergency requires the that-
(5) Are there suppressive aviator to perform a full stop landing (1) Actual tactical instrument training
countermeasures available to degrade from the approach, even if visual flights are conducted in a controlled
the Threat weapons? conditions cannot be established, he training environment and only on
(6) is there any battle damage to the slows the aircraft to minimum predetermined routes with all obstacles
aircraft? If so, what effect does it have controllable airspeed and descends at a
clearly noted. These routes must be
on continued flight? slow rate. If visual contact is not
coordinated with local and government
established at MDA, the descent is
b. Loss "f radio navigational aids. air trallic authorities such as the
While en route to the landing point, the continued until visual contact is made
with the ground. coordination for major training exercises
aviator may experience a loss of signal
(4) Can a takeoff be made after or local coordination to establish semi-
from the radio beacon. Each situation of
this nature requires good judgment. landing at a field site? Due to the nature permanent training routes. Authorities
of the emergency, a safe takeoff from a must then determine the necessity of
General guidance that may be followed
is shown below. field s~e may not be possible. However, publishing the proposed air routes or th<
(1) If the radio beacon tails when the return flight to the takeoff point can be notification of civil airspace users as
aviator's pos~ion Is within 15 kiiometers accomplished. necessary.
of the beacon, he reduces airspeed to (5) How critical is the mission? It may (2) Actual tactical instrument training
60 knots and continues on the route for be more important to get the cargo to its flights are conducted only when
2 minutes. If the signal is not received destination and let the aircraft remain on
destination weather is expected to be a
w~hin this period of time, he reverses the ground at the field site until further
flight is possible. or greater than, minimum descent
course and uses dead-reckoning altitude at time of arrival plus 1 hour.
navigation as required to return to the
Section III (3) Missed approach procedures are
takeoff point.
(2) If the radio beacon fails when he is Aviator Training coordinated with local airspace
beyond the effective range of the radio authorities to allow immediate transition
21-16. Training programs to necessary alternate airfields. Alterna
beacon, he will not know immediately
that it has failed. If no audio signal is a. Units qualifying aviators
in tactical airfields should be selected in
received upon reaching the time where instrument flight are responsible for accordance with criteria established for
the radio signal shouid be received, a conducting a well.organized training normal IFR flight in AR 95-1.
course reversal is executed. program. The program of instruction
(3) If the radio beacon fails during the (POI) must instill confidence within the
21-17. Flight training for tactical
approach, the approach is continued to student that tactical instrument flight can Instrument flight
the MDA. However, the aviator does not be performed safely in a high threat
A recommended program of instructior
continue inbound after reaching the MDA environment and at low altitudes. The
for tactical instrument flight is provided
unless visual contact is made with the student undergoing this training should
appendix C. This information explains t
ground. be quaiified and proficient in instrument
(4) If the radio beacon fails while flight. Before conducting the flight portion tasks, conditions, types of instruction,
holding, the aviator does not initiate the of the training, the student should references, and the training or evaluati
demonstrate knowledge of preflight standards.
approach. Instead, the aviator turns to
;
15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240
Appendix A AR 310-50
References Catalog of Abbreviations and Brevity
Codes
Field Manuals
Section I
Required Publications
FM 1-103
Required publications are sources that users must Airspace Management and Army Air
read in order to understand Of to comply with this Traffic in a Combat Zone
publication.
FM 1-203
Army Regulations Fundamentals of Flight
AR 95-1 FM 1-301
Army Aviation: General Provisions and Aeromedical Training for Flight Personnel
Flight Regulations
Technical Manual
Field Manuals
TM 95-226
United States Standard for Terminal
FM 1-88
Instrument Procedures (TERP)
Aviator's Recognition Manual
FM 1-402
. FAR, Part 91
i General Operating and Flight Rules Aviator's Recognition Manual
Section II
Related Publications
i Army Regulations
AR 95-serles
,
Aviation
AR 310-serles
Military Publications
AR 310-25
Dictionary of United States Army Terms
,
may assign one 01her than the one operator's manual and include allowance
zone effective hours.
.
operator's manual for extended climbs). (1) Review SID departures and
appropriate frequencies.
(3) Study the local area chart if one is (c) Enroute cruise to destination and approach plates, if available, for
published, or study the departure area on alternate. Allow time in addition to ETE departure airfield.
for known enroute delays required by the (2) Review enroute chart. Consider
the enroute chart. Become familiar with
, the radio facilities and intersections mission. Enroute ATC delays usually departures and arrival procedure when
determining flight route.
within the departure area. cannot be anticipated. Also allow time
.
Appendix C
Sample Program of Instruction for Tactical Instrument Flight
Task .
Condition Type ~nstruction References Training/Evaluatioo Standards
Identify the prerequisite for conducting Classroom Conference AR 95-1 The student must demonstrate a knowtedge
tactical instrument flight. FM 1-240 of instrument flight procedures, regulations.
TERPs and flight techniques.
Identify Ihe Threat ancl how it affects Classroom Conlerence FM 1-240 The student must demonstrate a knowledge
tactícaJ instrument flight FM 1-402 of Threat weapons and 1tIeir capabilities.
FM 44-30 The sludent must also know the planning
requirements that will avoid Of minimize
detection of the aircraft by Threat weapons
systems.
klentUy the condition during which tactical Classroom Conference FM 1-240 The student musl demonstrate B knowledge
instrument flight win be conducted. of the meteorological conditions that require
the use of tactical instrument flight.
Identify the principles of employment 101 Classroom Conference FM 1-240 The student must demonstrate a knowtedge
instrumenl flight in the cormal zone. of the different flight altitudes that will be
Ilown within the diftBfent areas of the
combat zone, NAVAIDs. classes of
approaches, and the control procedures to
be followed.
Identify the factors that must be considered Classroom Conference FM 1-240 The student must demonstrate a knowledQf
when planning a tactical instrument flight. of the factors that are required for initial
planning of a tactical instrument flight. This
inctudes the mission requirements (what,
where, when, and who), enemy situation,
location of ADA weapons, weather
condition, communications, NAVAIDs, and
.
special equipment
Describe the two types of navigation used Classroom Conlerence FM 1-240 The student must demonstrate a knowledg.
for tactical navigation. of the capabilities and limitations for both
dead-reckoning and radio navigation as
relales to tactical Instrument flight planning
Describe the procecklre for delermining the Classroom Conference FM 1-240 The student must demonstrate a knowteclg'
enrouta course. of the capabilities of the radio beacon,
conversion of grid course 10 magnetic
course, and measurement of distances in
kilometers.
.
Descrme the procedures tor determining the Classroom Conferençe FM 1-240 The student must demonstrate a knowled~
MEA. of how to analyze the area within.the
enroute safety zone to determine the
highest obstruction. Atter identifying the
highest obstacle, the student must
determine the MEA for each leg of the
route.
prOcedure tor intercepting the FM 1-240 The student must demonstrate a knowled~
Descnbe the Classroom Conterençe
enroute course after takeoff. of how to intercept the enroute course wh,
the takeoff heading i6 less than Of greater
than 900 from the enroute course.
Describe the procedure for determining the aassroom Conference FM 1-240 The student must demonstrate a knowled~
takeoff dimb zone. 01 how to construct the takeoff climb zone
analyze the area within the lone tOf the
highest obstruction, and determine when t
tum to intercept the enroute course can b
made.
Describe the procedures for detennining the Claosroom Conference FM 1-.240 The student must demonstrate a knowted
takeoff safety zone. of the dimensions and orientation of the
takeoff safety zone, how to analyze the al
within the lakeoff safety zone to determin
the highest obstruction. and how 10
determine the MEA for the tirs11eg of the
route.
Describe the procedures for determining Classroom Conference FM 1-240 The student must demonstrate a knowledge
required rate of climb on takeoff. 01 how to construct a takeoff obstruction
chart and how to determine the required
climb rate to clear obstacles within the
takeoff climb 20ne.
Describe the procedures for performing a Classroom Conference FM 1-240 The student must demonstrate a knowledge
terminal approach. 01 entry into the approach pattern, descent
to the minimum maneuver altitude, the
descent to MOA, and when to execute
missed approach.
Describe the procedures for performing a Classroom Conference FM 1-240 The student must demonstrate a knowledge
straight-in approach. of how to fix the final fix inbound; descend
in the pattern, when necessary; descend to
MDA; and when to execute a missed
approach.
Describe the procedures for determining the Classroom Conference FM 1-240 The student must demonstrate a knowledge
approach safety zone. of the dimensions and orientation of the
approach safety 20ne, how to analyze the
area within the approach safety zone to
determine the highest obstruction, and how
to determine the MEA lor the final leg of the
route.
Describe the procedures for determining the Classroom Conference FM 1-240 The student must demonstrate a knowledge
MDA for the approach. of how tD determine the highest obstructiDn
within the approach safety zone. Using this
information, determine the MDA.
Describe the holding procedure. Classroom Conference FM 1-240 The student must demonstrate a knowledge
01 how to enter the holding pattern, the time
01 the inbound leg, direction of turn; how to
determine the minimum maneuver altitude
lor holding, and size of the maneuver area.
Identify the cfltegories of emergency Classroom Conference FM '-240 The student must demonstrate a knowledge
procedures and describe the recommended 01 emergency conditions that may result
actions. from acquisition of the aircraft by Threat
weapons, loss of radio navigational aids, or
aircraft deficiencies.
Perform tactical instrument takeoff. A tactical instrument Practicat FM 1-240 The student must demonstrate the proper
takeoff will be exercise procedure tor an instrument takeoff,
performed. Takeoff required rate of climb, course interception,
heading will be less and climb to MEA.
than or greater than
90 degrees from the
enroute course.
Perform enroute tactical instrument Aircraft or SFTS will Practical FM 1-240 The student must demDnstrate the proper
I
navigation. be flown over tactical exercise procedures for dead reckoning and radio
Instrument route at navigation, maintain required altitude,
MEA. identify intersection or beacon passage, and
attain accurate estimates of enroute time
(:t1 minute).
Perform tactical instrument approach A tactical instrument Practical FM 1-240 The student must demonstrate the proper
(terminal). approach will be exercise procedure for entry into the approach
performed. pattern, descent tD minimum maneuver
altitude within the approach salety zone,
descent to minimum descent altitude,
tracking, transition to VFR llight, and
execution of missed approach.
Perform tactical instrument approach A tactical instrument Practical FM 1-240 The student must demonstrate the proper
(straight.in). approach will be exercise procedure for identifying the finallix,
performed. descent to MDA, tracking transition to VFR
flight, el(8cution of missed approach, and
when necessary, entry into holding to
descend to the minimum maneuver altitude
prior to initiating approach.
Perform holding at the radio beacon or Tactical holding will Practical FM 1-240 The student must demonstrate the proper
intersection. be performed. exercise procedUfe for entry into the holding pattern,
wind correction, and descent to minimum
maneuver altitude.
Perform missed approach procedure. Missed approach Practical FM 1-240 The student must demonstrate the proper
procedure will be exercise procedure for entry into the missed
performed following approach. direction of tum, climb to MEA,
tactical approach. and interception of the smouts course.
Perform simulated emergency procedure. Simulated emergency Practical FM 1-240 The student must demonstrate the proper
conditions will be exercise emergency procedures to be perfOfmed
performed. when confronted with an air defense
emergency, loss of radio navigalional aids,
or aircraft deficiency.
D-1. General
The number of flight clearances which
must be delivered by ATC does not
permit excessive repetitions of a
clearance. Also the speaking rate is too
rapid for longhand copying of the
clearance. Occasionally ATC will issue a
clearance which differs from the original
flight plan. In such cases, aviators should
be particularly alert to receive and
understand the clearance given.
Clarification should be requested if any
doubt exists. As an aid in copying ATC
clearances, a series of symbols has
been devised for use as clearance
shorthand.
M RY HDG
a. Example: 1234 CAF
R
RV V18 SO 0700 DPC 120.4
,
Translation: Army 12345 is cleared as
! filed, maintain runway heading for radar
vector to Victor 18, Squawk 0700 just
i before departure, departure control
I frequency-120.4.
! OlR RY36 M
b. Example: C iLS AP
300L
Translation: Army 12345, cleared ILS
approach to Cairns, to runway 36,
maintain 3000 to outer compass locator,
over.
c. Exampie: ILS OlR LDG RY36
360/10 WX 6 OVC 2R-F 20.38
Transiation: Army 12345, except ILS
approach to Cairns, landing runway 36,
wind 360 degrees at one zero, weather
600 feet overcast, visibility 2 miles in
light rain and fog, altimeter 29.38, over.
d. Example: R 2 SE HOUND HDG 270
RV ILS OlR
Translation: Army 12345, radar contact
2 miles SE Hound intersection, fly
i heading 270 for radar vector to ILS
.
DPe OR
Approach control ILS approach
APC Descend to (anllude-hundreds 01 leel)
IL5
Army .J.30 Initial approach
R Direct
I.
At DR Intersection
@ Direction (bcund): INT
A TC advises Eastbound Join or intercept airway, jet
route, track. or
course
CA Ee -
Ass lix
Southbound LOM
FX 58 Maintain (or magnetic)
RV RT vIA
Radial (045. radial) Runway (numerical designation) Visual approach
045R RYI8 VA
Squawk Victor (airway number)
Remain well to left side
SQ
LS Standby VOR
VI+
Remain well. to right side
R5 5ay 8
Straight~in approach
Report crossing VORTAC
51.
\;;:x
Surveillance radar approach ø
Report departing
ASR Weather
RD
Report leaving
Take oft (direction) WX
While in control area
RL ,"'N
Report on course
Tawer b.
R-CRS TWR
CH FM
AAF compass heading field manual; frequency modulated
Army airfield
chap FSS
AD chapter flight service station
air defense
D G
ADF deviation gravity
automatic direction finder
DAME G3
ADIZ. division air management element
Assistant Chief of Staff, G3 (Operations
Air Defense Identification Zone and Plans)
DC
AF drift correction
GCA
audio frequency ground-controlled approach
DCA
AGL drift correction angle
GPH
above ground level gallons per hour
DH
AHO decision height
GS
above highest obstacle ground speed
DME
AM distance measuring equipment
HF
amplitude modulated
DOD high frequency
LOS NOTAM TC
notice to airmen true course
line of sight
OM TERPS
LZ
landing zone outer marker terminal instrument procedures
PAR TH
MAA
precision approach radar true heading
maximum authorized altitude
UHF
MAP para
paragraph ultra high frequency
missed approach point
US
MCA PIREP
United States
minimum crossing altitude pi lot report
VASI
MDA PMSV
visual approach slope indicator
minimum descent altitude pilot-to-metro service
VFR
MEA POI
visual flight rules
minimum enroute altitude program of instruction
VHF
MEF PPC
very high frequency
maximum elevation figure performance planning card
VLF
METAR PT
point of touchdown, procedure turn
very low frequency
meteorological terminal aviation report
VMC
; MF RDF visual meteorological conditions
medium frequency radio direction finder
Vne
MH REIL velocity never exceed
magnetic heading runway end identifier lights
VOR-VHF
MHz RMI omnidirectional range
megahertz radio magnetic indicator
VORTAC
MIRL RPM collocated VOR and TACAN navigational
medium intensity runway lights revolutions per minute aid
MLS RPS W
microwave landing system revolutions per second west
MM RVR WV
middle marker runway visual range wind velocity
MOCA S
minimum obstruction clearance altitude south
MRA SDF
minimum reception altitude simplified directional facility
MSL SFTS
mean sea level synthetic flight training systems
MTI SHF
moving target indicator super high frequency
N SID
north standard instrument departure
NAVAID SM
navigational aid statute mile
NDB STAR
nondirectional radio beacon standard terminal arrival route
Description, 11-1, B2
Double.the.angle course interception,
16-5, 132 13-13,112
Distance, 11-B, B4
Codes (transponder), 20-16, 201
Distance conversion, 11-3, B3 Drift corrections. See Wind: drift
Compass Drift correction, 11-17, 87 correction
Errors, 2-5, 10 Fuel consumption calculations, 11-10, Application, 10-3, 80
Magnetic, 2-20, 16 85; 11-11, B5 Computation, CPU-26A/P, 11-16, 86;
Transmitter, 2-20, 16 Ground speed computation, 11-6, B4 11-17,87
Radio, 13-6, 103 Indexes, 11-2,82; 11-9, B5 Course, 10-3, 80; 10-4, 80
Oft-course correction, 11-16, B6 During tracking
Compass turns ADF, 14--6, 119; 14-9, 120
Proportion, 11-4, B4
Fixed wing, 4-11, 45
Radius of action (fixed base), VOR, 13-10, 104
Common errors, 4-11, 45 Heading, 9-2, 77
11-1B,87
Rotary wing, 4-11, 45 Holding, 16-24, 156
Ratio. See Proportion
Common errors, 4-11, 45 Rule of 60, 11-16, B6 Procedure turn, 16-15, 149
Compensator assembly, 2-4, 10 Scales, 11-20, BB
Earth
Time-distance computation, 11-5, 84; Direction measuring, 6-14, 65
Cone of confusion (azimuth), 15-5,
132 11-9, B5 Distance, 6-17, 6B; 6-18, 68
Time requirement, 11-7,84
Inclination, 6-5, 62
Constant airspeed, 3-7, 29 Measurement. See Measurement:
Crab angle, 1 ~3, 80
Control direction and distance
Airspeed, constant, 3-7, 29 Cross-checking Position designation, 6-6, 63
Altitude, constant, 3-8, 29 Bank instruments, 3-24, 39 Revolution, 6-4, 62
Pitch attitude instruments, 3-1 B, 36 Rotation, 6-3, 62
Attitude, 3-9, 31
Bank, 3-19, 37
Power instruments, 3-11,31 Shape, 6-2, 62
Pitch, 3-12, 32
Crosswind, 10-2,78; 10-6,80 Electric attitude Indicator (Lear Model
Power, 3-5, 27
4005G), 2-13, 13
Current, electrical, 12-3, 95
Coordinates, 6-6, 63 Electric heading Indicator ID-5671
Cycle, 12-2, 95
Corlolls illusion, 1-3, 5 ASN, 2-20, 16
Dead reckoning
Course Electrically driven gyros, 2-9, 12
Magnetic, B-4, 75 Computers, See CPU-26A1P dead-
reckoning computer Elevator illusion, 1-3, 5
Measuring, 6-14, 65
Plotting, 8-4, 75
Instruments, 9-1, 77
Equator, 6-9, 65; 6-10, 65
Decelerations (rotary wing), 4-29, 57
Course Indicator (VOR) Erroneous navigational signal, TACAN,
Components, 13-5, 101 Degrees (angular), 6-7, 64 15-5, 132
Course selector
Description, 13-5, 101 Demonstrations of spatial Errors
disorientation, 1-4, 5 Acceieration, 2-5, 10
Selecting a course, 13-9,1D4
234 15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE' FM 1-240
Bank control, 3-24, 39 Mode of operation, 2-1 9, 16 Coriolis, 1-3, 5
Magnetic compass, 2-5, 10 Mountings, 2-7, 12 Elevator, 1-3, 5
Pitch attitude control, 3-18, 36 Vacuum driven, 2-10, 12 False horizon, 1-3, 5
Flicker vertigo, 1-3, 5
Establi shing interseçtions, TACAN, Gyroscopic properties Graveyard spin, 1-3, 5
15-10, 136 Precession, 2-8, 12 Graveyard spiral, 1-3,5
Rigidity in space,
Expect approach clearance, 18-4, 177 2-8, 12 Inveffiion, 1-3, 5
Heading Landing error, 1-6, 7
FAA weather advisories, 20-20, 202
Compass, 2-4, 10 Leans, 1-3, 5
False horizon iHusion, 1-3, 5 Drift and ground speed, 10-2, 78 Somatgravic, 1-3, 5
Featureless terrain illusion, 1-6, 7 Magnetic, 2-4, 10; 10-2,78
ILS. See Instrument landing system
Track and ground speed, 10-2,78
Feeder routes, 16-5, 144; 16-8, 147; True, 9-2, 77 Impact pressure, 2-22, 19
16-9, 147
Heading and airspeed computations Inclination, 6-5, 62
Final approach. See ADF, VOR, and (CPU-26A1P), 11-13, 86
ILS approaches Indicated airspeed, 2-33, 26
Heading and ground speed
Final approach segment, 16-5, 144 Indicated altitude, 2-29, 23
computations, 11-24, 91
Fine azimuth pattern, TACAN, 15-3, Heading Indicator Indicator
130 Banking or turning, 2-20, 16 Aiffipeed, 2-31, 26
Course indicator 10-883, 2-20, 16 Altimeter, 2-24, 19
Fixes. See Position fixing Attitude, 2-12, 13
ADF, 14-9, 120 Electric 1D-567/ASN, 2-20, 16
Magnetic compass. See Magnetic Course, indicator, 10-883, 2-20, 16
Approach, 15-15, 149 Heading, 2-20, 16
VOR, 13-12, 110 compass
Radio magnetic Navigation attitude, 10-882, 2-14, 15
Flicker vertigo inusion, 1-3, 5 Slaved gyro magnetic. See Slaved
1D-250/ARN, 2-20, 16
1D-998/ ASN, 2-20, 16 gyro magnetic heading indicators
Flight clearance. See Clearance: flight Turn-and-slip, 2-16, 16
Flight Instruments and systems, 2-1, 9 Headwind, 10-2,78 Vertical speed, 2-34, 26
Flight log, 223 High frequency propagation, 12-12,99 Initial approach segmen1, 16-5, 144
~, Holding Instantaneous vertical speed
Free air temperature gauge, 9-6, 78
ADF Indicator, 2-38, 27; 3-15, 35
Frequency Aiffipeeds, 15-20, 153
Classification, 12-2,95; 12-7,98
Clearances and reports, 16-25, 157 Instrument approach procedures. See
TACAN, 15-2, 130 Drift correction, 16-24, 156 Approach: Instrument and ILS
Entry, 15-22, 154 Briefing, 15-27, 158
Front course, 19-7, 192 Holding, 16-17, 153
Stacking, 15-26, 158 Identification, 16-2, 143
Fuel consumption (CPU-26A/P), VOR
11-11, 85; 11-12,85 Airspeeds, 16-20, 153 Missed approach, 15-6, 145
Fuel cons...mptlon planning, B-3, 223 Clearances and reports, 15-25, 157 Procedures, 15-5, 144
Drift correction, 16-24, 156 Procedure turns, 15-7, 146;
GCA. See Ground-controlled approach
Entry, 15-22, 154
15-11,147
Straight-in, 16-6, 145
Geographic North Pole, 6-3, 62 Stacking, 15-26, 158
Transitionslfeeders, 15-5, 144;
Glide slope, ILS, 19-4, 187 Homing 16-8, 147
ADF, 14-27, 129
Great circle, 6-7, 64; 6-18, 68 Instrument flylng- See Attitude
Loop, 14-27, 129
Greenwich meridian, 6-11, 65 Instrument flying
IFR flight planning
Grid system (charts), 6-6, 63 Aircraft equipmenL B-3, 223 Instruments indicating pitch attttude
Altitude selection, B-3, 223 Attitude indicator, 3-20, 37
Graveyard spin illusion, 1-3, 5 Heading indicator, 3-21, 37
Checklist, B-3, 223
Turn-and-slip indicator, 3-22, 37
Graveyard spiral Illusion, 1-3, 5 Departure, B-3, 223
Estimated time enroute, B-3, 223 Ball, 3-22, 37
Ground-controlled approach. See Flight log, Turn needle, 3-22, 37
Radar: air traffic controi B-3, 223
Flight plan, B-3, 223 Instruments Indicating pitch attitude
procedures: approach control FLIP research, B-3, 223
(GCA) Airspeed indicator, 3-16, 36
Airport surveillance radar, 20-1, 196;
Ground speed, B-3, 223 Altimeter, 3-14, 34
Performance planning card, B-3, 223 Attitude indicator, 3-13, 33
20-6,198; 20-12, 199 Planning, B-2, 223 Vertical speed indicator, 3-15, 35
Precision approach radar, 20-1, 196; Route selection, B-3, 223
20-6, 198; 20-12, 199 Route survey, B-3, 223 Instrument landing system
Ground lighting illusion, 1-6, 9 Sample plan, 8-4, 223 Approach procedures
Terminal area, B-3, 223 Arrival, 19-8, 190
Ground speed, 10-6, 80 Charts, 17-1, 159
Weather sources, B-3, 223
Ground weather radar, 20-18, 202 Compass locator, 19-2, 185
illusions in ffight, 1-1, 5 Front COUffie, 19-7, 192
Gyros Glide slope, 19-4, 187
Definition, Illusions leading to spatial
2-6, 10 disorientation, 1-3, 5
LDA, 19-12, 194
Electrically driven, 2-11, 12 Localizer, 19-3, 185
Heading indicator, 2-20, 16 Illusions Localizer back course, 19-9, 192
Instrument power source, 2-9, 12 Autokinesis, 1-3, 5 Localizer only, 19-8, 192
15 DECEMBER 1984 UPDATE. FM 1-240 23,
Beacon passage, 14-27, 129 Meridians
Marker beacons, 19-5, 189
Homing, 14-24, 128 Greenwich (prime), 6-11, 65; 6-12, 65
Missed approach, 19-7, 192
Longitude, 6-11, 65; 6-12, 65
Procedure turn, 19-7, 192 Null, 14-25, 129
Runway visual range, 19-10, 192 Orientation, 14-24, 128 Middle marker, 19-5, 189
SDF, 19-12, 194 Time and distance, 14-26, 129
Ground components, 19-2, 185 Tracking, 14-25, 129 Miles
Nautical, 6-17, 68
Visual approach slope indicator,
Low frequency, See LF/MF Statute, 6-17, 68
19-11,194 propagation
Instrument takeoll Minimum authorized altitude, 16-9,
Loxodromic curve, 6-16, 66 147
Fixed wing, 4-3, 40
Common errors, 4-3, 40 Lubber line, 2-4, 10
.