BASIC IFR COURSE

BASIC CONCEPTS

TURN COORDINATOR DIRECTIONAL GYRO ARTIFICIAL HORIZONT

TYPES OF FLIGHTS

• CONSTANT SPEED:
- Aircraft trimmed for a certain speed (!!NOT FOR AN ALTITUDE¡¡)
- Increasing power will make the aircraft to climb
- Reducing power will make the aircraft to descend

• CONSTANT POWER:
- Choose a certain power (Ex: 2.000 RPM)
- No more changes in power
- Climbing or descending with movement of the stick and adjustment of the trim
CLIMBS AND DESCENTS

• OBJECTIVE
- Must be performed maintaining a particular heading
- The rate of descent and climb must be 500 ft/min
- Anticipation to level off will be 10% of the rate of
climb/descent
- As the VSI suffers from lag, we must anticipate the
climb/descent half the ROC/ROD to achieve the desired 500
ft/min (At 250ft/min)
CLIMBS AND DESCENTS

START REDUCING VERTICAL SPEED AT AN

2 MINUTES ALTITUDE 10% LOWER THAN THE ROC/ROD
TURNS
• TIMED TURNS:
- OBJECTIVE:
- Maintain altitude and speed.
- Check heading each 15 seconds.
- Maximum bank angle = 30°
- Anticipate finishing the turn with a number of degrees equal to
1/3 of the bank angle set

WHEN USING THE MAGNETIC

COMPASS AS A REFERENCE TAKE
IN ACCOUNT TURNING ERRORS
 360° = 2 MINUTES
TURNS
45° = 15 SECONDS
315° = 1 MINUTE 45 SECONDS

270° = 1 MINUTE 30 SECONDS 90° = 30 SECONDS

225° = 1 MINUTE 15 SECONDS 135° = 45 SECONDS

180° = 1 MINUTE
TURNS
• TIMED TURNS:
To perform a timed turn at a rate of 3°/s you can use the bank indicator or the
following rule:
TURNS (Coordinated manoeuvres)
• Types of coordinated manoeuvres:
- S0: Straight S
- S1: Change turn downwards
- S2: Change turn upwards
- S3: Change turn upwards and downwards
- S4: Maintain initial turn during the entire maneuver

• Common objectives:
- Constant airspeed
- Bank angle shall be 20°
- Climbs and descends at a rate of 500 ft/min
 TURNS (Coordinated manoeuvres)

• S0 – Straight Turns

- Can be performed while climbing or descending

- Maintain initial heading during the entire maneuver
- Reduce power in order to descend 400 ft (Ex: 3.000 ft), while maintaining
airspeed, initial heading and 500 ft/min rate of descent
- 50 ft before reaching the altitude (2650 ft) apply the necessary power and
change the aircraft attitude in order to climb the aforementioned 400 ft.
- Repeat the same manoeuvre descending and climbing 300 ft and 200 ft
 TURNS (Coordinated manoeuvres)
• S0 – Straight Turns
¡¡¡MAINTAINING HEADING!!!

3.000 ft

2.900 ft

2.800 ft

2.700 ft

2.600 ft

**DIFFERENT TO THE OTHER DRAWS IN WHICH HEADING IS CHANGE**

 TURNS (Coordinated manoeuvres)

• S1 – Changing turn direction at the bottom

- Descend 400 ft while turning right (For example) with a bank angle of 20°
- 50 ft before reaching the altitude (2650 ft) apply the necessary power and
change the aircraft attitude in order to climb the aforementioned 400 ft.
- Achieving the initial altitude continue turning in the same direction but
reduce power to descend 300 ft.
- Repeat the same process descending and climbing 300 ft and 200 ft
 TURNS (Coordinated manoeuvres)
• S1 – Changing turn direction at the bottom

START FINISH
3.000 ft

2.900 ft

2.800 ft

2.700 ft

2.600 ft
 TURNS (Coordinated manoeuvres)

• S2 – Changing turn direction at the top

- Descend 400 ft while turning right (For example) with a bank angle of 20°
- 50 ft before reaching the altitude (2650 ft) apply the necessary power in
order to climb maintaining the turn
- Achieving the initial altitude change the direction of the turn to the left
and reduce power to descend 300 ft.
- Repeat the same process descending and climbing 300 ft and 200 ft
 TURNS (Coordinated manoeuvres)
• S2 – Changing turn direction at the top

START FINISH
3.000 ft

2.900 ft

2.800 ft

2.700 ft

2.600 ft
 TURNS (Coordinated manoeuvres)

• S3 – Changing turn direction at the top and at the bottom

- This manoeuver can be started climbing or descending and turning to the
right or left
(EXAMPLE)
- Apply sufficient power to climb 400 ft and turn left
- Reduce throttle in advance to descend 400 ft changing the direction of the
turn to the right
- Repeat the procedure climbing and descending 300 ft and 200 ft.
 TURNS (Coordinated manoeuvres)
• S3 – Changing turn direction at the top and at the bottom

3.000 ft

2.900 ft

2.800 ft

2.700 ft

2.600 ft
FINISH START
 TURNS (Coordinated manoeuvres)

• S4 – Maintaining the turn constant

- Can be performed while climbing or descending, and turning to the right
or left
(EXAMPLE)
- Reduce power to descend 400 ft turning right
- Achieving 2650 ft apply power to climb 400 ft maintaining the turn
- Repeat the same process descending and climbing 300 ft and 200 ft
 TURNS (Coordinated manoeuvres)
• S4 – Maintaining turn direction

IN THIS CASE TURNING RIGHT

3.000 ft

2.900 ft

2.800 ft

2.700 ft

2.600 ft
SPIRALS
• OBJECTIVES
- Is a timed manoeuvre which is formed by a
combination of a timed turn and a timed climb or
descent.
- Can be performed either climbing or
descending and either turning to the right or to the
left.
- Vertical speed of 500 ft/min and at the same
time perform a standard turn (3°/s) with the
corresponding bank turn.
- Check every 15 seconds altitude and heading
SPIRALS

1 MINUTE
2

15 SECONDS
30
45
00
 PATTERN B

AIRCRAFT
DA20 DA40 DA42
LOW CRUISE 80 KTS 90 KTS 100 KTS
NORMAL 90 KTS 100 KTS 120 KTS
CRUISE
HIGH CRUISE 100 KTS 110 KTS 150 KTS
 BASIC CONCEPTS
• HEADING: The direction in which the longitudinal
axis of an aircraft is pointed, usually expressed in
degrees from North
• TRACK: The projection on the earth’s surface of
the path of an aircraft, the direction of which path
at any point is usually expressed in degrees from
North
• DRIFT: It is caused by the wind effect on an
aircraft and is defined as the angle between the
aircraft heading and the aircraft track.
• WIND CORRECTION ANGLE: It is the angle
between the course (CRS) and the heading (HDG)
that is required for the aircraft to track that course
when there is wind
 BASIC CONCEPTS
• RADIAL: A magnetic bearing extending from a VOR/VORTAC/TACAN.
• RELATIVE BEARING: It’s the clockwise angle from the heading of the aircraft to a
straight line drawn from the observation station on the aircraft to the object.
• QDM: Magnetic heading to the station
• QDR: Magnetic bearing from the station
• QUJ: True track to the station
• QTE: True bearing from the station

QDM = MAGNETIC HEADING + RELATIVE BEARING

INSTRUMENTS AND NAVAIDS
NDB (Non-Directional Beacon)
• An NDB is a radio transmitter which sends out a radio signal in all
directions.
• Overhead an NDB transmitter, a “cone of silence” exists in which no
signal will be received by the aircraft.
• It need an ADF (Automatic Direction Finder) in the aircraft.
• The needle in an ADF instrument display always points in the
direction of the NDB to which the ADF equipment is tuned.

¡¡IT HAS ERRORS WHILE TURNING!!

INSTRUMENTS AND NAVAIDS
NDB (Instruments)
• RBI (2 TYPES):
- FIXED: It has a fixed compass with
the needle pointing in the direction of the
station, so it gives relative bearing.

- ADJUSTABLE BY A RBS: It has an

adjustable compass card. If the heading is
aligned at the top of the instrument the
needle will give you the QDM
INSTRUMENTS AND NAVAIDS
NDB (Instruments)
• RMI (RADIO MAGNETIC INDICATOR)
- Consists of a standard ADF receiver but
with the ADF needle combined with a DI
compass card
- The head of this instrument always gives a
direct reading of the QDM, while the tail
indicates the radial or QDR
- There is a variant which could have two
needles so we can fix the location of our
aircraft
INSTRUMENTS AND NAVAIDS
NDB (WIND)
INSTRUMENTS AND NAVAIDS
VOR (Very high frequency Omni-Directional Range)
• Transmits two signals at the same time (One stationary, while the
other is a rotating pattern)
• VOR receiver measures the phase difference between the two signals
and displays it as a bearing on the VOR display
• The bearing from the beacon is known as a radial
 INSTRUMENTS AND NAVAIDS
VOR (Instruments)
• OBI (Omni Bearing Indicators)
- CDI: Course deviation indicator
- OBS: Omni Bearing selector

OBS is used to select the desired

course (CRS)
INSTRUMENTS AND NAVAIDS
VOR (Instruments)

• RMI (RADIO MAGNETIC INDICATOR)

- Each needle can receive inputs from an
ADF or a VOR
- The head of this instrument always gives a
direct reading of the QDM, while the tail
indicates the radial or QDR
 INSTRUMENTS AND NAVAIDS
VOR (Instruments) • HSI (Horizontal Situation Indicators)

- Combines a direction
indicator, salved to a master
magnetic compass, with a
VOR indicator.
- It shows the aircraft’s
magnetic heading and its
orientation with respect to
a selected VOR radial-
INSTRUMENTS AND NAVAIDS
VOR (Instruments)
INSTRUMENTS AND NAVAIDS
VOR
2 2 OR
41
3
7
56 8
5
8

1
4

7 3
INSTRUMENTS AND NAVAIDS
DME (Distance Measuring Equipment)
• Works on the secondary radar principle
• Equipment fitted to the aircraft is an interrogator which measures the
time taken by signals to travel from the aircraft to the beacon and
back again in order to measure range.
• Measures the slant distance of an aircraft from the ground station.
For practical navigation purposes, the difference between slant range
and horizontal range is negligible.
POSITIONING
• An aircraft position can be established by identifying the
intersection of two DME circular position lines, provided the
ambiguity is resolved

3 DME
1 DME 2 DME
POSITIONING
VOR AND NDB VOR AND VOR VOR AND DME
POSITIONING
RADIAL INTERCEPTIONS
TRACKING
• Tracking is following a certain route/course inbound or outbound
to/from the station.
• When dealing with OBI or HSI we should keep the CDI centred in
desired course
• When dealing with RMI we should keep the needle pointing to the
desired route
RADIAL INTERCEPTIONS
ARRIVALS (Proceeding inbound to the station)
• When arriving to a station the radial and the course are opposite
 RADIAL INTERCEPTIONS
ARRIVALS (Proceeding inbound to the station)
When the angle between desired course and current course is between 15º and 60º
1º- Rotate the OBS until the CDI is aligned and the indication is TO
2º- What you have at the top of the instrument is de Current Course
3º- Identify the desired course
4º- Apply the following rule:

Desired Course ------> Current Course ------> 30º

5º- Once the CDI is almost aligned start turning to the desired course
 RADIAL INTERCEPTIONS
ARRIVALS (Proceeding inbound to the station)
(EXAMPLE)
Airplane whose heading is 320º and radial 210º. Intercept radial 180º inbound
CURRENT COURSE 30º
DESIRED COURSE

COURSE FOR INTERCEPTION

060º
ANGLE OF INTERCEPTION
60º
 RADIAL INTERCEPTIONS
ARRIVALS (Proceeding inbound to the station)
When the angle between desired course and current course is below 15º
1º- Rotate the OBS until the CDI is aligned and the indication is TO
2º- What you have at the top of the instrument is de Current Course
3º- Identify the desired course
4º- Apply the following rule:

Desired Course ------> Current Course ------> 2 * X

WHERE X IS THE ANGLE BETWEEN DESIRED AND CURRENT COURSE
5º- Once the CDI is almost aligned start turning to the desired course
 RADIAL INTERCEPTIONS
ARRIVALS (Proceeding inbound to the station)
(EXAMPLE)
Airplane whose heading is 320º and radial 190º. Intercept radial for 000º inbound
course CURRENT COURSE
10 x 2 = 20º
DESIRED COURSE

COURSE FOR INTERCEPTION

030º
ANGLE OF INTERCEPTION
30º
 RADIAL INTERCEPTIONS
ARRIVALS (Proceeding inbound to the station)
When the angle between desired course and current course is between 60 and 90º
1º- Rotate the OBS until the CDI is aligned and the indication is TO
2º- What you have at the top of the instrument is de Current Course
3º- Identify the desired course
4º- Apply the following rule:

Desired Course ------> Current Course ------> 90 - X

WHERE X IS THE ANGLE BETWEEN DESIRED AND CURRENT COURSE
5º- Once the CDI is almost aligned start turning to the desired course
 RADIAL INTERCEPTIONS
ARRIVALS (Proceeding inbound to the station)
(EXAMPLE)
Airplane whose heading is 060º and radial 250º. Intercept radial for 000º inbound
course DESIRED COURSE CURRENT COURSE 90 – 70 = 20º

COURSE FOR INTERCEPTION

090º
ANGLE OF INTERCEPTION
90º
 RADIAL INTERCEPTIONS
ARRIVALS (Proceeding inbound to the station)
When the angle between desired course and current course more than 90º
1º- Set heading of desired radial
2º- Wait until abeam the station
3º- Count 1 minute
4º- Turn 90º towards the station
5º Wait until intercepting the desired course
6º- Turn 90º again to the same side you did before to intercept inbound
 RADIAL INTERCEPTIONS
ARRIVALS (Proceeding inbound to the station)
(EXAMPLE)
Airplane whose heading is 090º and radial 280º. Intercept radial 180º inbound
DESIRED COURSE CURRENT COURSE

HEADING 180º
AFTER ABEAM STATION 1 MIN
090º UNTIL INTERCEPTION

ANGLE OF INTERCEPTION
90º
 RADIAL INTERCEPTIONS
DEPARTURE (Proceeding outbound from the station)
When the angle between desired course and current course is between 15º and 90º
1º- Rotate the OBS until the CDI is aligned and the indication is TO
2º- What you have at the bottom of the instrument is de Current Course
3º- Identify the desired course
4º- Apply the following rule:

Current Course ------> Desired Course ------> 45º

5º- Once the CDI is almost aligned start turning to the desired course
ANGLE OF INTERCEPTION IS ALWAYS 45º
 RADIAL INTERCEPTIONS
DEPARTURES (Proceeding outbound from the station)
(EXAMPLE)
Airplane whose heading is 070º and radial 280º. Intercept radial 330º outbound
45º

COURSE FOR INTERCEPTION

015º

DESIRED COURSE
CURRENT COURSE
 RADIAL INTERCEPTIONS
DEPARTURE (Proceeding outbound from the station)
When the angle between desired course and current course is lower than 15º
1º- Rotate the OBS until the CDI is aligned and the indication is TO
2º- What you have at the bottom of the instrument is de Current Course
3º- Identify the desired course
4º- Apply the following rule:

Current Course ------> Desired Course ------> Xº

WHERE X IS THE ANGLE BETWEEN DESIRED AND CURRENT COURSE
5º- Once the CDI is almost aligned start turning to the desired course
 RADIAL INTERCEPTIONS
ARRIVALS (Proceeding inbound to the station)
(EXAMPLE)
Airplane whose heading is 030º and radial 060º. Intercept radial for 050º outbound course

10º COURSE FOR INTERCEPTION

070º

DESIRED COURSE
CURRENT COURSE
 RADIAL INTERCEPTIONS
DEPARTURE (Proceeding outbound from the station)
When the angle between desired course and current course more than 90º
1º- Set heading of desired radial
2º- Wait until abeam the station
3º- Turns 45º towards from the station
4º Wait until intercepting the desired course
 RADIAL INTERCEPTIONS
ARRIVALS (Proceeding inbound to the station)
(EXAMPLE)
Airplane whose heading is 030º and radial 180º. Intercept radial for 050º outbound course
DESIRED COURSE

HEADING 060º
ABEAM STATION
TURN HEADING 15º

ANGLE OF INTERCEPTION
45º

CURRENT COURSE