Performance JAR 25

6. CRUISE (I)
CRUISE (I)

 Introduction
 Specific range
 Maximum range cruise
 Long range Cruise
INTRODUCTION
While aircraft performance during takeoff and initial climb is mainly
related to airworthiness requirements, the objective of studying the
cruise performances is decreasing Direct Operative Costs (DOC).
These operative costs include:

• Fixed costs (taxes, insurance…)

• Flight time related costs (crew, maintenance…)
• Fuel-consumption related costs

These DOCs can be minimised by making the right speed and flight
level choices.
INTRODUCTION
Due to compressibility effects of the air, the polar curve of the aircraft
changes at high Mach numbers. This will have a notorious influence
on cruise performance.
SPECIFIC RANGE
The specific range is the distance covered per fuel unit. Therefore, the
SR is:

TAS M · Cs
SR = =
FF FF

In addition, the TSFC (Thrust Specific Fuel Consumption) is the

relationship between the Fuel Flow and the thrust provided with that
FF:

FF
TSFC =
T
SPECIFIC RANGE
Remember that, in straight and level flight, thrust equals drag:

CD
T =D= ·W
CL

Joining together the three previous formulas, we obtain the final one
for the specific range:

 CL 
M   · Cs
 CD 
SR =
TSFC · W
SPECIFIC RANGE
Now we are ready to make some conclusions. SR depends on:

Aerodynamic characteristics of
the aircraft

 CL 
M   · Cs
 CD 
SR =
TSFC · W

Engine performance Weight

SPECIFIC RANGE
If TSFC or weight are increased, the specific range will decrease. On
the contrary, high M (CL / CD) values will determine great specific
ranges.
In the graph below it can be noted how the value of M (C L / CD) changes
at different Mach numbers.

M (CL/CD)

M
MAXIMUM RANGE CRUISE
For a given altitude there is a speed that will give the largest range.
That speed is known as maximum range cruise speed (MMRC). The
advantage of the MMRC is that the fuel consumption for a given distance
is at its minimum. It also corresponds to the maximum distance an
aircraft can fly with a given fuel quantity.

SR

MMRC M
MAXIMUM RANGE CRUISE
MMRC decreases as the weight decreases due to fuel burn-off, at a given
altitude.

PA = constant: Weight ↓ MMRC ↓

MAXIMUM RANGE CRUISE
If we consider a given weight (instead of a given altitude), M MRC
increases as the pressure altitude increases.

W = constant: PA ↑ MMRC ↑
MAXIMUM RANGE CRUISE
On the other hand, for a given speed there is an optimum altitude that
will give the maximum range. This altitude increases as weight
decreases.
MAXIMUM RANGE CRUISE
We have seen different maximum range speeds and altitudes when the
other parameters remain constant. These provide relative maximum
ranges; that is, the maximum range for a specific altitude or Mach
number.

The absolute maximum range can only be achieved at a unique altitude

and Mach number (for a given weight). This range would be a
“maximum of maximums”.

The maximum range is given by the maximum value of M (CL/CD).

MAXIMUM RANGE CRUISE
TEMPERATURE INFLUENCE
Temperature has a negligible effect over range. If the aircraft flies
through a higher temperature area at a constant Mach number, the
thrust levers must be moved forward to compensate the loss of thrust,
thus increasing fuel flow.
But at the same time, that temperature rise increases the TAS,
balancing the equation to keep the SR* constant.

* Remember that SR = TAS / FF.

MAXIMUM RANGE CRUISE
WIND INFLUENCE
If we consider ground SR (GS/FF instead of TAS/FF), wind has
influence over it: tailwind increases SR and headwind decreases it.
In addition, MMRC will also change depending on the wind: increases
with headwind and decreases with tailwind.
MAXIMUM RANGE CRUISE
CENTER OF GRAVITY INFLUENCE
If center of gravity is moved rearwards, drag will be reduced and hence
fuel consumption. Instead of the tail having high negative angles of
attack (fwd CG), it will have low positive ones. This will increase the
specific range.
However, cruise performance charts discard this effect as far as
Maximum Range and Long Range speeds are concerned. The CG
position does not change MMRC.
Low angle of
attack, low drag.

Upwards force to
compensate
positive pitching
moment.

Picture has been exaggerated for better understanding

LONG RANGE CRUISE
MMRC is usually very close to the point of minimum drag. Remember
that below that point the speed becomes unstable. Thus, in practice,
continuous thrust adjustments would have to be done to maintain
MMRC. These adjustments would result in increased fuel consumptions,
so that the maximum range could not be achieved.

Since MMRC is impractical a higher speed was established, known as

long range cruise speed (MLRC). Flying at MLRC sacrifices range in 1%
only, and reduces flight time considerably.

This speed is commonly used if one engine fails during the cruise
phase.
LONG RANGE CRUISE

The 1% loss compared to the maximum specific range is largely compensated by the
cruise speed increase due to the flatness of the curve.
LONG RANGE CRUISE
All factors affecting MMRC also affect MLRC in the same way. To
summarise, we can say that:

FOR A GIVEN WEIGHT:

MLRC increases if pressure altitude increases.

FOR A GIVEN ALTITUDE:

MLRC decreases if weight decreases.

FOR A GIVEN MACH NUMBER:

Optimum altitude increases when weight decreases.
LONG RANGE CRUISE
WIND INFLUENCE:
MLRC increases with headwind, and decreases with tailwind.

TEMPERATURE INFLUENCE:
None.

CENTER OF GRAVITY INFLUENCE:

A position backwards will increase specific range, but change of MLRC
is not considered.
LONG RANGE CRUISE
LONG RANGE CRUISE