 Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION

PRINCIPLES OF FUEL FLIGHT PLANNING

1.1 The basic requirement for a civil transport aeroplane, is that it shall proceed safely from
the aerodrome of departure, to its planned destination and/or alternate(s). It is therefore
necessary for all such aeroplanes to have sufficient power to carry sufficient fuel and/or
payload to fulfill this requirement.

These safety requirements are normally met by the following three calculations, for any
combination of them,

(a) Performance Pre-Flight Planning

(b) Fuel Pre-flight Planning
(c) Payload Planning.

These notes deal purely with fuel Pre-flight Planning (and its associated ATC Flight
Planning) as an essential and integral part of any civil air transport operation.

The space (distance, height and time) required by any aeroplane for any maneouvre,
depends upon its actual weight, and increases as its weight increases. At any particular
time, the instantaneous weight of any aeroplane is equal to : -

Aeroplane Prepared for Service Weight (DOW) + Payload + Fuel

It is therefore necessary to constantly know the instantaneous weight, in order to

accurately calculate the fuel required for each and every planned operation.

1.2 These notes refer specifically to the ICAO recommended fuel requirements, as this
category of aeroplane has the most stringent (restrictive) fuel requirements. Thus for any
other category of aeroplane it will be necessary to check the relevant legislative
requirements.

1.3. These notes refer specifically to the ICAO recommended fuel requirements, where-as any
public transport operator must also operate within : -

(a) State of Registry fuel requirements

(b) Operators own fuel requirements

It any case of difficulty, or doubt, it is normal practice to operate to the most stringent fuel
requirement policy stated.

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DISTANCE

1. Ground distance

The length of the line drawn between any two places. The shortest distance between two places
on the earth’s surface is measured along the great circle passing through both places.

2. Equivalent Still Air Distance (ESAD)

The distance an aircraft has flown over the ground is measured by the product of the True Air
speed (TAS) and the time of flight.

Note : ESAD = GD x TAS

GS

VERTICAL DISTANCE

1. Elevation

The vertical distance of a point or a level, on or affixed to the surface of the earth, measured
from mean sea level.

2. Height

The vertical distance of a level, a point, or an object considered as a point, measured from a
specified datum.

3. Altitude

The vertical distance of a level, a point, or an object considered as a point, measured from Mean
Sea Level. (MSL)

4. Flight level

Is a level, or a surface of constant Atmospheric Pressure, that is related to or measured from a

Specific Pressure Datum of 1013.2 hPa and separated by specific pressure intervals.

5. Pressure height

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A surface of constant atmospheric pressure which is related to a specific pressure datum 1013.2
hectopascals (hPa), and is separated from other such surfaces by specific pressure intervals.

a) When set to QNH altimeter setting, will indicate altitude.

b) When set to QFE altimeter setting, will indicate height above aerodrome elevation based
on local station pressure.
c) When set to a pressure of 1013.2 hPa, may be used to indicate flight level (FL).

QNE QFE QNH

Altimeter setting 29.92 inches Height above aerodrome Altitude above mean sea level,
of mercury/1013.2 elevation (or runway threshold based on local station
hectopascals. elevation), based on local pressure.
station pressure.

PRESSURE HEIGHT HEIGHT ABOVE GROUND ALTITUDE ABOVE MEAN

LEVEL SEA LEVEL

6. Density height

The height in the International Standard Atmosphere, where the Standard Density is the same
as the prevailing Atmospheric Density.

Aeroplane and engine performance depends upon air density. By comparing pressure height
(related to height in the International Standard Atmosphere) with actual temperature, we are able
to establish a measure for density.

FLIGHT LEVELS AND HEMISPHERICAL RULE

Altimetry has two main uses :

(1) to ensure terrain clearance.

(2) to provide vertical separation between aircraft.

When operating close to the ground, QNH is used so that the pilot has direct reference to
obstacle elevations obtained from a map or chart.

The altitude in each country to which QNH is used differs depending on the height of the local
terrain. In the UK, QNH is used up to 3000.feet, while in Katmandu, the mountainous terrain
dictates the use of QNH up to 20,000 feet.

The height to which QNH is used is called the Transitional Altitude. Above the transition altitude,

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Flight Levels are used. The primary hazard at these heights is not terrain clearance, but vertical
separation from other aircraft, hence the use of a common altimeter setting of 1013.2 hPa (ISA
MSL pressure). This ensures that converging aircraft are using the same datum, and thereby
separation is maintained. A Flight Level is denoted by the letters FL or F followed by the
pressure height with the last two zeros deleted. i.e. a pressure height or 27,000 feet would be
written as FL270.

To avoid conflict between aircraft flying at transition altitude, and the lower flight levels, a buffer
zone has been established, in which aircraft are not permitted to cruise. This zone is known as
the Transition Layer.

Selection of flight levels

Above the transition layer, the flight level at which an aircraft may fly is based on the ICAO
semicircular/hemispherical rule. This rule restricts the Flight Levels at which an aircraft may fly
when on a given magnetic track and hence achieve the required separation for both VFR and
IFR aircraft.

3590 3590

IFR EVEN IFR ODD

Thousands Thousands
to to
FL280 then FL290 then VFR EVEN VFR ODD
FL310 FL330 Thousands Thousands
FL350 FL370 Plus 500 Plus 500
FL390 FL410
FL430 etc. FL450 etc.

180 179 180 179

RANGE AND ENDURANCE JET AIRCRAFT

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The range performance of an aircraft is measured in terms of its ability to convert fuel into
distance travelled. By operating the aircraft to maximize range performance less fuel is required
to be carried (lower costs) and greater payloads (higher revenue) are permitted.

Specific range is defined as the distance travelled per unit of fuel burned. Using hourly rates,
specific air range (SAR) is True Airspeed (TAS) divided by Fuel burn per flour (Fuel Flow).

SAR = TAS
FUEL FLOW

The SAR is a measure of aircraft efficiency and depends on engine and airframe efficiency.

FUEL

ENGINE

THRUST

AIRFRAME

TAS

EFFICIENCY OF THE AIRCRAFT (SAR) = TAS

F.F.

EFFICIENCY OF THE ENGINES EFFICIENCY OF THE AIRFRAM

= THRUST X = TAS
F.F. THRUST

Turbojet engine efficiency is measure in terms of Thrust delivered per unit of fuel burned,
whereas airframe efficiency measures how that thrust is converted into distance.
TEMPERATURE DEVIATION

Flight manual performance figures are calculated and tabulated for a band of temperature
deviations. Temperature deviation is the difference between the actual outside air temperature

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and the standard temperature at that height. If the outside temperature is warmer it is given a
plus(+) sign, if the outside temperature is colder it is given a minus (-) sign.

Example:

An aircraft is cruising at FL 330 where the ambient temperature is -45 0 C. What is the
temperature deviation ?

Divide the FL by 10 330 = 33

10
Multiply by 2 33 x 2 = 66

Change the sign -66

Add 15 + 15 – 66 = -51 (standard temperature)

Outside temperature -45 (warmer than the standard temperature)

Deviation = +6

SPEED

From a pilot’s point of view, the two basic speeds are:

1. Indicated Air Speed (lAS)

lAS is a function of the dynamic pressure and the performance of an aircraft depends on
this speed e.g. takeoff speed, stall speed, climb speed, threshold speed etc.

2. True Air Speed (TAS)

TAS is a requirement for navigation and flight planning. The TAS corrected for wind gives
ground speed, ETA, ETI, revised ETA etc.

Expression of Speed

Indicated Air Speed IAS

Calibrated Air Speed CAS – may be termed Rectified Air Speed (RAS)
Equivalent Air Speed EAS
True Air Speed TAS

Corrected for Corrected for Corrected for

instrument error Compressibility density error
IAS & Position errors CAS error EAS
CAS EAS TAS

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MACH NUMBER

Mach Number (M.) is an expression of the ratio of TAS to Local Speed of Sound (LSS)

M = TAS
LSS

The local speed of sound (LSS) is a function of the ambient temperature expressed in kelvins
and can be derived from a computer or from the formula:
LSS(kt) = 38.945 x Absolute Temperature

Where: 38.945 is a constant

O
Absolute Temperature in kelvins is equal to temperature C + 273

Example:

The ambient temperature is ISA –10O C at FL 300. If the aircraft TAS is 500 Kt, at what M is the
aircraft flying ?

ISA temp at FL 300 -45O C

Ambient temperature at FL 300 -55O C
Absolute temperature at FL 300 -55O + 273 = 218K
LSS = 38.945 X 218
38.945 X 14.76 = 575 kt

M = 500 = 0.87
575

TIME

Times or interval times are functions of ESAD distances and true airspeed or ground distances
and ground speed.

TIME = DISTANCE
SPEED

OOO

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