AIRCRAFT PERFORMANCE - GENERAL Page 1 of 14

A/C PERFORMANCE - GENERAL

Basic knowledge of the Performance characteristics pertaining to the aircraft is a must for the Pilots, for
safe operation of a flight. Take off, Landing planning, Flight planning, Fuel planning, Payload calculation,
loading of the aircraft, emergency handling etc, all require the pilot to be aware of the performance limits
of the aircraft. This Chapter aims to give the student an over view of General A/C Performance aspects,
before we go into the “Performance Study” of the specific aircraft in the syllabus for UK CAA examination.

Performance is the capability of aircraft at various stages of its flight. The capability may be in terms of
Weight, Altitude, Speeds, Distances, Gradient / Rate of Climb, Obstacle clearance, Maneuverability or
Range, etc. The take-off weight and the landing weight as per the Performance capability in the existing
Meteorological conditions and the Regulations governing the flight can be maximized with a thorough
knowledge of the Performance of the aircraft. (See Annexure 1, Fig 1)

1. Mandatory Performance
It is the minimum laid down performance to be met by an aircraft for grant of Certificate of Airworthiness
by the appropriate authority. The basic principle governing the minimum standards laid down is that “a
conventional Transport Aircraft (Category ‘A’) shall not have to force-land in case of an engine failure at
any stage of its flight”. Refer Chapter 2 for the definitions of other groups. The Mandatory Performance is
specified in the “Aeroplane Flight Manual”, which forms part of the Certificate of Airworthiness.

2. Operational Performance
It is the performance specified by the manufacturer for the day-to-day operations of the fleet. This is more
conservative than the Mandatory Performance and is described in the
“Flight Crew Operations Manual”. The operational performance data is used for planning purposes.

3. Demonstrated Performance
Demonstrated Performance is the performance recorded during demonstration flights by the
manufacturer for Certificate of Airworthiness.

4. The Mandatory Performance

The Mandatory Performance is specified as
(a) Gross Performance – For certification purpose.
(b) Net Performance – For Obstacle Clearance purpose.

5. Gross Performance
Gross Performance is the average performance expected to be achieved by a fleet of aircraft type.

6. Net Performance
Net Performance is the performance obtained by reducing the gross performance in a specified manner
to allow for the factors that cannot be accounted for, such as:
(a) Variation in Operating techniques/maintenance practices.
(b) Degradation of aircraft performance due to ageing of the fleet.
(c) Deviation of environmental conditions from those assumed.

TERMS ASSOCIATED WITH RUNWAY

7. The following terms describe areas of defined dimensions under the control of appropriate
authority declared as suitable for take-off / landing purposes.
(a) Runway
Runway is a defined area on a land aerodrome prepared for landing and take-off of aircraft.
(b) Stopway
Stopway is a defined rectangular area at the end of take-off run in which an aircraft can be
stopped in the event of an abandoned take-off.
 Width of a stop way is same as that of the runway.
 May not have the same bearing and wearing qualities of Runway
 Co-efficient of friction should not be substantially lower than the Runway
 Intended for infrequent use
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(c) Clearway
Clearway is a defined rectangular area on ground or water over which an aeroplane may make a
portion of its initial climb to a specified screen height.
 Clearway starts at the end of RWY.
 Its length is not more than half the RWY length.
 Its width is not less than 75 m (250 feet) either side of the extended centerline of RWY.
 Obstacles/ground should not project above a plane sloping up from the end of RWY at 1.25
% within the clearway.
 Clearway may include part of Stopway. (See Annexure 1 , Figs 2 and 3)

8. Threshold
Threshold is the beginning of that portion of runway usable for landing. The threshold must be at or after
the line where the ‘ obstacle clearance plane’, intersects the runway. For this reason threshold may be
displaced from the beginning of the runway.

9. Obstacle Clearance Plane

Obstacle Clearance Plane starts along a line perpendicular to the centerline of the runway and sloping up
at 1.2% and tangential to all obstructions or clears all obstructions. The width of the obstacle clearance
plane is:-
(a) 200’ either side of runway centerline from the start of the plane till the end of runway.
(b) Thereafter uniformly increases to 500 ft at 1500’ from the start of the plane.
(c) Thereafter it is 500’ either side of the center line of the plane.

The centerline of the plane follows the take-off paths for take-off and it follows the approach path for
landing.

DECLARED DISTANCES

10. TORA
Take-off Run Available is the length of runway declared as available and suitable for ground run of
aeroplane taking-off. It should have the same load bearing strength along its whole length and width.

TORA = DECLARED RUNWAY LENGTH

11. TODA
Take-off Distance Available is the length of take-off run available plus the length of clearway, if any.
TODA is shorter of
The distance from brake release point to the nearest obstacle capable of affecting the safety of
aircraft
OR
The distance not greater than 1.5 times the length of TORA.

TODA = TORA + CLEARWAY

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12. ASDA / EMDA/EDA

Acceleration Stop Distance Available or the Emergency Distance Available is the length of take-off run
available plus the length of stopway, if any.
ASDA = TORA + STOPWAY or EMDA = TORA + STOPWAY

13. LDA
Landing Distance Available is the length of runway declared available and suitable for the ground run of aeroplane
landing.
LDA = RUNWAY LENGTH (Threshold to end of Runway)

SPEEDS ASSOCIATED WITH TAKE-OFF AND LANDING

14. Minimum Control Speeds

The ability to control the aircraft is most critical when one power unit becomes suddenly inoperative. The
asymmetric thrust produced has to be countered by the rudder force, which depends on rudder deflection
and the speed. The asymmetric force depends on the thrust of the live engine, which depends on
Temperature and Pressure Attitude for a given power setting. Two such min control speeds defined are
(a) Vmcg
(b) Vmca (Also referred to as Vmc)
When one engine is inoperative, unless Vmcg is attained, take-off should not be continued and unless a
speed higher than Vmca (by a specified safety margin) is attained the aircraft should not be lifted off
ground.
Both Vmcg and Vmca are considered at the following settings:-
(a) Thrust = Max T/O Thrust
(a) Wt = Max certificated T/O Wt.
(b) Configuration = T/O Configuration.

15. Vmcg (Minimum Control speed on ground)

Vmcg is defined as the minimum CAS during the take-off run at which, when one engine becomes
suddenly inoperative, it is possible to recover directional control of the aircraft and continue take-off,
(a) Using primary aerodynamic controls (Rudder) alone.
(b) With rudder pedal force not exceeding 150 lbs.
(c) Assuming 7kt cross wind from the inoperative engine side.
(d) Without reducing thrust on live engine.
(e) Undercarriage remaining extended.
Vmcg decreases with increase in ambient temperature for the same Pressure Altitude

16. Vmca (Minimum Control Speed in the air)

Vmca is defined as the minimum CAS at which when one engine becomes suddenly inoperative, it is
possible to maintain directional control of aircraft.
(a) Using primary aerodynamic controls alone.
(b) With rudder pedal force not exceeding 150 lbs.
(c) With bank not exceeding 5 towards the live wing mounted engine.
(d) Directional change not exceeding 20
(e) Without reducing thrust on live engine.
(f) Aeroplane airborne and with negligible ground effect.

Limits of Vmca. Vmca may not exceed 1.20 times Vs, where Vs is the stalling speed for the configuration
stated above (Vmca <= 1.2 Vs).

17. During the take-off when one engine becomes inoperative, depending on, at what stage it takes
place, two possible sequences arise.
(a) Continuation of Take-off
 From standing start the aircraft accelerates on both engines till Velocity Engine failure. (Vef)
 Thereafter, it accelerates on single engine.
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 Rotates at Vr and lifts off at V lift-off (Vlof).

 Accelerates to take-off safety speed (V2)
 Attains a screen height of 35’ within TODA.

(b) Reject Take-off

 From standing start the aircraft accelerates on both engines till
 The speed at which engine fails (Vef), thereafter it accelerates on single engine till
 The engine failure is recognized and action initiated to abandon take-off (at V1 or earlier)
 The aircraft starts decelerating
 And comes to a complete stop within the ASDA.

Take–off Speeds: - The Calibrated Air Speeds V1, Vr and V2 are called the “Take-off Speed”, which are
described in succeeding paragraphs.

18. V2 (Take-off Safety Speed)

Take-off Safety Speed V2 is the CAS that has to be attained by 35’ height during take-off and which
ensures 15  angle of bank manoeuvre capability and specified safety margin in relation to stall and
control of aircraft during the take-off climb on single engine.

19. Limits of V2
(a) Min V2 is higher of (i) and (ii) below.
i. 1.2 x Vs, where Vs is the Stalling Speed with U/C up and Flaps in T/O
Configuration.
ii. 1.1 x Vmca.
(b) Max V2, though not specified is governed by tyre speed limit and the single engine
acceleration capability from lift off to 35’ height.

20. Factors affecting V2

(a) Vs, which in turn depends on
 Aircraft weight (V2 increases with weight)
 Configuration ( V2 is less for higher Flaps)
 CG Position (V2 is more for forward CG )
(b) KVS Factor or V2/VS ratio (Min 1.2 )
(c) 1.1 x Vmca (which in turn depends on P.A and Temperature).
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For example, in our specimen aircraft, If an engine failure occurs after V1 and before V2, the pilot should
normally continue the take-off, achieve and maintain V2 up to flap retraction height. In case engine failure
occurs at a speed in excess of V2 before flap retraction height, then the speed attained at engine failure
is to be maintained till flap retraction height.

21. Vr (Rotation Speed)

The Rotation Speed Vr is the CAS at which rotation is initiated to attain speed V2 by 35’ height.

22. Limits of Vr
(a) Vr shall not be less than
 1.05 x Vmca
 1.10 x Vs
 A speed at which when the aircraft is rotated at maximum rate would result in a Vlof not
less than
i. 1.05 x Vmu for single engine and
ii. 1.10 x Vmu for two engine take-off
(b) Vr may not exceed V2. However, under conditions of high temperature at high P.A., the
Air Speed indicator may over-read due to change in pressure error. This is allowed for by
tabulating higher speed as Vr. In such cases Vr may be found to be 1 Kt or so higher
than V2.

23. Vlof (Lift-off Speed)

It is the speed at which the aircraft will lift off ground when rotated at Vr. The maximum value of Vlof is
governed by Tyre Speed Limit. The minimum value is 1.05 x Vmu.

24. Vmu (Minimum Measured Unstick Speed)

This is the lowest CAS at which it is demonstrated that the aircraft can get airborne, with both engines at
Take-off Thrust, and attain speed V2 by 35 ft. height.
25. Tyre Speed Limit Considerations
At high rolling speed of U/C wheels, the centrifugal force of the tyres may exceed the strength of the tyre.
So, the ground speed of the aircraft on the runway has to be limited. This places a limit on VR and thus
on Take-off Weight and V2.
26. V1 (Decision speed or Critical Engine Failure Recognition Speed)
The Decision Speed V1 is the CAS during take-off run at which it is possible, with the critical engine
inoperative.
(a) To continue take off and achieve V2 by 35 ft height within TODA.
(b) To abandon take off and bring the aircraft to a complete stop within ASDA.

27. Limits of V1
(a) V1 cannot be less than Vmcg (V1 => Vmcg )
(b) V1 cannot exceed Vr (V1 <= Vr)
(c) V1 cannot be selected more than Vmbe (V1 <= Vmbe)

28. Vmbe (Maximum Brake Energy Speed)

Vmbe is the CAS, above which the application of wheel brakes can adversely affect the Brake System.
Vmbe basically depends on weight and ground speed. The ground speed in turn is affected by:
(a) P.A. and Temperature, which affect TAS for a given CAS.
(b) Wind
(c) RWY Slope, which affects deceleration.
(d) Configuration.

29. TODR (Take off Distance Required)

TODR is greater of the following (on a dry runway):-
(a) The distance from standing start to the point the aircraft attains 35 height and speed V2
with
 All engines on take-off thrust till V1 is reached.
 At V1, the Critical engine is inoperative and remaining engines continuing on take off
thrust.
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(b) 115% of the distance from standing start to the point aircraft attains 35’ height and speed
V2 all engines on take off thrust.

30. TORR (Take-off Run Required)

TORR is greater of the following (a) and (b) on a dry runway
(a) The distance from standing start till the mid point (*) between the point of lift off and the
point where the aircraft attains 35 feet height and speed V2 with
i. All engines on the take off thrust till V1 is reached.
ii. Critical engine inoperative at V1 and remaining engines continuing at take off
thrust.
(b) 115% of the distance from standing start to the mid point (*) between point of lift off and
the point where aircraft attains 35’ height and speed V2 with all engines on take of thrust.

(* Some regulatory authorities e.g. BCAR consider ‘⅓rd way’ point instead of midway
point)

31. EMDR (Emergency Distance Required) or ASDR (Acceleration Stop Distance Required)
EMDR or ASDR is the distance required from standing start to complete stop, during a reject takes off
assuming
(a) Aircraft accelerates on all engines till the point of engine failure at T/O thrust and
thereafter with Critical engine inoperative and the remaining engines on T/O thrust.
(b) Engine failure is recognized and action initiated at V1 or before, to abandon T/O.
(c) Then the aircraft retards with all available means of retardation but without the use of
reverse thrust.
(d) Landing Gear remains extended.

32. Take- off Distance Requirements: -

TORR <= TORA ; TODR <= TODA; ASDR <= ASDA
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REGULATIONS

Based on the standards and Recommended practice adopted by the ICAO (refer Annexure 6 &
8), the member states formulate regulations governing International Commercial Transport
Operations. FAR (Federal Aviation Regulations) in USA, JAR (Joint Airworthiness
Requirements) and BCAR (British Airworthiness Requirements) in UK are examples of such
regulations. In India, DGCA is entrusted the authority to grant Certificate of Airworthiness (C of
A) to Transport Aircraft. Since almost all the Commercial Transport aircraft are manufactured
abroad and the “Aeroplane Flight Manuals” are prepared according to the regulation of the
country where they are manufactured, DGCA in principle endorses the Certificate of
Airworthiness granted in the country of origin.

33. Take-off Regulations

As per regulations, take off path is from standing start till the aeroplane reaches 1500’ above
take-off surface. The T/O Path is divided into T/O Distance and T/O Flight Path.

34. Take-off Flight Path Gross Gradient Requirements: -

Thrust Gross Max

Segment Height Configuration (One Eng Speed Climb bank
Inoperative) Gradient Assumed
35’ to T/O Flaps / Max T/O 0%
I 35’ plus Slats, U/C thrust on live V2 (Positive) No Bank
0.3%(3Eng)@ going up engines
T/O Flaps / 15
2.4% 2Eng
II ( 35’ plus to Slats. - do- V2 above
2.7% 3Eng
400’or more) U/C up 50 ft
1.2 % gradient or
Flaps/Slaps
III Level Flight being retracted - do -
equivalent - do -
acceleration
En-
Max
Climbing to Flaps/ Slats en- route
continuous 2Eng 1.2%
IV 1500 feet route climb
thrust on 3Eng 1.4% - do -
configuration. speed
Live Eng.
1.25Vs
AIRCRAFT PERFORMANCE - GENERAL Page 8 of 14

35. Net T/O Flight Path

Net T/O Flight Path is the path along which gradient of climb is 0.8% for two engine and 0.9 %
for three engine aircraft less than gross gradient of climb along take-off Flight Path. The Net T/O
Flight Path must clear all obstructions by 35 ft. vertically and 200 ft / 300 ft horizontally within /
outside aerodrome.

TAKE-OFF PERFORMANCE
36. Maximum take-off Weight

The Maximum take-off weight (MTOW) is governed by: -

(a) Structural Limit Weight
(b) Field Length Limit Weight
(c) Climb Limit Weight
(d) Obstacle Limit Weight
(e) Tyre Speed Limit
(f) Brake Energy Limit
(g) Maximum Landing Weight + Burn off fuel weight.

Factors affecting Field Length Limit Weight (FLW)

37. TODA , TORA and ASDA

38. V2 / Vs Ratio (KVS)

The minimum value of V2 / Vs ratio is 1.2 by regulations. However, if a higher V2 / Vs ratio is maintained
FLW reduces and V1/VR ratio increases.

39. Configuration
For higher flap configuration, the stalling speed is less. Consequently V2 and Vr also reduce. Thus
distance required to accelerate to these lower speeds reduces, (though the increase in drag reduces
acceleration but to a lesser extent). The stopping distance also reduces due to increase in drag. Net
result is that FLW is higher for higher flap configuration.
However when airborne, due to increased drag with higher flap, the climb limit (WAT) weight reduces.

40. R/W Slope

With a down hill slope, the components of gravity helps acceleration, reducing the acceleration distance,
though it also opposes deceleration, increasing stopping distance slightly. The net effect is that ASDR as
well as TODR reduce in down hill slope. Hence FLW is higher in down hill slope and lower in up hill slope.

41. Wind
A headwind component reduces the ground speed for any CAS. Hence, both acceleration distance and
stopping distance reduce. Thus FLW increases with increase in Head Wind Component.

42. P.A. and Temperature

For given take-off speeds, an increase in either P.A. or Temperature result in:

(a) Decrease in thrust increasing acceleration distance.

(b) Increase in ground speed, increasing acceleration distance.
(c) Decrease in drag at various ground speeds during deceleration, thus increasing stopping
distance.
Hence, FLW has to reduce when either P.A. or Temperature increase.
All other factors, such as declared distances, slope, wind and runway condition remaining constant, an
increase in PA will increase the TODR.
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43. Runway Condition

When R/W is wet or contaminated, the FLW reduces due to the following reasons.
(a) The resistance of water to the movement of wheels reduces acceleration.
(b) Water splashing on the landing gear wheels and aircraft surfaces increase drag resulting
in poor acceleration.
(c) The reduction in co-efficient of rolling friction reduces effectiveness of wheel brakes.
Thus both acceleration distance as well as stopping distance is more for wet or contaminated conditions
of runway surface. Hence, FLW as well as V1 have to be reduced, reduction in V1, in turn, adversely
affects obstacle clearance

44. Anti skid inoperative

With anti skid in operative, the manual braking, which is inefficient, increases stopping distance. Hence
with Anti-skid in operative, FLW as well as V1 have to be reduced. Reduction of V1, in turn, adversely
affects obstacle clearance.

45. Low Pressure Tyres

The low-pressure tyres as compared to the standard tyres have more surface area of contact, which
increases friction and corresponding reduction in acceleration. Hence, FLW is lower for LP tyres.

Factors affecting Climb Limit Weight (CLW) or WAT (Weight-Altitude-Temperature) limits

The CLW or WAT limit is the maximum brake release weight with which the climb gradient requirements
of T/O Flight Path can be achieved

46. V2 / Vs Ratio
The CLW increases with V2 / Vs ratio as shown, (due to increase in L/D ratio) till best L/D is achieved.

47. Configuration (see Annexure 1 Fig 13 )

For a given V2 / Vs ratio, the factor CL / CD reduces at higher configuration. Hence climb gradient
reduces. To achieve the required gradient, the CLW has to reduce.

48. PA and Temperature

With increase in either P.A. or temperature the thrust reduces. It is to be noted that, if the PA is increased
by 1000’, the change in Pressure will have greater effect on density as compared to change in
temperature. To achieve the required climb gradient, weight has to reduce proportionally. Thus CLW is
lower at either higher P.A. or higher temperature. All other factors such as take-off weight, configuration
etc, remaining constant, an increase in PA will decrease the second segment climb gradient.

49. FLAPS Selection

From the above it can be seen that FLW and CLW have contradictory requirements of Flaps. Since, T/O
weight has to be limited to lower of FLW and CLW, different flap selections should be checked to get the
maximum take-off weight. General guide is: -
(a) Lower Flap for long declared distances. A lower flap will increase CLW, but decrease
FLW. For longer runway generally a lower flap can increase CLW.
(b) Higher Flap for short declared distances. For short runways, generally, FLW is less than
CLW and selecting a higher flap setting can increase FLW.
Obstacle Limit Weight (O L W )

50. The FLW and CLW ensure adequacy of field length and second segment climb gradient.
However, with the same climb gradient the net T/O flight path may not clear the obstacles on T/O path by
35 feet. In such a case, reducing TODR and / or increasing climb gradient capability can only clear the
obstacle. Increasing V1 and / or decreasing T/O weight can achieve this. Thus we arrive at an obstacle
limit weight.

Though the climb gradient by definition is not affected by wind, the flight path angle increases with
headwind, resulting in better obstacle clearance. Thus, with headwind, the obstacle limit weight
increases.

When obstacle limit weight is less than FLW, improved climb on the lines explained in Para 65 may
improve Max Tow.
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Tyre Speed Limitation

51. Generally, so long as V2/Vs ratio is kept at 1.2, it is ensured that Vlof does not exceed tyre speed
Limit. But whenever V2/Vs ratio is increased for improved climb etc, the Vlof corresponding to the
resulting V2, may exceed the tyre speed limit and hence the improvement will have to be limited by tyre
speed. Thus TOW may be restricted by tyre speed limits, especially in low flap configuration coupled with
down hill slope and/or tailwind conditions as it depends on the ground speed of the aircraft,.

The tyre Speed Limit is higher for a given CAS when density is less. Hence, the tyre speed limit is
reached at a lower Vlof when either P.A. or OAT is more. Thus, the tyre speed limit weight reduces with
increase in either PA or OAT.

Brake Energy Limit

52. For a given ASDA, a higher V1 calls for more braking action, consequently heating the wheel
brakes more. Thus increase in V1 beyond a value (Vmbe) may exceed the Brake Energy Limit, in which
case V1 has to be restricted to Vmbe, and TOW has to be reduced correspondingly.

The braking action is related to Aircraft Weight and ground speed of aircraft. Hence the brake energy limit
is reached at a lower CAS, when OAT, PA, tailwind component are more. Thus Vmbe, reduces with
increase in these. Similarly a downhill slope calls for a lower value of Vmbe, since the component of
acceleration due to gravity has to be compensated by additional braking action for a given ground speed.
A higher flap configuration provides increased drag, which helps braking action and thus increases Vmbe.

Maximum Landing Weight and Burn off fuel

53. Landing weight is the T/O weight minus the weight of burn-off fuel. If this exceeds the maximum
landing weight permissible at the destination aerodrome, the TOW has to be reduced, though it is well
within the other limits for T/O described above.

OPERATIONAL ASPECTS OF DEPARTURE

54. Route and Alternate Airport Limitations

The route should be such that at every point on the route there must be an airport within one hour’s flying
time at normal cruise speed with one engine inoperative for two engine aircraft and within 1 ½ hour for 3
engine aircraft, unless authorized otherwise. When flights are authorized with diversion time to an airfield
more than one hour, the flight comes under Extended Range Operations.

55. Take off Alternate

If the weather conditions at the take off airport are below the Landing minima, there should be an
alternate airport located within one hour’s flying time in still air at normal cruise speed with one engine
inoperative specified in the dispatch and the weather conditions at the specified alternate meet the
minima requirements.
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56. Speed below 10,000’

No aircraft, unless authorized, may operate at more than 250 kt IAS below 10,000 feet.

LANDING PERFORMANCE
57. Landing Regulations
LDR (Landing Distance required) :- LDR is 1.67 times the distance required to land from 50 ft above
the threshold at Vref and come to a stop on a dry level surface (following a steady descent on approach
to 50 ft above threshold, at a descent gradient of not more than 5% at a speed not less than Vref

For dispatch, the expected landing weight of aircraft at destination / alternate should meet the following
requirements.
 LDR should be within the LDA.
 Climb gradient requirements in APP and Landing configuration as described in the next
paragraph.

58. Climb Regulation General

The FAR lays down Climb regulation for various configurations:-
(a) T/O climb (Which was covered under T/o flight path)
(b) Approach Climb (in approach configuration).
(c) Landing Climb (in landing configuration).
The aircraft should be capable of achieving the Climb gradients specified under the following conditions at
altitude corresponding to landing surface.

59. MLW Requirements

The maximum landing weight at an airfield has to meet the following requirements.
(a) During the landing, from a height of 50’ above threshold at a speed of 1.3 Vso (Vref), it
should be possible to land and bring the airplane to a complete stop within 60% of the
LDA.
(b) If required to go round after touch down (Balked landing) with the T/O Thrust available on
both the engines (after 8 seconds of advancement of throttle levers to T/O position), and
aircraft remaining in Landing configuration with landing gear extended, it should be
possible to achieve a climb gradient of 3.2% without speed exceeding 1.3 Vso.
(c) If required to go round during the approach for landing, with one engine inoperative and
the other at T/O thrust and the aircraft in approach configuration corresponding to the
landing configuration (i.e. the Vs in approach configuration selected with U/C up should
not exceed 110% Vs in landing configuration with U/C up), it should be possible to
achieve a gradient of climb of 2.1% for two-engine ac and 2.4% for three-engine ac
without speed exceeding 1.5 Vso (the stalling speed in corresponding landing
configuration, but with U/C up).
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For flight dispatch purpose, the LDR for dry runway to be increased by 15% in case the destination RWY
is expected to be wet. Hence, in such a case, the max landing weight should be so restricted as to ensure
that 1.15 times LDR for dry runway does not exceed LDA.

60. Factors affecting Max Landing Weight (MLW)

Max landing weight is the least of

(a) Structure limit weight
(b) Field limit weight
(c) Climb limit weight
(d) Obstacle limit weight
(e) Brake energy limit weight

Brake energy limit is taken care of by specifying max tailwind component limits during certification. The
factors affecting CLW are same as in the case of take-off. FLW depends on LDA, P.A., Temperature, R/W
condition and configuration. An increase in pressure altitude, ambient temperature will increase the
landing distance required and decrease the WAT limited landing weight. An increase in configuration will
reduce the landing distance required as well as WAT limit weight.

APPROACH AND LANDING SPEEDS

61. Vref (Landing Reference Speed or Target Threshold Speed)

Vref is the target CAS at 50 feet above the threshold in a normal landing. It is equal to 1.3 x Vso where
Vso is the stalling speed in landing configuration (Vref = 1.3 x Vso).

62. Factors affecting Vref

Since Vref is 1.3 times Vs, only weight and configuration affect Vref. Thus Vref is higher for more weight
or lower configuration.

63. Vapp (approach speed)

Vapp is a speed specified for approach for landing. It is more than Vref by a factor of headwind
component and gust, up to a max specified value. A factor of HWC + Gust (total not exceeding 20 Kt) is
added to Vref to obtain the Approach Speed (Vapp). This speed is maintained on approach and gradually
reduced to Vref + Gust by 50’ above the threshold, to avoid the chances of undershooting or sudden high
rate of sink.
Vapp = Vref + (A factor of HWC) + Gust.
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Weights
Landing Weight
The weight of the aeroplane at the time of landing, taking into account the weights of fuel
and oil expected to be used on the flight to the aerodrome at which the landing is to be
effected.

Maximum Take-off Weight (MTOW)

The maximum weight at which take-off is permitted by conditions other than available
performance.

Maximum Landing Weight

It is the maximum weight at which the landing is permitted (other than in an emergency)
by considerations other than available performance.

Maximum Total Weight Authorised (MTWA)

The maximum total weight of the aeroplane and its contents, at which it may take-off
anywhere in the world, in the most favorable circumstances, and in accordance with the C
of A in force at the time.

Maximum Zero Fuel Weight

The weight of the aeroplane, above which all weight, must comprise fuel. The limitation is
determined by the structural airworthiness requirements.

Regulated Take-off Weight (RTOW)

The maximum permitted take-off weight of the aeroplane at the start of the take-off run,
derived by complying with all the requirements of the weight and performance regulations
appropriate to the flight. Often used loosely to indicate a weight, which would satisfy only
one aspect of the regulations, and therefore should always be qualified.

Take-off Weight (TOW)

It is the gross weight of the aeroplane at the start of the take-off run.

Weight, Altitude and Temperature (WAT)

Conditions of aeroplane weight, which, when combined with aeroplane pressure altitude
and temperature, reduce the performance level to the relevant airworthiness minima.
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