ATPL Notes - POF PDF

POF
1 – UNITS OF MEASUREMENT
FUNDAMENTAL SI UNITS VISCOSITY

• Mass – Kg • Measure of the resistance to motion
• Length – m between two layers of the same material.
• Time -‐ s
WING LOADING
DERIVED UNITS
!"#$#%&' !"#$!!
•
• Area – m2 !"#$ !"#$
• Volume – m3
• Velocity – m/s • Unit: N / m2
• Acceleration – m/s2
• Momentum – kg.m/s
• Force – N LOAD FACTOR

• Weight – N !"#$
• Work – J (Joule) •
!"#$!!
• Power – W (Watt)
• Energy -‐ J (Joule)
o Capacity of doing work
o Potential – due to position
o Kinetic – due to motion
• Pressure – Pa (Pascal)
o Bar used in aviation. 1 Bar = 105 Pa
o Static pressure (PS) – Stationary air
exerts pressure in all directions.
o Dynamic pressure (PD) – Moving air is
brought to rest on surface of a body.
o Total Pressure: PT = PS + PD
• Density– kg/m3
• Temperature – 0C / K
POF 2 – THE FLIGHT ENVIRONMENT
THE ATMOSPHERE HUMIDITY & DENSITY

• A region of air surrounding earth up to • Water vapour is less dense than dry air.
approximately 500 miles / 900 km. • Water vapour (ISA MSL) = 0.760 kg/m3
• Higher temperature allows air to hold more • Dry air (ISA MSL) = 1.225 kg/m3
water vapour.
• Air has weight and is also compressible.
• Pressure, density and temperature all
decrease with altitude.
UNIVERSAL GAS LAW

!
• ! !
= 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

• P = Pressure (N/m2)
• 𝜌 = Density (kg/m3)
• T = Temperature (K)

• Only applies to a perfect gas.
PRESSURE & DENSITY

• Density ∞ Pressure
• Pressure doubled then density is doubled.
TEMPERATURE & DENSITY

• Density ∞ 1 / Temperature
• Temperature doubled then density halved.
POF 4 – AIRSPEEDS
INDICATED AND TRUE AIRSPEEDS

• Indicated (IAS) – Shown on the ASI
• Calibrated (CAS / RAS)– IAS corrected for:
o Position error (due to location of pitot
head and static)
o Instrument error (due mechanical
workings of ASI).
• Equivalent (EAS) – CAS corrected for:
o Compressibility Error (airspeeds
greater than 300 kts).
o Not applicable less than 300 kts as air
assumed incompressible.
• True (TAS) – EAS corrected for:
o Density error

• ICE -‐ T
POF 3 – AIRCRAFT COMPONENTS AND TERMINOLOGY
DIHEDRAL VS ANHEDRAL ASPECT RATIO (AR) CAMBERED AEROFOILS

• Dihedral -‐ Upwards • High aspect ratio = Long and thin
• Anhedral – Downwards • Low aspect ratio = Short and stubby
• “Angle between the wing plane and the
horizontal with the aeroplane in an unbanked • AR = Span / CAV
level condition” (Preferable answer)
• AR = Span2 / Wing Area
• “Angle between 0.25 chord line and the lateral
axis” (Next best answer if above not present)
• AR = Wing Area / CAV2
WING AREA TAPER RATIO

• Gross Wing Area – Plan view area of the • CT = Tip Chord
wing including the portion normally cut out • CR = Root Chord
to accommodate the fuselage. • Taper Ratio = CT / CR
• Net Wing Area – Area of the wing excluding
the fuselage portion.
SWEEP ANGLE WING SECTION TERMINOLOGY

WING SPAN & AVERAGE CHORD
• Angle between a line at 25% chord, root • Chord Line – Straight line joining leading
to tip, and a line perpendicular to the
• Wing Span (b) – Straight line distance and trailing edges of wing.
root chord.
between the wing tips. • The Chord – The length of the chord line.

• Average Chord (CAV) – Mathematical • Mean Camber Line – Line equidistant
average of the chord lengths. between the upper and lower surface of an
aerofoil.
• Gross Wing Area (S) = Span (b) x CAV
THICKNESS & MAC

• Thickness of an aerofoil is expressed in %
chord.
• Thickness : Chord ratio is the ratio of
maximum thickness to the chord.

MEAN GEOMETRIC CHORD • Mean Aerodynamic Chord – Chord of a
rectangular wing with same moment and lift
• Mean Geometric Chord = Wing Area / Span
POF 5 – LIFT
PRINCIPLE EQUATION OF CONTINUITY BERNOUILLI’S THEOREM

• “Lift is generated when the flow direction • Only applies to streamlined flow. • When fluid flows at a steady rate through
of a certain mass of air is changed” • Assumes airflow at speeds below M0.4 / a pipe, its total energy remains constant
300 kts where air is incompressible and since energy cannot be created or
density constant. destroyed.
STREAMLINE / LAMINAR AIRFLOW • Total Energy = Potential + Pressure + Kinetic
• The mass of air entering the pipe in a
In terms of pressure (and negating potential)…
given time will equal the mass of air
• Streamline flow exists when succeeding Total Pressure = Static + Dynamic
leaving the pipe in the same time.
molecules follow a steady path. 𝟏
𝑷𝑻 = 𝑷𝑺 + 𝝆 𝒗𝟐
• At any given point, the molecules will 𝟐
Mass Airflow = A1V1 = A2V2 = A3V3
experience the same velocities and
pressure as the preceding molecules. • As total pressure must remains constant, an
• Narrow streamline spacing indicated an increase in velocity means static
increase in velocity. pressure must decrease.
STATIC PRESSURE DIFFERENCE

TURBULENT AIRFLOW
• An aerofoil resembles a venturi either side
• When there is a sharp change in the with a smaller cross section on top
direction of airflow and streamline airflow compared with the bottom.
breaks down. • Velocity decreases more on the top of the
• At any given point, the molecules will wing than on the bottom.
experience different velocities and EFFECT ON VELOCITY • Therefore, static pressure drops more on
pressure compared to the preceding the top of the wing.
molecules. • When cross sectional area reduces, the only • Upwards force of lift created by static
• A.K.A Unsteady / Eddying Flow way for the equation of continuity to hold pressure difference.
• Results in wasted energy. true is if velocity increases.
• Adds drag
DENSITY, PRESS AND TEMP RELATIONSHIP
FREE STREAM AIRFLOW (FSA)
𝐏
= 𝑪𝑶𝑵𝑺𝑻𝑨𝑵𝑻
𝝆 𝑻
• Airflow that is far enough away from an
aircraft to be unaffected by its presence.
POF 5 – LIFT
WING ANGLE OF ATTACK PITCH ANGLE CHORDWISE PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION

• Angle between the relative airflow and • Angle between the longitudinal axis of • Positive Pressure Gradient
the chord line of an aerofoil. the aircraft and the horizontal. o Velocity is increasing and static
• As the AoA increases, the cross sectional • Can have the same AoA but difference pitch pressure getting larger.
area between wing and FSA decreases, angles and vice versa. o Air is accelerated towards the point of
creating a bigger static drop and more lift. max velocity.

• Wing AoA = A/C AoA + Incidence Angle • Adverse Pressure Gradient
DIVIDING STREAMLINE o Velocity decreasing and static pressure
reducing.
AIRCRAFT ANGLE OF ATTACK • Separates the flow going over the top o Air wants to flow towards the point of
from the flow going underneath. max velocity due to pressure diff.
• Angle between the longitudinal axis of • Two stagnation points are created. • Increasing AoA will move point of max
the aircraft and the FSA. • Velocity at these points is zero. velocity forwards towards leading edge.
• A.KA. Angle between the speed vector and • Static pressure is at its maximum which is
longitudinal axis. equal to the total pressure (as total pressure
must remain constant and dynamic = 0).
ANGLE OF INCIDENCE

• Angle between the aircraft longitudinal
axis and the wing chord line.
• This is fixed and will not vary.
• Allows the fuselage to remain level so less
drag is generated. ANGLE OF ATTACK (ASYMETRIC)

UPWASH AND DOWNWASH • -‐40 = No Lift
• 160 = Stall
• Upwash is where the air is deflected
upwards before reaching the wing.
o Due to pressure differential drawing PROPRTION OF LIFT PRODUCTION
the air locally upwards.
• Downwash is always a consequence of • The upper surface of the wing produces the
producing lift. greatest proportion of lift at all speeds.
o Faster moving airflow on top forces
the lower streamlines downwards.
POF 5 – LIFT
CENTRE OF PRESSURE THE AERODYNAMIC CENTRE INDUCED DOWNWASH

• The overall effect of the changes in static • A fixed point on the chord line at approx. • The net effect of the vortices is to deflect
pressure can be shown by the total 25% chord. the relative airflow.
reaction (TR) • At normal AoA’s, around this point the o Deflects downwards at trailing edge
• TR acts through a single point on the chord pitching moment remains constant. o Deflects upwards at leading edge
line called the centre of pressure (CP) • Lift creates a pitch down moment about the • The resulting airflow at the leading edge is
aerodynamic centre. called the effective relative airflow.
• Lift – Component of TR perpendicular to • When used as the point where the • ∝ = 𝐴𝑜𝐴
relative airflow. aerodynamic force is applied, AC helps to • ∝! = Induced AoA
• Drag – Component of TR parallel to relative eliminate problem of CoP varying. • ∝! = Effective AoA
airflow. • ∝! = ∝ − ∝!

• As angle of attack increases (asymmetric):
o CP moves towards leading edge
o TR increases in magnitude
3D AIRFLOW INDUCED DRAG

• Refers to wingtips and the spanwise flow. • As lift remains perpendicular to relative
• Lift and drag forces depend on the pressure airflow, it is tilted aft and reduced in
• Lower surface = Spanwise flow root – tip
distribution about the wing cross section. magnitude as the AoA has decreased due to
• Upper surface = Spanwise flow tip -‐ root
• Due to pressure differential, wingtip the effective relative airflow.
vortices are created (counter-‐rotating). • The additional drag component created is
SYMETRICAL AEROFOIL
• Trailing edge vortices also created when known as induced drag.

• At 0 AoA no lift is produced.
0 lower surface air suddenly meets upper
surface air.
• The CP remains stationary with an increase
in AoA • Both types decrease in strength from tip to
root.
POF 5 – LIFT
DECREASING EFFECTIVE AoA WING SHAPE AND TOTAL LIFT COMPONENTS OF LIFT FORMULA

• Decreases lift • All wing types have a lift decrease from root • Variations in altitude affect the density.
• Increases drag (due induced drag) to tip however. • Variations in TAS affect velocity.
• Increases downwash o Any reduction in wing tip vortices is • S is mainly considered fixed.
offset by reduced area. • CL mainly converts AoA into a usable figure
• As lift is increased, vortices are greater and for the lift equation. Includes most ‘other
the above effects are amplified. factors.’
WING SHAPE AND EFFECTIVE AoA AIRSPEED EFFECT ON LIFT AND TAS

• Rectangular wing produces much large • ASI reading a constant airspeed during a
vortex than a tapered section. climb means that dynamic pressure is
o Wider tip chord allows more air to constant.
flow to upper surface. • Lift is therefore constant (assuming no
o Provides greatest lift at the root change in AoA).
however. LIFT FORMULA • However, density must be reducing with
• Elliptical has a constant effective AoA altitude so velocity (TAS) will have to
o Virtually no tip chord reduced vortices ! ! increase to keep PD constant.
• 𝐿 = ! 𝜌 𝑣 × 𝑆 × 𝐶!
o Too expensive however
• Aerofoil shape and angle of attack amongst
• Double IAS = Lift x4
other factors are all combined to give to CL
• As shape is fixed most changes to CL in flight

will be due to angle of attack.
• CLmax is reached at the critical angle of
attack.
POF 5 – LIFT (FACTORS AFFECT CL)
COMPRESSIBILITY LEADING EDGE RADIUS WHEN CL = 0

• Air Compressible = Lift Reduced • Bigger Nose Radius = More Lift • Symmetrical Wing = No Pitching Moment
• Considering A1 x 𝜌1 x V1 it can be seen that in • Small nose radius can cause the flow to start • Positively Cambered = Pitch Down Moment
the throat, density increases so there will be to separate at the leading edge instead of the • Negatively Cambered = Pitch Up Moment
less of an increase in velocity to keep the trailing edge.
constant.
• Static pressure therefore does not drop as % OF CLMAX
much. REYNOLDS NUMBER
• In straight and level flight at 1.3 VS, the
lift coefficient expressed as a percentage
• Large Reynolds Number = More Lift
CAMBER of CLMAX is…

𝟏 𝟏
• More Camber = More Lift 𝝆 𝟏. 𝟑𝑽𝟐𝑺 𝑺 𝑪𝑳 = 𝝆 𝑽𝟐𝑺 𝑺 𝑪𝑳𝑴𝑨𝑿
• A negative camber provides downforce 𝟐 𝟐

which is used on the elevator.
𝟏. 𝟑𝑽𝟐𝑺 𝑪𝑳 = 𝑽𝟐𝑺 𝑪𝑳𝑴𝑨𝑿

𝟏
ASPECT RATIO 𝑪𝑳 = 𝑪
𝟏. 𝟑𝟐 𝑳𝑴𝑨𝑿

• Higher AR = More Lift = 59 %
• A higher AR reduces the wing tip vortices
and therefore increases lift.
SWEEPBACK

• Higher Sweepback = Less Lift
• Sweepback causes part of the airflow to flow
parallel to the leading edge which does not
produce lift.
• Performs better at high speed however
(compensated at slow speed by HLDs)
POF 6 – DRAG
TOTAL DRAG SKIN FRICTION DRAG INTERFERENCE DRAG

• Parasite Drag (∞ IAS2 ) • Non-‐Slip Layer -‐ At the surface of a wing, • Total drag on an aircraft considered as a
o Form Drag (Fineness Rartio) air particles adhere to it and have zero whole may be greater than the sum of the
o Skin Friction Drag (Boundary Layer) velocity. drags of the individual components.
o Interference Drag (Connections) • As upper layers of air flow over this surface, • Airflow is disturbed where components are
• Induced Drag (∞ 1 / IAS2 ) they are slowed due to the viscosity of air. joined together.
• The reaction to retardation of the airflow is • Mainly occurs between wing and fuselage.
Form and skin friction can also be grouped into known as skin friction and it will try to
‘profile drag’ drag the surface along with the flow.
INDUCED DRAG
• Parasite Drag A.K.A Zero Lift Drag • Boundary Layer – The layer of air between
• Induced Drag A.KA Lift Related Drag the surface and free stream velocity in • Result of wing tip vorticies
which local retardation takes place.
• Boundary layer increases in thickness as 1
FORM DRAG you move rearwards over an aircraft wing. 𝐷! = 𝜌 𝑣 ! 𝑆 𝐶!"
2
𝐶!!
• A.K.A Pressure Drag 𝐶!" =
𝜋 𝐴𝑅
• Due to turbulent airflow
• For the same thickness, a longer object will • As speed increases, CL is reduced (due lower
produce less turbulent airflow. AoA) and hence CDi decreases. Therefore,
• A higher fineness ratio (length to max induced drag decreases with an increase
thickness) will produce less form drag. in velocity. Specifically:
1
• A turbulent boundary layer will create 𝐶!" ∞ !
more skin friction drag than laminar layer. 𝑉
• The change from laminar and turbulent is
the transition point. • Induced drag can be reduced by:
o Tapering
o Wing Tip Modifications
o Washout (Lower AoA at wing tip)
𝑎
𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 =
𝑏 • Induced drag is greatest during takeoff

where there is low airspeed requiring a high
• An increase in AoA will reduce the fineness
AoA.
ratio (b increases and a decreases) and
create more form drag.
POF 6 – DRAG
TOTAL DRAG DRAG AND HLDs LIFT TO DRAG RATIO

1 • Used of HLDs increases drag and reduces • “The needed lift for the minimum drag”
𝐷 = 𝜌 𝑣 ! 𝑆 𝐶!
2 speed. • L / D = CL / CD (when V = VMD)
• With an increased AoA, V2 must decrease to • The most efficient AoA is about 3 / 4
maintain level flight. degrees.
• Flaps allow a lower AoA = > Induced drag • There is only one speed that will give this
decreases but parasite increases. AoA which is VMD
• If AoA is increased from (CL / CD) MAX a
reduction in speed is required to maintain
lift.

• At VMD : Dp = Di
DRAG AND ALTITUDE

• At a higher altitude, you can fly faster for • An normal angles of attack, CL is greater
the same total drag. than CD
• Pressure decreases so velocity increases.
• Shifts total drag curve to the right.
• Only affects D vs TAS as IAS is dynamic
pressure so stays constant.
DRAG AND WEIGHT

• An increase in weight increases drag and
speed.
• For the same AoA, V2 must increase to
maintain level flight.
POF 8 – GROUND EFFECT
KEY FACTS EFFECTS ON TAKEOFF

• Surface restricts the formation of wing tip • Exit ground effect
vortices. • Wing tip vortices increase
• 80% of induced drag is lost during ground • Effective AoA reduced
effect. o Lift decreases
• Takes effect within a wingspans length. o Induced drag increases
• Becomes noticeable within ½ wingspan o Increased downwash = Pitch up
tendency

INDUCED DRAG AND DOWNWASH * Aircraft should carry extra speed on takeoff
in order to counter the decrease in lift when
• When wing tip vortices occur, downwash exiting ground effect.
increases.
• This causes the negative AoA to increase on
the tailplane. EFFECTS ON LANDING
• This creates a pitch up moment.
• Think: As downwash increases, someone • Enter ground effect
sits on the tail. • Wing tip vortices decrease
• Effective AoA increased
o Lift increased
o Induced drag decreased
o Reduced downwash = Pitch down
tendency
POF – STALL
TRANSITION & SEPARATION POINT

• Move forward with increase in AoA and
velocity.
• EA = External Airflow
• BL = Boundary Layer Airflow
STALL SPEED

• The minimum speed at which you’re able to
fly.
!
• 𝑊 = 𝐿 = ! 𝜌 𝑣!! 𝑆 𝐶! !"#
• Increase weight = Increased stall speed
POF 9 – FIXED PITCH PROPELLOR
PURPOSE PROPELLOR BLADE TWIST VELOCITY DIAGRAM

• Convert power output from engine into • Twisted along their length. • Assumes a RH prop is about to descend.
thrust. • Decreasing chord and depth of section • Since TAS is going backwards, we know
from root (hub) to tip. airflows are being represented.
• A constant angle of attack is maintained
DIRECTION OF ROTATION along the blade.

• As seen from cockpit.
• Anti-‐clockwise = Left handed prop
• Clockwise = Right handed prop
PROPELLOR ELEMENTS

FINE VS COARSE PITCH TOTAL REACTION

• Small blade angle = Fine pitch • Prop Torque – Act parallel to the plane of
• Large blade angle = Coarse pitch rotation. Opposes engine toque.
• Thrust – Parallel to direction of flight.
THRUST DISTRIBUTION

TERMS • Same AoA but greater TAS
on tip leads to thrust
• Plane of Rotation – 900 to crankshaft increase from root to tip.
• Blade Angle -‐ Angle between chord line and • Tip vorticies however
plane of rotation. reduce thrust near to tip.
• Angle of Attack – Angle between chord line • Reference pitch is where
and relative airflow. max thrust occurs. This is at
70% of tip radius.
• The most effective area of the prop blade
for producing thrust is 60% -‐ 90%
OPENING THROTTLE TAS DECREASE 4. THRUST BENDING FORCES

• Engine Torque > Prop Torque = RPM Inc • Engine Torque = Prop Torque = RPM Const. • Will try to bend blades forward at the tips.
• TAS remains constant • AoA Increase • Due to thrust loading.
• AoA Increases
5 FORCES ON A PROP 5. TORQUE BENDING FORCES

• Prop blades bent in direction opposite to
1. CENTRIFUGAL TURNING MOMENT their rotation.

• Tendency for blades to turn towards fine
pitch.
• Due to centrifugal force. PROP EFFICIENCY

𝑻𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 𝒙 𝑻𝑨𝑺
CLOSE THROTTLE 2. AERODYNAMIC TURNING MOMENT 𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒑 𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 =
𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒑 𝑻𝒐𝒓𝒒𝒖𝒆 𝒙 𝑹𝑷𝑴

• Engine Torque < Prop Torque = RPM Decr. • Tendency for blades to turn towards coarse 𝑻𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 𝑯𝒐𝒓𝒔𝒆𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓
• TAS remains constant pitch. 𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒑 𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 =
𝑩𝒓𝒂𝒌𝒆 𝑯𝒐𝒓𝒔𝒆𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓
• AoA Decreases • Due to centre of pressure acting ahead of

the torsional axis.
• Most efficient AoA = 3 – 4 degrees
TAS INCREASE • Brake horsepower aka shaft horsepower

• Engine Torque = Prop Torque = RPM Const.
• AoA Decreases

• Since prop torque
now less than
engine torque, RPM
will start to 3. CENTRIFUGAL FORCES
increase.
• High stress on propeller as blades are
pulled out of the hub.
WINDMILLING PROP FIXED PITCH & OPTIMAL AOA

• Engine Lost • During takeoff, a fine pitch is required to
• Engine Torque < Prop Torque = RPM Decr. maintain the optimal AoA.
• TAS Constant • During cruise, a coarse pitch is required to
• AoA decreases and becomes negative maintain the optional AoA.

• P torque now acts in plane of rotation and
assists rotation. POWER ABSORPTION
• Drag opposes motion and has a decelerating
effect. • Ability of a propeller to absorb an
engines power output.
• With a FPP, it is only possible to operate at • Depends on the following factors:
optimal AoA in one stage of flight. o Blade Size
• Coarse setting is normally used on a FPP. o Blade Section (Inc. camber = Better)
o Prevents windmilling prop when o Blade Angle-‐pitch
transition from takeoff to cruise. o Number of Blades (More = Better)
o RPM reduced and TAS increased. o Contra-‐rotating props (overall torque
reduced to more power can be
transferred into RPM)
EFFECTIVE PITCH

• Geometric Pitch is the distance a prop PROPELLER FATIGUE
should theoretically travel using RPM and
• A similar effect can result from significant TAS calculation. • Vibrations in the blade can lead to the
increase in TAS with RPM constant. • Effective Pitch is the distance actually creation of standing wave patterns.
travelled by the prop due to propeller • Can cause metal fatigue.
FEATHERING PROP inefficiencies.
• Slip = Geometric Pitch – Effective Pitch
PROPELLER ICING
• In order to reduce drag from a windmilling
• Helix Angle = Blade Angle – Blade AoA
prop, the prop is set to max coarse setting.
o A.K.A Angle of Advance • More likely to build up on hub due to lower

rotational velocity.
• A windmilling prop has the highest drag.
• A feathered prop has the lowest drag. • Slip ∞ Blade AoA
• Effective Pitch ∞ Helix Angle
PROPELLOR EFFECTS TORQUE REACTION ASYMETRIC BLADE EFFECT (P-‐FACTOR)

• Propellor Slipstream • With a clockwise prop, the airframe will be • Affects taildragger on initial takeoff roll
• Torque Reaction twisted anti-‐clockwise. when the axis of rotation is inclined.
• Gyroscopic Effect • More weight on the left gear leads to more • The downgoing blade produces more
• Asymmetric Blade Effect drag on the left side and a left yaw is thrust.
induced. o Has a faster velocity due to further
• All 4 effects are present on all props during distance to travel.
flight. • A left yawing tendency is induced with a
• On takeoff, tailwheel aircraft experience all clockwise prop.
4 but tricycle aircraft only the first 2. • Effect increases with both an increase in
AoA and RPM.

PROPELLOR SLIPSTREAM • In flight, pitch up = left yaw (RH Prop)
• In flight, pitch down = right yaw (RH Prop)
• A clockwise prop will experience a left yaw.
GYROSCOPIC EFFECT

• Once the tailwheel leaves the ground, a
forward force is applied to top of the prop.
• Precession cause a nose left movement on a
clockwise prop.

POF 9 – VARIABLE PITCH PROP / CONSTANT SPEED PROP
CONTROLS EXAMPLE – TAS INCREASE FEATHER OPERATION

• Throttle = MAP • TAS Increases • A windmilling prop can now be avoided.
• Prop Lever = Blade Angle • AoA Decreases • Blade angle is changed to achieve minimum
• Prop Torque Decreases drag.
• Engine Torque > Prop Torque = RPM Inc • Feather position is normally in a fully back
PURPOSE detent on prop lever.
• Governor gives coarse pitch

• AoA Increases
• The FPP only has an optimal AoA at one
• Prop Torque Increases
stage of flight. PROP REVERSE
• RPM Constant
• A CSP allows the optimal AoA to be
maintained throughout all stages of flight. • A negative angle of attack can be set.
• Reverse position is normally in a fully
forward detent on prop lever (towards fine
GOVERNER / CONSTANT SPEED UNIT
pitch).

• Detects changes in RPM

• Corrects propeller torque (using pitch) to get to
the desired RPM.

• In doing the above, the prop is kept operating at
the most efficient AoA. AOA & GOVERNOR
• Prop torque reverts to original amount (kept
constant) once CSU has acted.
• To determine result of governor, look to see
what happens to AoA. It will change blade
GOVERNER OPERATION angle as required to regain optimal AoA.
• Increased AoA = Finer Pitch
• RPM Increase = Coarser Pitch (Red) • Decreased AoA = Coarse Pitch
• RPM Decrease = Finer Pitch (Blue)
POF 10 – PRIMARY FLYING CONTROLS
OVERVIEW ELEVATORS RUDDER

• Primary = Directly control attitude • Primary Effect: Pitch • Primary Effect: Yaw
• Secondary = Affect lift, drag and stick forces • Secondary Effect: None • Secondary Effect: Roll (To same side)

• Force applied to the CoG = translation • The tailplane consists of a stabiliser and • Deflection left = Right force = Left Yaw
• Force applied outside of CoG = moment elevator. • Deflection right = Left force = Right Yaw
• Tailplane provides a default downforce to
counter the pitch down moment resulting • With a left yaw, the relative airflow over the
AIRCRAFT AXES from lift at the wings. right wing increases.
• CC Rearwards = Elevators Up = Increased o More lift on right wing causes a roll to
• Positive direction determined by pointing negative AoA = Increased downforce the left.
thumb in direction of axes. The fingers curl causing a pitch uo (around CoG).
in the positive direction. • CC Forwards = Elevators Down = Reduced • Provides the directional control.
negative AoA = Decreased downforce
causing a pitch down (around CoG).

STABILATOR

• An all-‐moving tailplane
• Same pitch angle can be achieved using less
deflection.
• Less form drag produced
• Ideally suited to military (high-‐speed)
AILERONS
• Hydraulic power required to move it is very
large however.

• If asked about what influences lateral • Primary Effect: Roll
control it is aileron movement about the • Secondary Effect: Adverse Yaw
longitudinal axis. VARIABLE INCIDENCE TAILPLANE
• Roll generated by increasing lift on one wing

and decreasing it on the other.
• Most common in commercial aircraft.
• Outboard ailerons used for slow flight. Max
• Compromise between tailplane and stabilator.
moment is generated.
• Trimming the stabilator streamlines elevator
• Inboard ailerons used for high speed flight.
changes, reducing trim drag.
Less m oment required at faster speeds.
• Jam at high IAS requires higher landing speed.
• Roll rate increases with altitude due to less
• Less sensitive to flutter.
aerodynamic damping.
ADVERSE AILERON YAW ELEVONS

• Frize / Differential Ailerons
• Increase in lift on upgoing wing gives o Combination • Combined elevator and ailerons
greater wing tip vorticies. This leads to o Upgoing wing deflected less • Symmetrical Deflection = Elevator
more induced drag. o Downgoing wing exposed • Asymmetrical Deflection = Aileron
• The downgoing wing experiences less o Less form drag generated on
induced drag. downgoing wing -‐-‐> more efficiency.
• There are a few different methods of
reducing the effects to adverse aileron yaw.

• Frise Ailerons
o Leading edge of the aileron on the
downgoing wing is exposed beneath
the wing. • Rudder Coupled Ailerons
o Extra form drag is created to balance o Rudder deflected automatically to
that induced on the upgoing wing. provide a coordinated turn.
CANARDS

COMBINED SURFACES
• Normally, the pitch down moment due to lift
is countered by a downforce on tailplane.
RUDDERVATORS o This force essentially acts as weight
• Differential Ailerons and increases drag.
o Upgoing wing is deflected less to less • Combined rudder and tailplane. • Canards are positioned forward of the CoG
induced drag is created. and balance the pitch down with a lift force.
• Symmetrical Deflection = Elevator
o Downgoing wing is deflected more to o This is much more efficient
• Asymmetrical Deflection = Rudder
increase form drag.
o By doing so, the drag on both sides is
equalised.
INSET HINGE
AERODYNAMIC BALANCE

• Hinge line brought nearer to CoP.
AERODYNAMIC BALANCE • Hinge moment reduced => Overall
decrease in stick forces.
• A hinge moment is produced when a • Must not move hinge line behind CoP or
control surface is deflected.
reverse controls will occur.
• This acts to oppose the pilots input.
BALANCE TAB
• If the hinge moment becomes too great, we

need to reduce it in order to allow for easier
HORN BALANCE • Acts in the opposite direction of control
deflection and lighter stick forces.
surface deflection.
• Aerodynamic balance is about managing
• Horn deflected into the airflow assists the • Reduces stick forces
stick forces for reversible controls.
intended deflection. • Decreases control surface effectiveness
o Irreversible controls are those in FBW
• Hinge moment reduced => Overall (less area used to generate lift)
aircraft where stick force do not
matter.

• Options for aerodynamically balancing:

o Inset Hinge ANTI -‐ BALANCE TAB
INTERNAL BALANCE
o Horn Balance

o Internal Balance • Acts in the same direction of control
• Hinge balance panel divides the control
o Balance Tab surface deflection.
surface into two vented components.
o Anti-‐Balance Tab • Increases stick forces
• Consider a elevator deflected up.
o Servo Tab • Increases control surface effectiveness
o Lower pressure on bottom goes into
o Spring Servo Tab
lower compartment. • Used when needed to prevent over control
o As pressure acts high to low, the hinge
assists with the intended deflection.
• Hinge moment reduced => Overall
SERVO TAB (PILOT CONTROLLED) FLUTTER AND MASS BALANCING POWERED FLYING CONTROLS

• The servo tab is deflected initially which
leads to deflection of the main control FLUTTER POWERED FLYING CONTROLS
surface.
• Easier to deflect a small surface so overall • Small variations in AoA cause the CoP to • AKA “Irreversible Controls”
stick forces are reduced. constantly move either side of the wings o No feedback from control surfaces to
• Overall control surface effectiveness is centre of gravity. the stick so stick forces cannot become
reduced. • Aeroelastic resistance will oppose the directly reversed.
o At slow airspeeds, airflow passing over moment created by Tr acting through CoP
servo is insufficient to produce • Component 1 – Control Input System
required hinge movement. 1. Pitch down moment created o EG/ Stick or yoke
• Servo tab acts in opposite direction in 2. Aeroelastic resistance acts with a slight lag
control surface. but then prevents moment as required. • Component 2 – Power Control Unit
• If the elevator becomes jammed, reduced 3. When CoP switches side, the aeroelastic o EG/ Hydraulic Actuator
inverted controls are possible. resistance still lags and there is now a
resultant pitch up moment. • Component 3 – Artificial Feel System
o Spring type is good for low speed
• As the CoP keeps switching sides, the o Q Feel Unit is good for high speed
aeroelastic resistance amplifies the
moment and flutter results.
• Prevented by installing a mass balance to
ensure CoP always stays the same side of
SPRING SERVO TAB (PILOT CONTROLLED) control surfaces CoG.
• Not required on hydraulically powered
• Effectiveness increased a low speeds flight controls as the computers can prevent
compared with the others. flutter. o Spring hydraulic Q feel unit is good for
• At low speeds, servo and control surface act both.
as one piece o Here, the difference in pressure is used
o Spring tension prevents tab movement to control pressure in a hydraulic
• At high speeds, servo is allowed to move and actuator which in turns creates
provides the necessary aerodynamic artificial stick forces.
assistance.

POF 11 – SECONDARY FLYING CONTROLS
TRIMING CONTROL SURFACES FIXED TRIM TAB STICK STABILITY

TRIMING PRINCIPLE • Used to correct for slipstream on rudder or • Following trimming, stick stability remains
low wing tendency for example. unchanged.

• Reduce stick forces to zero • Cannot be changed in flight.

• Unlike aerodynamic balance which is
managing stick forces. STABILISER TRIM

TRIM TAB • Variable Incidence Tailplane / All Moving
Tailplane
• Used on reversible controls including power • Used on irreversible flight controls
assisted controls. • Two main effects:
• Completely controlled by the pilot (unlike o Reduced trim drag
balance tabs)
o Relieve loads on power control unit
• Deflected in opposite sense to the control
surface. • Deflecting the moving tailplane down
o Trim Wheel Back = Pitch Up Trim = Trib increases the down force allowing the
Tab Down elevator to produce less force.
• Trim tab creates a hinge moment which exactly • To pitch for trim up, move the tailplane
balances the hinge moment produced by a down (think align surfaces)
control surface. • Trim runaway more likely.
• Due to the larger arm, a smaller force from the • When trimmed:
trim tab is required. o Power Assisted = Depends
• Deflecting the trim tab to full nose up will o Fully Powered = Zero Deflection
decrease the nose up pitch authority.
• Trim tab only moves when trim wheel is moved.
• Trim tabs are not required on hydraulically
powered flight controls.
SPOLIERS CLMAX AUGMENTATION DEVICES EFFECT ON CD & CL

• Trailing edge flaps allow you to fly slower
PURPOSE TRAILING EDGE FLAPS for the same lift.
o This applies to all CLMAX augmentation
• Reduce CL • Increase effective angle of attack devices.
• Increase CD • Increase camber
• Camber + Effective AoA Effect: • At the same IAS and maintaining level
o CL increases flight, CL remains constant.
OPERATION MODES o CLMAX increases => VS Decreases o Although CL increases initially, to
• Additional Effective AoA Effect: maintain level flight the AoA must be
• Speedbrakes o Critical angle of attack decreases reduced.
o Operated symmetrically during flight since it is now harder for air to flow o With IAS constant, dynamic pressure is
o Increase ROD and descent gradient smoothly over the surface. constant so CL must remain constant in
• Roll Spoliers the lift equation.
o Used asymmetrically during flight
o Operated automatically by a spoiler • CD increases
mix unit o CD p (parasite) increases
o Decrease CL and increase CD on the o CD i (induced) decreases due to lower
downgoing wing AoA
• Ground Spoliers / Lift Dumpers
o Symmetrically with max deployment
o Deployed automatically by air /
ground logic system (WoW + Idle EFFECT ON ATTITUDE
throttle)
• As flaps are deployed, the max camber
• Due to increase in parasite drag, VMD will moves aft.
decrease when spoilers are deployed. • CoP moves back

• Pitch down moment increases

FLAP TYPES

• Plain Flap
o Datum Flap
o Changes camber and AoA
• Split Flap
o Higher Critical AoA
o Higher Drag
o Produces better lift at high AoA due to
reduced boundary separation.
• Slotted Flap
o Re-‐energises the boundary layer
• Fowler Flap
o Increases surface
• Slotted Fowler Flap
o Increases surface + re-‐energises the
boundary layer
POF – TRANSPORT CATEGORY HIGH LIFT DEVICES
SUMMARY OF CLMAX DEVICES

POF$13$–$FORCES$IN$STEADY$STRAIGHT$&$LEVEL$FLIGHT$
“STEADY$STRAIGHT$&$LEVEL”$ LOAD$FACTOR$ SPECIFIC$RANGE$(JET)$

# # $
• Steady$–$Non#Accelerated$ • Load#Factor#=#Lift#/#Weight$ !"# !
!"!(!"#$) = ! !×! $
• Straight$–#Flying#in#a#straight#line$ • In#S#&#L#flight,#the#load$factor$is$1$$ !"!"#!!"#$%&"' !"#
• Level$–#Wings#level$ $
$
SPECIFIC$RANGE$(JET)$
FORCE$DIAGRAM$ $
# !"# !
L$=$W$(+$DL)$ !"!(!"#) = ! !×! $
!"#$ !"#
T$=$D$ $
$
$
$
TRIM$DRAG$
# #######################
• The# download# from# the# tailplane# acts# as#
extra#weight.#
• Extra# weight# means# more# lift# required# and#
hence#more#induced#drag.#
• This# extra# induced# drag# is# known# as# trim$
drag.$
• Increases$as$CoG$moves$forward$
$
• Canards$allow#for#zero#trim#drag.$
POF 13 – FORCES IN STEADY STRAIGHT & LEVEL FLIGHT

BEST ENDURANCE

• The best endurance of an aircraft is found
when the fuel consumption is least.
• For a Jet aircraft, this is at VMD
• For a piston aircraft, this is at VMP
BEST SPECIFIC RANGE

• The best specific range of an aircraft is a
function of the aerodynamic efficiency.
• For a jet aircraft, this is achieved with the
best TAS/DRAG ratio.
• For a piston aircraft, this is achieved with
the best TAS/Power Req ratio.
• These speeds can be found via the tangent
through the origin.
CURVES

• Note that the Best SR speed is always
greater than the best endurance speed.

POF 14 -‐ CLIMBING
FORCES IN A CLIMB MAX CLIMB GRADIENT (VX) MAX RATE OF CLIMB (VY)

• It can be seen that the m ax climb gradient is • TAS in a climb can be broken down into ROC and
obtained when T – D is at it’s largest value. Groundspeed.
• Max climb gradient is therefore dependent on • Resolving the ROC component, it can be seen
excess thrust. that:

• Jet = VMD 𝑷𝑨 − 𝑷𝑹
𝑹𝑶𝑪 =
• Prop ~ VMP 𝑾

• Jet curve is constant due ram recovery. • Depends on excess power.
• Prop curve constant initially as blade angle • Note that V Y is always greater than V X
increases then decreases when it can no longer
compensate and AoA reduces.
LOAD FACTOR

• It can be seen that the load factor in a climb is
less than 1.
• Therefore, lift is less than weight.
CLIMB GRADIENT

𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝐶𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑏 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 % = × 100
𝐻𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

𝐶𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑏 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 % = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 × 100

At small angles: 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃

𝐶𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑏 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 % = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 × 100

𝑻−𝑫
𝑪𝒍𝒊𝒎𝒃 𝑮𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒕 % = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑾
POF 14 -‐ CLIMBING
VX / VY CEILINGS

• A snapshot taken 5 minutes after departure • Absolute Ceiling – When ROC = 0
shows that VX is preferable when obstacle • Service Ceiling – Altitude at which you have a
clearance is required. given ROC.
o Basically a safety margin from absolute
o Normally 100 fpm in prop
o Normally 500 fpm in jet
FACTORS AFFECTING CLIMB PERFORMANCE

• “Climb Performance” refers to climb
gradient and ROC.
o Performance is independent of the climb
angle. A320 and C152 can have the same
climb angle but very different
performance!
• Altitude
o Increase in altitude reduces the ROC and
Gradient.
o Thrust reduces and drag stays constant.
• Weight
o Increase decreases ROC and Gradient
• Wind
o Headwind increases climb gradient
o Tailwind decreases climb gradient
o No effect of rate of climb
POF 14 -‐ DESCENDING

FORCES IN A DESCENT MAX RATE OF DESCENT

• TAS in a climb can be broken down into ROD
and Groundspeed.
• Resolving the ROD component, it can be seen
that:

𝑷𝑹 − 𝑷𝑨
𝑹𝑶𝑫 =
𝑾

• Depends on excess power.
LOAD FACTOR GLIDE RATIO

• It can be seen that the load factor in a descent • Best glide ratio occurs when L/D is max.
is less than 1. • This occurs at VMD which gives the optimal angle
• Therefore, lift is less than weight. of attack.

𝑳 𝑹𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆
𝑮𝒍𝒊𝒅𝒆 𝑹𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐 = =
DESCENT GRADIENT 𝑫 𝑰𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝑯𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕

• It can be seen the descent gradient depends on
excess drag (D – T) BEST RANGE SPEED VS ENDURANCE SPEED

𝑫−𝑻
𝑫𝒆𝒔𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝑮𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒕 % = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎 • Like the climb, the endurance speed is always
𝑾 less than the s peed for best range.

• This occurs at the highest possible speed with
flaps, spoilers etc extended if possible (since it
gives max parasite drag) Wind AoA Speed
Glide Ratio Changes Incr. Weight Flaps
Head Tail é ê > VMD < VMD
Range
-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐ ê é
(Distance Travelled)
ê ê ê
Endurance
ê -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐
(Time In Air)

POF 16 -‐ TURNING
FORCES IN A TURN STALL SPEED IN A TURN EFFECT OF MASS ON TURN RADIUS

• If flying at the critical angle of attack and we • Increasing mass will have no effect on the turn
enter a turn, lift must be increased to maintain radius as it is independent of mass.
constant altitude.
• If CLMAX cannot be increased any further, the only • When considering the minimum turn radius
way of achieving the required additional lift is however, the radius will increase with an
by increasing the stall speed VS increase in mass.
1 • This occurs since the minimum radius is
𝑊 = ↑ 𝐿 = 𝜌 ↑ 𝑣 2𝑠 ∙ 𝑆 ∙ 𝐶!"#$
2 achieved when TAS is smallest => at VS
• Since, VS increases with an increases in mass
• The stall speed in a turn can be calculated from: however, the minimum turn radius will
increase.
LOAD FACTOR
1

𝑉! !"#$ = 𝑉! !"#"! × ! 𝑣!!
• In order to turn, lift is deflected from the vertical cos 𝜓 𝑟!"# =
so there is a horizontal component 𝑔 × tan 𝜓
(centripetal force) that results in a turn.
• In doing so however, a vertical component of the TURN RADIUS
lift that was balancing the weight has been OVERBANKING AND UNDERBANKING
removed. • Once the horizontal component of lift has been
• In order to maintain altitude, an increase in displaced into the turn, an equal and opposite • In a turn at constant altitude, there is a
lift is therefore required. force is required to prevent further acceleration tendency to overbank since the outside wing
and allow a constant radius turn. travels at a faster speed, thus producing more
• Since lift is greater than weight, the load factor • Therefore, to achieve a constant radius turn, lift.
in a turn is greater than 1. centripetal force must be equal to the • In a climbing turn, there is tendency to
• This can be seen from balancing the vertical centrifugal force. overbank.
component of the forces to give: 𝑇𝐴𝑆 ! • In a descending turn, there is tendency to
𝑟= underbank.
𝑔 × tan 𝜓
𝐿 cos 𝜓 = 𝑊
• g = 10 m/s2
𝐿 1 • To convert kts à m/s, divide by 2
=
𝑊 cos 𝜓
POF 17 -‐ STALLING
CRITICAL ANGLE OF ATTACK HLDs & STALL SPEED WING SECTION & STALLING CHARACTERISTICS

• At the critical angle of attack: • Increases CLMAX => V S decreases to maintain • A small leading edge radius = abrupt stall
o Lift = W eight the same amount of lift. • A big leading edge radius = smooth stall
o CL is maximum
• After the critical angle of attack: • Aft positions of max camber and thickness will
o CL reduces and drag increases. POWER & STALL SPEED also lead to a more abrupt stall (i.e. Flaps)
o Lift can no longer pay for weight and the
aircraft is stalled. • Increased Power = Decreased Stall Speed
o When at criticial AoA with power on, a
component of weight is being supported by
STALL SPEED DEFINITION thrust.
o Since lift required to maintain level flight is
• The minimum CAS at which the aircraft is now decreased, the stall speed can be
controllable. decreased.
!
o ↓ 𝑊 = ↓ 𝐿 = 𝜌 ↓ 𝑣!! 𝑆 𝐶!"#$
!

WEIGHT AND STALL SPEED
• Increasing power also increases the critical

angle of attack.
• As weight is increased, more lift is required. If
o Boundary layer is re-‐energised CP P OSITION
at CLMAX it cannot be increased any further so VS

must increase.
! • CP normally moves forward with increasing
o 𝑊 = 𝐿 = 𝜌 ↑ 𝑣!! 𝑠 𝐶!"#$ angles of attack.
! MANOEUVERS & STALL SPEED
• Up to and above the critical angle of attack,
𝑊! • “Maneouver” = Load Factor (n) > 1 => Turn CP moves after to approx. 50% chord.
𝑉!! = 𝑉!! × ! • If lift required increases at critical angle of
𝑊!
attack, stall speed m ust increase.
!
o 𝑊 = 𝐿 = 𝜌 ↑ 𝑣!! 𝑠 𝐶!"#$
!
CG POSITION & STALL SPEED
𝑛!
• As the CoG moves forward, VS increases. 𝑉!! = 𝑉!! × !
𝑛!
• Has the same effect as increasing weight since
more downforce is required
3D STALL EFFECT OF P LANFORM WING FENCES

• For sweptback wings, a portion of the relative
STALL REGOGNITION (BUFFET) airflow will flow along the top of the wing
towards the tip.
• If the wing planform results in the wing stalling • This opposes the natural tip-‐root flow on the
from root – to – tip, buffet provides an indication upper surface which will reduce wing tip
of impending stall. vorticies and increase the effective angle of
• The separation point moves forward and attack at the wing tip.
turbulent airflow flows back over the • Therefore, wing fences are installed to prevent
elevators producing buffet. opposition to the tip – root airflow.
EFFECT OF P LANFORM

• Rectangular Wing (Good Behaviour)
o Stalls root-‐to-‐tip
o CP moves aft
o Good controllability
o Good pre-‐stall warning (buffet)
TIP STALL ALLEVIATION
• Elliptical Wing (Poor Behaviour) VORTEX GENERATORS
o Whole wing stalls at once
TIP STALL ALLEVIATION
o CP moves aft • Vortex generators re-‐energise the boundary

o Poor controllability layer close to the wing tips.
• For planforms where the tip stalls first, various
o Less pre-‐stall warning (buffet)
methods can be used to alleviate this problem.

• Unmodified Tappered (Worst Behaviour)
o Stalls tip -‐ root WASHOUT
o CP moves aft
o Poor controllability
• Wing is twisted so the root has a higher angle
o No pre-‐stall warning (buffet) of attack.

• This results in the root reaching critical angle of
• Unmodified Sweepback attack before the tip.
o Same as tapered b ut CP moves forward!
o This decreases the pitch down m oment so a
pitch
u p
t endency
at the stall results.
o This is very bad for stall recovery!
STALL WARNING TYPES OF STALL TYPES OF SPIN
AERODYNAMIC WARNINGS SUPER STALL / DEEP STALL INCIPIENT SPIN (ASYMETRIC STALL)

• Buffet & stick shaking • Occurs when a pitch up moment occurs at the • Occurs when there is wing drop at the stall.
• Only noticeable on reversible controls stall. • The effect of the wing drop will be for the angle
• Impossible to recover from. of attack to increase further on the dropped
wing due to upgoing airflow and decrease on the
STALL WARNING DEVICES • A high unmodified swept back wing has a upgoing wing.
pitch up moment due to the CP moving forward. • As a result, the downgoing wing becomes more
• Stall Warning Vane • A T-‐Tail aircraft has a pitch up moment since stalled and the upgoing wing less stalled.
o Based on the movement of the stagnation airflow is disturbed over the bottom of the • This induces a rolling moment towards the
point causing the vane to be lifted when tailplane thus reducing the pitch down moment downgoing wing.
close to the critical angle of attack. normally produced.

ACCELERATED STALL / G-‐STALL

• Stall Strip
o Causes a premature separation at the root, • Occurs at load factors > 1 • Recovery is achieved by:
thus giving an earlier buffet. • This results in a higher stall speed and o Neutral Controls
therefore an accelerated stall. o Rudder is direction of higher wing
• Stall Angle of Attack Sensor
o Warns when near critical angle of attack • Ailerons cannot be used as they will intensify
STALL RECOVERY TECHNIQUE the rolling m oment.
• Stick Shaker • Yaw is used to firstly stop the rotation.
o Activates when the speed reaches 1.05 VS or • Neutral Controls • The secondary effect of yaw is roll that will act
VS + 5 kts • Increase P ower to level the wings.

• Slowly Pitch-‐Up
• Stick P usher • Failure to correct the incipient spin can lead to
o Physically prevents exceeding a given angle
the fully developed spin.
of attack
FULLY DEVELOPED SPIN

• If the incipient spin if left uncorrected, the
aircraft will eventually settle in a rotation about
a spin axis with a steady rate of rotation and
sink.
• The balance between the aerodynamic force
moment and the centrifugal force moment will
determine whether the spin is steep or flat.
• If the aerodynamic force moment is greater than
the centrifugal moment = Steep Spin
• If the centrifugal moment is greater than the
aerodynamic force m oment = Flat Spin

• Effect of CG

o Forward CG = Steep Spin (Good)
o Aft CG = Flat Spin (Bad)

• Effect of Power
o Low Wing Engine = Flatter Spin
o High Wing Engine = Steeper Spin

• Recovery Technique
o Neutral Controls
o Reduce Power Slightly (Low W ing Engine)
o Rudder in direction of higher wing
POF 18 -‐ STABILITY
WHAT IS STABILITY? TYPES OF STABILITY DYNAMIC STABILITY

• The built-‐in tendency of an airplane to return to • Static Stability – The aircraft’s first reaction • Positive Dynamic Stability
its trimmed condition. • Dynamic Stability – Reaction with time o Static stability creates an overshoot which
is sensed as another disturbance.
• The ‘trimmed condition’ refers to: o A further static stability reaction occurs
o Attitude STATIC STABILITY o Over time, static stability causes the
o Stick Forces disturbance to reduce.
o Speed • Positive Static Stability / Statically Stable • Neutral Dynamic Stability
o First reaction tries to return object to its o Disturbance remains the same over time
• Stability is the opposite of controllability original position. • Negative Dynamic Stability
o Disturbance amplified over time
• Neutral Static Stability
DISTURBANCE o There is no first reaction • + ve Static Stability allows for:
o Positive, Neutral or Negative Dynamic Stab
• A disturbance is anything that tries to take the • Negative Static Stability / Statically Unstable • Neutral Static Stability allows for:
aircraft out of its trim condition. o First reaction causes further deviation o Neutral Dynamic Stability
• Disturbance can b e due to: • -‐ve Static Stability allows for:
o Change in airflow o Negative Dynamic Stability
o Pilot Input

STABILITY AXIS

• Longitudinal stability can be observed by sitting
on the lateral axis etc
LONGITUDINAL STABILITY CG POSITION CP P OSITION

• Since moment is the force x distance from CG, it • CP forward o f CG = De-‐stabilising Effect
LONGITUDINAL STABILITY can be seen a change in the CG position will • CP aft of CG = Stabilising Effect
affect the tailplane moment more since it is
• About the lateral axis further from the CG.
• Responsible Structure: Horizontal Stabiliser • Forward CG = Increased Stability
o Arm increased => Tailplane moment
• In straight and level flight, pitch down moment increased
from wings and pitch up moment from tailplane • Aft CG = Decreased Stability
balance. o Arm decreased => Tailplane moment
• When displaced into a positive attitude, the decreased
wing angle of attack increases and the tailplane
angle of attack reduces. • Neutral P oint TAILPLANE DESIGN
• Wing pitch down moment increases and o The CG position resulting in neutral static
tailplane pitch up moment decreases. stability • Any factor which leads to an increase in the
• Net effect is a pitch down moment to restore o This the aerodynamic centre of the aircraft horizontal stabiliser moment will increase
aircraft to its trimmed condition. o Stability can also be referenced to the stability.
neutral point
• Stability therefore increases with:
• Static Margin o Increased negative camber
o Distance of CG from neutral point o Increased thickness
o Increased area
• + ve Static Margin = Stable o More negative incidence angle
• Longitudinal Dihedral • -‐ ve Static Margin = Unstable o Sweepback (Increases arm. Small
o Difference between the angles of incidence tailplanes however may result in a bigger
of the wing and tailplane. • Typically the CG varies between 10% -‐ 30% of decrease in lift than gain in arm)
o This results in longitudinal stability. the MAC and so is always on the stable side.

POWER

• High Wing Mounted = Stabilising Effect
• Low Wing Mounted = Destabilising Effect
ALTITUDE

• Increased Altitude -‐> Decreased Aerodynamic
Damping -‐> Decreased Stability
STABILITY GRAPH ELEVATOR POSITION STICK FORCE STABILITY

• Considering the curve A for example: • When the elevator is deflected, the stability
o When the AoA is increased, the stability curve is shifted. TYPES OF STABILITY
reaction is a pitch down m oment.
o Therefore, positive stability exists. • Assume moments originally balance at zero • Stick Free Stability
degrees of AoA. o Hands-‐Off
• A = Stable • Upwards elevator deflection will cause o Only applies to reversible controls
• B = Unstable downforce on tail to increase and lift from wing
• C = Neutral to increase as well. • Stick Fixed Stability
• The tailplane AoA gradually reduces as the pitch o Hands-‐On
• Steeper negative gradient = more stable attitude increases and thus the downforce from o Greater stick deflection required = greater
• Steeper positive gradient = more unstable tail begins to gradually reduce. stability
• Eventually, the pitch down moment from tail
equals the pitch up moment from wing and a
new ‘stable AoA’ is achieved. CONTROL FORCE STABILITY GRAPH
• If the new AoA is 5 degrees, the graph intercept
now occurs at 5 degrees instead of zero. • At the trimmed condition, the stick is neutral
and elevator deflection is zero.
• With an increase in speed, a pitch down is
LONGITUDINAL DYANMIC STABILITY required to maintain level flight.
• With unstable stick stability, the opposite is
• Long Period Oscillation (Phugoid / 1st Mode) true.
o Occurs over 20 – 100 seconds
o Caused by horizontal disturbance in speed
(headwind / tailwind gust)
o Results in an airspeed change
o No change in angle of attack

• Short Period Oscillation (2nd Mode)
o Occurs over 1 – 2 seconds
o Caused by vertical disturbance in airflow
(upgust / down gust)
o AoA changes
o No change in airspeed
o Pitch damper required to prevent pilot
induced oscillations
STICK FORCE GRADEINT MANEOUVER (LOAD FACTOR) STABILTY DIRECTIONAL STATIC STABILITY

• When speed is increased above the trim speed, • With increasing load factor, stick forces increase
an increasing push force on controls is required => Always positive gradient on curve. DIRECTIONAL STATIC STABILITY
(and vice-‐versa) • Steeper gradient (more stable) occurs when CG
• This increase should be a max of 1 lb per 6 kts is moved forward. • Axis: Normal (Yaw)
• Shallower gradient (less stable) occurs with • Main Structure Responsible: Vertical Stabiliser
increasing altitude as the aerodynamic damping
STICK FORCES AND CG reduces. • The vertical stabiliser will always to align the
aircraft with the relative airflow.
• As the CG is moved forward (decreasing MAC %)
the stability increases so more stick forces are
required.
• At the neutral point, the stick forces required
are zero.
• Aft of the neutral point, stick force instability
exists
SIDESLIP
• Manoeuvre Point
o The CG position along the longitudinal axis • Sideslip is used to describe the direction of the
that results in neutral stick force stability. initial disturbance.
o X-‐axis on the above graph • If the relative airflow is from the right, the
o Always further aft than the neutral point aircraft has positive sideslip.
• Therefore, if aircraft yaws left (negative yaw) it
is described as having positive sideslip.

INCREASING MANEOUVRE STABILTY

• Spring
o Speed and load factor insensitive

• Bobweight
o Speed and load factor sensitive
o With increasing load factors, weight of
bobweight increases.
DIRECTIONAL STABILITY GRAPH WING SWEEPBACK LATERAL STATIC STABILITY

• With a positive sideslip, there is more airflow
across the right wing, FUSELAGE & NACELLES
• Increased drag on the right wing results in a
tendency to yaw into wind. • Axis: Longitudinal (Roll)
• Therefore, wing sweepback has a stabilising • Main Structure Responsible: Wings
effect
• Angle of attack increased on the downgoing
wing due to airflow from below.
• Angle of attack decreased on the upgoing wing
due to airflow from above.
• Restoring moment produced
CG POSITION

• Forward CG increases the lever arm and
therefore has a stabilising effect.
• Aft CG has a destabilising effect.
FUSELAGE & NACELLES

TAILPLANE DESIGN • Disturbs airflow over the tailplane reducing the
moment from the tailplane.
• Profile – Stability increases with: • Therefore has a destabilising effect
o Increasing camber
o Increasing thickness SIDESLIP

o Increasing area
o Increasing sweepback • Sideslip is used to represent the disturbance.
• Elliptical Tailplane • A positive sideslip (RAF from the right) exists
o More efficient => greater force when the aircraft is turning to the right,
• Dorsal Fin
o Increases directional and static lateral
stability (greater surface area)
• Ventral Fin
o Increases directional static stability
o Decreases lateral static stability
LATERAL STABILITY GRAPH HIGH WING WING SWEEPBACK

• High wing has an intense stabilising effect • Sweepback has a stabilising effect
• Lift acts as a pivot and the CG is displaced to one • Like with directional stability, there is more
side resulting in a pendulous effect airflow across the wing in the direction of the
turn.
• This time however, we consider more lift is
produced on the downgoing wing as a result.
POWER (MULTI-‐ENGINE PROP)

• Power has a de-‐stabilising effect
• With high power settings, more airflow occurs
over the wind behind the props.
• Since total lift is still the same, the distribution
ANHEDRAL / DIHEDRAL HIGH VERTICAL FIN changes and there is less lift at the tips but more
in the centre of the wing.
• With dihedral, the wing itself has a positive • High vertical fin has a stabilising affect due to • Dihedral effect is reduced
angle of attack to the relative airflow. the weathercock tendency
• Dihedral has a stabilising effect

• With anhedral, the wing itself has a negative VENTRAL / DORSAL FIN
angle of attack to the relative airflow.
• Dihedral has a destabilising effect • Dorsal Fin is on the upper surface
o Stabiliising effect
o Acts as a higher vertical fin

HIGH LIFT DEVICES
• Ventral Fin is on the lower surface
o Destabilising effect
• De-‐stabilising effect
o More surface area on bottom induces a
• Again, lift is distributed more towards the root
further roll moment
and the dihedral effect is reduced.

LATERAL & DIRECTIONAL DYNAMIC

SPEED STABILITY
STABILITY
DIRECTIONAL VS LATERAL STABILITY SPEED STABILITY

• Considering a sideslip from the right…. • When speed less than VMD (as in V1), a decrease
in speed increase the drag. Increased drag
• Directional stability wants to yaw the aircraft further slows the speed and an unstable
right into the wind condition exits.
• Lateral stability wants to roll the aircraft left to • When speed greater than VMD (as in V2), a
wings level decrease in speed decreases drag and aircraft
speed increases back to original. A stable
• The balance between directional and lateral condition exists.
stability determines the dynamic stability
SPIRAL INSTABILITY (APERIODIC)

• Directional Stability > Lateral Stability
• Mainly caused by a disturbance in roll
DUTH ROLL (OSCILLATORY)

• Lateral Stability > Directional Stability
• Mainly cause by a disturbance in yaw
• Can result from asymmetric engine failure
• Yaw damper is mandatory is aircraft subject to
dutch roll
POF 19 – ASYMMETRIC FLIGHT
CONSEQUENCES CRITICAL ENGINE (PROP) CRITICAL ENGINE (JET)

• There are two main consequences to • The critical engine is the “worst engine that • The critical engine in a jet depends on the
asymmetric flight: could fail” position of the wind.
o Altitude Loss • If both props are clockwise rotating, the left • The critical engine is the outboard engine on
o Yawing Moment prop will b e the critical engine. the side of the wind.
o Asymmetric blade effect means the thrust
is produced on the side of the prop. • With a wind from the right, the aircraft will
o Loosing the left prop results in a greater naturally have a yaw right tendency.
ALTITUDE LOSS yawing moment from the right prop as the • Loosing the outboard right engine removes the
arm from thrust to CG is greatest. biggest counteracting m oment.

CORRECTIVE ACTION

• Thrust set to MCT
• Angle of attack set (up to 50) in order to achieve
the driftdown speed
• Driftdown to the level off altitude
YAWING MOMENT
• If both props are counter-‐clockwise rotating, the
PROPELLOR SLIPSTREAM
right prop will be the critical engine.

CORRECTIVE ACTION • With counter rotating props there is no critical
• Wing on the side of the live engine will produce
engine.
more lift.
• Rudder used to correct yaw

• Can also apply bank up to 50 towards the side of
the live engine • Roll towards the dead
engine is induced adding to
the yawing moment.
CG POSITION AND YAWING MOMENT

• Aft CG reduces the lever arm and the ability for
the rudder to counter the yawing moment is WEIGHT
reduced.
• Increased weight = increased yawing moment
POF 19 – ASYMMETRIC FLIGHT
MIN CONTROL SPEEDS

• VMCG – Min Control Speed On Ground
o Max deviation from centerline: 30 ft
o Must be possible without NWS

• VMCA – Min Control Speed In Air

• VMCL – Min Control Speed During Landing
o Minimum roll rate of 20 degrees towards
the live engine in not more than 5 secs

• Increased Altitude (VMCG & VMCA)
o Decrease with an increase in altitude
o Since these speeds occurs with max thrust
and thrust decreases with altitude, the
minimum control speed will be lower.

• Increased Altitude (VMCL)
o No change with altitude
o This speeds occurs at flight idle which is not
affected by altitude
POF 21 – ICE & FROST
ICE ICE VS FROST EFFECT ON TAKEOFF

• Forms on the leading edge (due to presence of • Ice is more severe • Reduction in CL requires a greater takeoff speed
the stagnation point) which increases the takeoff run.
• Aerofoil Shape – Changes • The higher takeoff speed increases drag,
resulting in less excess thrust and a reduced
climb gradient.

EFFECT ON LANDING

• Reduction in CL and increased drag results in an
FROST excessive sink rate.
• Higher landing speed required increases the
• Forms over the whole wing landing distance required.
• Aerofoil Shape – No Change
• Increases skin friction drag EFFECT ON HLDs • Unrecoverable pitch down moment due to
• Most common when aircraft is parked ice on tailplane stalling possible
• Ice reduced the ability of HLDs to re-‐energise o In the landing phase, the tailplane is at
the boundary layer. high angles of attack due to downwash
• CLMAX augmentation reduced from 20 – 50% to 5 from the HLDs.
– 10% o Ice on the tailplane can cause it to stall
o Loss of downforce causes pitch down
moment
EFFECT ON STALL WARNING DEVICES

EFFECT OF ICE & FROST
• The stall warning system is calibrated to VS
• Overall decrease in CL without ice and frost present.
• CLMAX decreases • Since ice and frost increase VS, a stall can occur
• Critical AoA decreases before the SWS activates.

• As a result of the above, VS increases

• With frost, the additional weight further
increases VS
POF 21 – ADVERSE WEATHER

WINDSHEAR UPDRAUGHTS / DOWNDRAUGHTS

• AoA Changes
DEFINTION • Speed always decreases

• Any sudden change in wind velocity and / or
direction with: WINDSHEAR INDICATIONS
o Altitude (Vertical Windshear)
o Horizontal Distance (Horizontal Windshear) • IAS ± 15 kts
• V/S ± 500 fpm
GUST
MICROBURST EFFECTS
• Vertical Gust
o AoA – Changes 1. Energy Gain (Gust)
o Speed -‐ Constant 2. Energy Loss (Downdraught)
3. Energy Loss (Loss of headwind)
• Horizontal Gust
o AoA – Constant
o Speed -‐ Changes
HORIZONTAL GUST & LOAD FACTOR

• A horizontal headwind gust momentarily
increases the IAS. Since the AoA is constant, lift
increases and the load factor exceeds 1.
• On an ILS, a headwind will cause you to fall
below the glidepath whilst a headwind gust will
result in flying above the glidepath.
POF – FLIGHT ENVELOPE
LOAD FACTORS DESIGN SPEEDS GUST LOAD FACTOR (GLF)

DUL VS DLL V S -‐ STALL SPEED GUST LOAD FACTOR

• Design Limit Load (DLL) • First speed where lift equals weight (load factor 𝐶! (!"#)
o Max load the structure can endure without equal to 1) 𝑁(!"#) = 𝑁(!"#) ×
𝐶! (!"#)
permanent deformation.

𝑉(!"#) ∆ 𝑁(!"#)
• Design Ultimate Load (DUL) V A -‐ DESIGN MANOEVRE SPEED =
o Max load the structure can ensure without 𝑉(!"#) ∆ 𝑁(!"#)

failure.
• Max speed where full sudden deflection of
𝑉(!"#) = 𝑉(!"#) × √𝑁
elevators does not result in a load factor greater
• DUL = DLL x 1.5 (Safety Factor) than DLL.

• The aircraft stalls before reaching DLL FACTORS AFFECTING GLF
DLL LIMITS

• Transport Category: + 2.5 à -‐ 1 𝑊!"#
𝑉! (!"#) = 𝑉! (!"#) × !
• Transport (Flaps Ext): +2 à -‐1 𝑊!"#
• Normal Category: +3.8 à -‐1.52
• Utility Category: + 4.4 à -‐ 1.76
• Aerobatic Category: + 6 à -‐ 3 VB – MAX GUST INTENSITY

• Must ensure a gust of ± 66 fps at 20,000 ft
FLIGHT ENVELOPE

VC – DESIGN CRUISE SPEED

• Must be at least 43 kts greater than VB
• Max of 0.8 VD
VD – DESIGN DIVE SPEED


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POF

1 – UNITS OF MEASUREMENT

FUNDAMENTAL SI UNITS VISCOSITY

THE ATMOSPHERE HUMIDITY & DENSITY

UNIVERSAL GAS LAW

PRESSURE & DENSITY

TEMPERATURE & DENSITY

INDICATED AND TRUE AIRSPEEDS

DIHEDRAL VS ANHEDRAL ASPECT RATIO (AR) CAMBERED AEROFOILS

WING AREA TAPER RATIO

PRINCIPLE EQUATION OF CONTINUITY BERNOUILLI’S THEOREM

STATIC PRESSURE DIFFERENCE

WING ANGLE OF ATTACK PITCH ANGLE CHORDWISE PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION

CENTRE OF PRESSURE THE AERODYNAMIC CENTRE INDUCED DOWNWASH

3D AIRFLOW INDUCED DRAG

COMPRESSIBILITY LEADING EDGE RADIUS WHEN CL = 0

TOTAL DRAG SKIN FRICTION DRAG INTERFERENCE DRAG

TOTAL DRAG DRAG AND HLDs LIFT TO DRAG RATIO

DRAG AND ALTITUDE

DRAG AND WEIGHT

KEY FACTS EFFECTS ON TAKEOFF

TRANSITION & SEPARATION POINT

PURPOSE PROPELLOR BLADE TWIST VELOCITY DIAGRAM

FINE VS COARSE PITCH TOTAL REACTION

OPENING THROTTLE TAS DECREASE 4. THRUST BENDING FORCES

5 FORCES ON A PROP 5. TORQUE BENDING FORCES

WINDMILLING PROP FIXED PITCH & OPTIMAL AOA

PROPELLOR EFFECTS TORQUE REACTION ASYMETRIC BLADE EFFECT (P-­‐FACTOR)

CONTROLS EXAMPLE – TAS INCREASE FEATHER OPERATION

OVERVIEW ELEVATORS RUDDER

ADVERSE AILERON YAW ELEVONS

• Options for aerodynamically balancing:

TRIMING CONTROL SURFACES FIXED TRIM TAB STICK STABILITY

SPOLIERS CLMAX AUGMENTATION DEVICES EFFECT ON CD & CL

SUMMARY OF CLMAX DEVICES

“STEADY$STRAIGHT$&$LEVEL”$ LOAD$FACTOR$ SPECIFIC$RANGE$(JET)$

BEST SPECIFIC RANGE

VX / VY CEILINGS

FACTORS AFFECTING CLIMB PERFORMANCE

LOAD FACTOR GLIDE RATIO

3D STALL EFFECT OF P LANFORM WING FENCES

EFFECT OF P LANFORM

STALL WARNING TYPES OF STALL TYPES OF SPIN

ACCELERATED STALL / G-­‐STALL

FULLY DEVELOPED SPIN

• Effect of CG

WHAT IS STABILITY? TYPES OF STABILITY DYNAMIC STABILITY

LONGITUDINAL STABILITY CG POSITION CP P OSITION

STABILITY GRAPH ELEVATOR POSITION STICK FORCE STABILITY

DIRECTIONAL STABILITY GRAPH WING SWEEPBACK LATERAL STATIC STABILITY

LATERAL STABILITY GRAPH HIGH WING WING SWEEPBACK

POWER (MULTI-­‐ENGINE PROP)

LATERAL & DIRECTIONAL DYNAMIC

DIRECTIONAL VS LATERAL STABILITY SPEED STABILITY

SPIRAL INSTABILITY (APERIODIC)

DUTH ROLL (OSCILLATORY)

CONSEQUENCES CRITICAL ENGINE (PROP) CRITICAL ENGINE (JET)

MIN CONTROL SPEEDS

ICE ICE VS FROST EFFECT ON TAKEOFF

EFFECT ON STALL WARNING DEVICES

HORIZONTAL GUST & LOAD FACTOR

LOAD FACTORS DESIGN SPEEDS GUST LOAD FACTOR (GLF)

VD – DESIGN DIVE SPEED

PROPELLOR EFFECTS TORQUE REACTION ASYMETRIC BLADE EFFECT (P-‐FACTOR)

ACCELERATED STALL / G-‐STALL

POWER (MULTI-‐ENGINE PROP)