REPRODUCTION

CHAPTER 4
 KEYWORDS
English Malay
Asexual reproduction Pembiakan aseks
Menstruation
Fertilisation
Pollination
Sexual reproduction Pembiakan seks
Puberty
Sterility
Germination
Sexual & Asexual Reproduction
Reproductio
n Devide to

Asexual Sexual
Such as

•Binary fission
•Budding
•Spore formation
•Vegetative reproduction
•Regeneration
 Binary Fission
• A parent cell reproduce asexually by dividing
itself into two new offspring
• Each two daughter cells in an exact copy of it
parent and will divide again when fully grown
• Example: Amoebae
 Binary Fission
1 2

Amoebae Nucleus

3 4
 Budding
• A parent body reproduces asexually by
forming which will eventually break off
• Each bud becomes a new individual
• Each bud becomes an adult & reproduces
again
• Example: Hydra
 Budding

Bud
 Spore Formation
• Fungi, mosses, liverworts & fern reproduce asexually
by producing spores
 Vegetative Reproduction
• Through vegetative parts which can grow into
new offspring
• Example:
– Bryophyllum- reproduce by their leaves
– Carrot- reproduce by tap root

potato
 Regeneration
• Parent body breaks into pieces
• Each of the pieces can grow into a new
individual
• Example: starfish

Broken part
 Sexual Reproduction
• Involves both a male &
a female organism
• The male produce
sperms or spermatozoa
• The female produce
eggs or ova/ ovum
• Sperm & egg called
gametes
Two gametes fuse to form a zygote

Embryo
 Fertilisation
• A sperm & an egg fuse to form zygote
• The zygote through to form an embryo
• 2 type of fertilisation:
– External fertilisation
– Internal fertilisation
 External fertilisation
• Fetilisation occurs outside the body of a male
organism
 Internal fertilisation
• Fertilisation occurs inside the body of female
organism
 Male Reproductive System
• The function is to produce male gametes- sperms
• The main male reproductive organs include:
– Testis- produce sperms
– Penis
– Scrotum
– Urethra
– Sperm duct
– Prostate gland- produce liquid rich with nutrient
for the sperms
Male Reproductive System
 Female Reproduction System
• The function is to produce female gametes-
ovum
• The main female reproductive organs include:
– Ovary- produce ovum
– Uterus
– Fallopian tube
– Vagina- receives sperm from the penis
– Cervix
Female Reproduction System
 Male Gametes (sperm)
head
• Produced by the testes nucleus
• Has 3 section:
– Head
– Neck
neck
– Tail tail
• Can swim
• Carry genetic information
from the male parent in their
nuclei
 Female gametes (ovum)
• Produced in ovary
Cell membrane
• Spherical in shape and the
largest cell in the female body
• One ovum released once in
about 28 days
• Move by peristalsis from ovary
to the uterus nucleus cytoplasm
• Carry genetic information from
the female parent
 Changes in male during puberty
• The early stage of maturity- physical and spiritual
• Experience the following changes:
– Growth of moustache and beard
– Enlargement of bones and muscles
– Growth of pubic and armpit hair
– Voice becomes hoarse
– Testis begin to produce sperm
– Begin to release semen
 Changes in female during puberty
• The early stage of maturity- physical and
spiritual
• Experience the following changes:
– Enlargement of breast and buttocks
– Accumulation of fats under the skin
– Growth of pubic and armpit hair
– Begin to produce ovum
– Begins to menstruate
 The Menstrual Cycle
• Lasts for about 28 days
• The menstrual process normally lasts 3-5 days
• Calculated from the first day of menstruation
to the beginning of the following menstruation
• Ovulation- an ovum will released by one ovary
and will enter the Fallopian tube every 28 days
• If the ovum is not fertilised, it will die after
24-36 hours
The Menstrual Cycle
 Fertilisation And Pregnancy
• During copulation, millions of sperms are transferred
to the vagina.
• Sperms in the vagina then swim through the cervix
and up the fallopian tube.
• If there is an egg in the fallopian tube, the sperms will
gather around the egg.
• Only the head of one sperm will enter the egg to fuse
with its nucleus, forming a fertilised egg cell or
zygote, through a process called fertilisation.
 Fertilisation The nucleus of the
successful sperm fuses
with the egg nucleus

egg

sperm

The egg membrane stop

other sperms from
entering the egg
 Implantation and Pregnancy
• After fertilisation, the zygote divides repeatedly to
form an embryo as it travels along the fallopian tube
towards the uterus.
• When the embryo reaches the uterus, it attaches itself
to the thickened lining of the uterus wall. This is
called implantation.
• The female with the implanted embryo is now
pregnant.
• The implanted embryo gets its supply of nutrients and
oxygen from its mother through a structure called the
placenta.
• Waste products, including carbon dioxide, released
by the embryo also pass through the placenta.
Growth of the foetus in the uterus
umbilical cord

cervix
foetus
6 weeks 10 weeks
placenta

5 months 9 months
• The growing embryo takes about nine weeks to
develop into a foetus with all the major organs
• The foetus obtains nutrients and oxygen from the
mother's blood through an umbilical cord while
waste materials, such as urea and carbon dioxide,
pass along the same umbilical cord into the mother's
blood.
• About nine months after fertilisation, the developed
foetus rotates its body until the head points towards
the cervix.
• The cervix dilates to allow the head and body to pass
through. The umbilical cord is cut when the baby is
born.
 Importance of Prenatal Care
• To ensures the good
health of the expectant
mother and the healthy
development of the
unborn child.
• A pregnant woman
should take more protein,
calcium, iron and
vitamins
Diet for pregnant women
Diet for pregnant women
• A balanced diet with plenty of fresh fruits and
vegetables, as well as enough vitamins and
minerals, is important for the expectant mother
and her foetus.
• The expectant mother should not smoke or
drink alcohol or take harmful drugs.
• Cigarette smoke, alcohol and harmful drugs
affect the healthy development of the foetus.
• It is essential for pregnant women to visit their
doctors for regular check-ups
 Harmful Substances

cigarette alcohol

ecstacy heroin
 RESEARCH IN HUMAN
REPRODUCTION
1. Sterility
• Sterility is the inability to reproduce. Both males and
females can be sterile.
Sterility in a male Sterility in a female
•Absence of sperm •Failure to ovulate
•Low sperm count •Blocked fallopian
•Abnormal sperms tubes
•Impotence/Erectile •Damaged cervix
dysfunction •Antibodies against
•Antibodies against sperms sperms
 RESEARCH IN HUMAN
REPRODUCTION
In Vitro Fertilisation (lVF)
• In-vitro fertilisation is fertilisation that occurs
outside the female body.
• The fertilised egg divides and develops into an
embryo.
• The embryo is then implanted into the wall of
the uterus of a female where it develops into a
foetus.
 RESEARCH IN HUMAN
REPRODUCTION
2. Birth Control
• Birth control allows married couples to decide
whether they would want to have children.
• It also allows them to choose the number of children
and the time to have them.
• Contraception prevents married women from getting
pregnant.
• The method used, by males or females, depends on
their religious beliefs, their social background and
their preference.
• Depends on whether the married couple would like to
have children in future.
• Methods used in birth control are:
– Natural method
– Barrier method (condom, diaphragm or cap)
– Mechanical method (IUCD)
– Hormonal method (contraceptive pills)
– Chemical method (spermicide)
– Surgical method (vasectomy and ligation)
 Birth Control Method
Natural method

Hormonal
Barrier method method
Diaphragm

Condom
Chemical Mechanical
method method (IUD)
 SEXUAL REPRODUCTIVE
SYSTEM OF FLOWERING PLANTS
• Flowers are the reproductive structures of flowering
plants.
• Contain the reproductive organs which produce the
male and female sex cells or gametes.
• Male gametes are found in pollen grains produced in
the anthers.
• Female gametes are egg cells contained in the ovules.
• Flowers made up of similar parts such as:
(a) Sepal
Sepals protect the flower while in the bud stage.
(b) Petal
Petals are often coloured and scented. Many have
sugary nectar at their base.
(c) Stamen
Male parts of the flower.
Made up of the anther where the pollen
grains are made, and the filament which is a stalk
which holds the anther.
(d) Pistil
Female parts of the flower.
Consists of a stigma, a style and an ovary.
Inside the ovary are the ovules- contains an egg
cell.
Parts of flower
Analysing sexual reproduction in plant
 POLLINATION
• Pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from the
anther to the stigma.
• Two types of pollination:
– self-pollination
– cross-pollination.
• In self-pollination, pollen grains are transferred from
the anther to the stigma of the same flower, or to the
stigma of another flower on the same plant
• In cross-pollination, pollen grains are transferred
from the anther of a flower of one plant to the stigma
of a flower of another plant of the same species
Self Polination
Cross Pollination
 Agents of pollination
• Three pollination agents:
– Animal/ insect
– Wind
Agents of pollination

Animal/ insect

Wind
Agents of pollination
The Advantages of Cross-pollination
• Often better and healthier than their parent plants.
• Produced great variety of new plants with different
characteristics
• In agriculture, farmers use cross-pollination to
produce better and higher yielding crops.
– produced new varieties of oil palm that produce
more fruits, survive better under bad weather and
are more resistant to attacks from diseases.
– produced many hybrids of orchids.
New variety of orchid

New variety of oil palm

 Development of Fruit and
Seeds in Plants
• Pollination transfers pollen grains to the stigma.
• A male gamete is found in the nucleus of each pollen
grain.
• When a pollen grain lands on the stigma, it sticks to
the sugary substance on the surface of the stigma.
• The pollen grain starts to grow a pollen tube.
• The nucleus inside the pollen grain divides to produce
two male gametes.
• The pollen tube grows down through the style to the
micropyle of an ovule.
Growth of the pollen tube
 Fertilisation in plants
Pollen grain Stigma

Pollen tube

Style

Ovary
Female gamet
Ovule
Male gamet
Micropyle
• In the ovule, one male gamete fuses with the female
gamete.
• This fusion of the male and female gametes is
fertilisation.
• A male nucleus of the first pollen tube to reach the egg
nucleus fertilises it.
• In an ovary which has more than one ovule, each egg
nucleus fuses with one male nucleus.
• The fertilised egg grows into the embryo which will
become the new plant.
• The ovule forms the seed with the embryo inside it. The
ovary forms the fruit with the seeds inside it
A mango flower grows into a
mango fruit
 GERMINATION OF SEEDS
• A seed is a product of a fertilised ovule.
• Inside the seed is the plant embryo which develops
following fertilisation.
• The seed- contains a store of food for the embryo, is
covered by testa or seed coat.
– stored in a thick, fleshy, wing-like structure called the
cotyledon.
• The seed of the broad bean has two cotyledons -
dicotyledonous seeds.
• The maize seed stores food in the endosperm and has
only one cotyledon - monocotyledonous seeds.
The structure of the seed
Functions of the different parts of seed
Seed Germination
Seed Germination
Physical Changes of Seedlings During
Germination
• Germination is the process in which the
embryo in a seed begins to grow.
• When a seed germinates, the embryo first
grows a new root called the radicle and then a
new shoot called the plumule.
• As the embryo grows, the cotyledon gets
smaller and smaller.
• This is because the stored food in the
cotyledon is gradually used up by the growing
embryo.
• The young plant starts making its own food
when new leaves begin to grow on its shoot.
• Seeds will only germinate when the conditions
are right (water, air, temperature)
 Vegetative Reproductionin
Flowering Plant
• Most flowering plants can also reproduce
asexually from their roots, stems or leaves.
• This type of asexual reproduction in plants is
known as vegetative reproduction or
vegetative propagation.
• Flowering plants which reproduce vegetatively
are often classified according to the vegetative
parts such as roots, stems and leaves
 Vegetative parts and example
Vegetative parts Example
Roots Sweet potato, carrot
Stems 1. Underground stems:
- Potato, ginger
2. Stems that run horizontally, or
runners:
- water lettuce, carpet grass
3. Modified stem, or bulb:
- onion, hyacinth bulb
Leaves Bryophyllum, begonia
Vegetative parts and example
Application of Research on Vegetative
Reproduction in Agriculture
• Biotechnology is defined as the application of
organisms or their components in industrial or
commercial processes.
• Research in vegetative reproduction is one
aspect of biotechnology.
• Agriculturalists have developed some methods
of vegetative reproduction which are now
widely used in nurseries.
 Methods of Vegatative Reproductive
(a) Stem-cutting
– In stem-cutting, a new plant is produced by
cutting off a portion of the stem of a plant of
good quality and planting it in soil
Stem-cutting
(b) Tissue Culture
– Cloning involves the growth of cells of a
plant in a nutrient medium.
– Some pieces of tissue or a few cells are
removed from the parent plant of good
quality and transferred to a medium
containing nutrients.
– These nutrients make the cells or tissue
divide and grow into new plants
– Producing hundreds of identical new plants
all with the good characteristics of the
parent.
Tissue culture