SEKOLAH MENENGAH SAINS SERI

PUTERI, KUALA LUMPUR.

 introduction

The discovery of chemicals

manufactured for consumers
such as cleaning agents, food
additives and medicines has
helped us improve our health
and standard of living. Today,
different types of these
chemicals are produced to
meet the needs and
preferences of consumers.
Therefore, understanding the
chemistry of these chemicals
will help a consumer select
and use them wisely.

SOAP AND DETERGENTS

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1.1 Definition of soap
Soaps are sodium or potassium salts of fatty acids In the Solvay Process, carbon dioxide is
passed into concentrated sodium chloride
that contain 12 to 18 carbon atoms per molecule. solution, which is saturated with ammonia.
Some examples of soap are :
 Detergents NaCl(aq) + NH3 (aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g) 
NaHCO3(s) + NH4CL(aq)
 Soaps

1.2 The history of the soap manufacturing

i. Soaps have been used for more than 300 years. It was recorded that the
Babylonians were making soap around 2800 B.C.

ii. The ‘Purifying Oils’ were recorded on Hebrew tablets in 4000 B.C.

iii. Soaps were made from ashes of plants which contain sodium carbonate and
potassium carbonate. The ashes were boiled with lime (calcium oxide) to
produce caustic potash (potassium hydroxide).

a) Ash + lime → caustic potash

(K2 CO3 ) (CaO) (KOH)

iv. Caustic potash is then boiled with animals fats to produce soaps.

a) Caustic potash + animal fats → soap

v. In 1861, Belgian chemist Ernest Solvay (1838-1922) discovered the process to

make soda (sodium carbonate) from common salt (sodium carbonate) and
calcium carbonate.

vi. Michael Chevreul (1786-1889), a French chemist, was noted for his research
that animal fats are composed of fatty acids and glycerol.

1.3 Preparation of Soap by Saponification

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1. Soaps are sodium salts or potassium salts of long chain carboxylic acids ( with 12 to 18
carbon atoms per molecule).

2. Soap is a cleansing agents produced by the reaction between sodium hydroxide and
potassium hydroxide with animal fats or vegetable oils. This reaction is known as
saponification.

3. Fats and vegetable oils are large, naturally occurring Some examples of soap are :
ester molecules. When fats or oils are boiled with
a) Sodium palmitate, C15 H31 COONa
concentrated alkalis, such as sodium hydroxide, b) Sodium Oleate, C17 H33 COONa
saponification occurs and the ester molecules are broken c) Sodium stearate, C17 H35 COONa
down into soap and glycerol.
AddColouring matter and sometimes
4. Glyceryl tristearates are naturally occurring esters antiseptics are added to soaps to
commonly found in animal fats and vegetable oils. When enhance their marketability.
the ester is boiled with concentrated sodium hydroxide
solution, saponification (alkaline hydrolysis) occurs and
mixture of sodium stearate (soap) and glycerol is obtained.

5.The soap produced can be precipitated by adding common salt (sodium chloride)

to the reaction mixture.

CH2COOC17H35 CH2OH

CHCOOC17H35 + 3NaOH 

CH2COOC17H35 3C17H35COONa + CH2OH

Glyceryl tristearate sodium stearate glycerol
( the symbol ‘ ‘ represents heating) ( soap)

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6. The sodium chloride added reduced the solubility of soap in water. As a result,

precipitation of soap occurs.

7. The properties of soap depend on :

a) The type of alkali used for saponification

b) The type of animal fats or vegetable oils used.

8. Soaps produced from sodium hydroxide are hard, whereas soaps produced from

potassium hydroxide are soft.

9. Animal fats (tallow) from cows and vegetable oils (such as palm oil or olive oil) are

used for making soap.

1.4 Definition of detergent and and some examples of detergent

*Detergents are cleansing agents made from hydrocarbons obtained from petroleum
fractions. Thus, detergents are petrochemicals.

* Detergents can be classified into three main types :

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1.5 Preparation of detergent

1. The detergent, sodium alkyl sulphate can be prepared from alcohols with chain
lengths of 12 to 18 carbon atoms in two steps.

Step 1 : Reaction with concentrated sulphuric acid

R – O – H + H – O – S – O – H  R – O – S – O – H + H2O

Step 2 : Neutralisation with sodium hydroxide solution

R – O – S – O- H + NaOH  R – O – S – O Na+

+H2O

2. An example of a long chain alcohol is didecan-1-ol, CH3(CH2)10CH2OH. The

detergent prepared from dodecan-1-ol is called sodium dodecyl sulphate ( IUPAC
name) or sodium lauryl sulphate ( common name),
CH3(CH2)10CH8O-SO3 Na+.

3. Sodium alkylbenzene sulphinates, were first used in 1940s. it can be prepared in

three steps. The starting materials for making this detergents in a long chain
alkene. RCH = CH2 , obtained from the cracking of petroleum.

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 a) Step 1 : Alkylation

RCH =CH2 + R–

Alkylation is the introduction of the alkyl group to an organic

molecule.

b) Step 2 : Sulphonation

Alkylbenzene produced the react with concentrated sulphuric

acid acid to form alkylbenzene sulphonic acid.

c) Step 3 : Neutralisation

Alkylbenzene sulphonic acid produced reacted with sodium

hydroxide to form sodium alkylbenzene sulphonate, the
detergent .

1.6 The cleansing action of soap and detergents

 The cleansing action of soap and detergents depends on their chemical bonding
and structures.
 The ionic ‘head’ (negatively charged) is soluble in water (hydrophilic) but insoluble
in oily layer.
 The long hydrocarbon ‘tail’ (neutral) is insoluble in water (hydrophobic) but soluble
in oily layer.

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 The arrangement of soap or
detergent ions in the greasy
layers.

On agitation, grease begins to be lifted off

the surface.

Greasy dirt particles are lifted from the layer of

cloth.

Emulsification of greasy dirt in water as droplets.

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1.7 Comparing the effectiveness of cleansing action of soaps and detergent in hard
water

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1.8 Additives in detergents

 Modern detergents used for washing clothes usually contain a few types of
additives for :
a) Increase their cleaning power
b) Make them attractive and saleable.

 Only about 20% of the substances in a detergent are cleansing agents ( sodium
alkyl sulphate or sodium alkylbenzene sulphonate ). The other substances are
additives. The examples of additives and their functions are described as follows:

Builders sodium tripolyphosphate ( Na5 P3O10)

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 a) Sodium tripolyphosphate is used to soften hard water. In the presence of sodium
tripolyphosphate, Calcium ions and Magnesium ions are removed.
b) Sodium tripolyphosphate increases the pH value of water. In this way, muddy dirt
can be removed.

Perfumes

a) Perfumes are added to make clothes smell fresh and clean.

Whitening/bleaching agents: sodium perborate

a) Bleaches (bleaching agents) remove coloured stains by oxidation process.

When coloured stanis are oxidized, the colour will disappear.
a) The whitening (bleaching) agents commonly used in detergent are sodium
perborate (NaH2BO43H2O). Sodium perborate decomposes in hot water to release
oxygen (an oxidising agent) which is responsible for the whitening (bleaching) action.
c) Unlike chlorine, oxygen does not bleach the colour of dyes are not damaging to
fabrics. When properly used, the perborate bleaches make fabrics whiter than chlorine

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 bleaches and the colourful dyes of the fabrics do not fade when dirty stains are
removed.
d) Besides sodium perborate, sodium hypochlorite, (NaCIO) can also be used as
bleaches in detergents. The IUPAC name of sodium hypochlorite is sodium chlorate
(I).
e) Sodium hypochlorite releases chlorine that bleaches with dirty stains. However, high
concentrations of chlorine can be quite damaging to fabrics. These bleaches do not
work well on synthetic fabrics (polyster fabrics), often causing a yellowing rather than
the desire whitening. Also chlorine causes the dyes on fabrics to fade.

Stabilizers
a) The function of stabilizers is to prevent the formation of foam.
b) In an automatic washing machine, excessive foam can stop the pump working. So
washing machines are made using detergents that are good at removing and
emulsifying grease, but do not produce foam.

Biological enzymes: Amylase, lipase, and protease

a) Protein stains such blood, milk, and tomato sauce cannot be removed by the
ordinary detergents because these types of stains are insoluble in water.
b) Biological enzymes in detergents can break down fat and protein molecules in food
stains. The fatty acids, glycerol and amino acids produced are soluble in water and
are removed during washing.

Brighteners

1.9

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 a) Figure shows the action of brighteners. The brighteners absorb the invisible ultra-
violet and re-radiate it as a blue light.
b) Brighteners make fabrics appear whiter and brighter because the blue light can
hide any yellowing on the fabrics. Blue light added to the yellow light reflected from
old fabrics makes them look white.

FOOD ADDITIVES

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2.1 The purpose of food additives

2.2 Types and functions of food additives

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 PRESERVATIVES STABILISERS

TYPE OF FOOD
ADDITIVES DYE

ANTIOXIDANTS

FLAVOURING AGENTS

Functions of food additives

Preservatives

a) Preservatives are chemicals that are added to food to retard or to prevent the
growth of microorganism such as bacteria, mould or fungus, so that the food can
be stored for a long time.
b) In ancient times, food additives from natural sources such as salts, sugar and
vinegar are used to preserve food and to make food taste better.
c) Nowadays , synthetic preservatives are used. Table 2.1 shows the types of
preservatives commonly used.

Preservatives Molecular Uses

Formula
Sodium Nitrite NaNO2  To preserve meat, sausage, cheese and
Sodium Nitrate NaNO3 dried fish.
 To prevent food poisoning in canned foods
 To maintain the natural colour of meat and
to make them look fresh

Benzoic acid C6H5COOH  To preserve sauces , fruit juices , jam and

Sodium benzoate C6H5COONa margarines.

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 Sulphur dioxide SO2  Used as bleaches and antioxidant to
Sodium sulphate NaSO3 prevent
 To prevent the growth of yeast

Antioxidants

a) Antioxidants are chemicals that are added to food to prevent the oxidation of fats
and oils by oxygen in the air.
b) Foods containing fats or oils are oxidized and become rancid when exposed to air.
c) When the fats and oils are oxidized, rancid product are formed. This makes the
food unpalatable. The rancid product are volatile organic compound with foul
odours (for example , butanoic acid, C 3H7COOH).
d) Antioxidants are added to fats, oils, cakes, sausages, biscuits and fried foods to
slow down the oxidation process so that these foods do not become rancid.

Flavouring agents

a) There are two types of flavouring agents : artificial flavours and flavour enhancer.
They are added to foods to make them taste better.
b) Flavour enhancer have little or no taste of their own. They are chemicals that are
added to food to bring out the flavours or to enhance the taste of food.
c) An example of a flavour enhancer is monosodium glutamate (MSG). MSG is used
to enhance the flavours of other foods.
d) Artificial flavour includes sweeteners and other flavours such as peppermint or
vanilla. Aspartame and saccharin are examples of artificial sweeteners.
e) Both aspartame and saccharin can be used as s substitute for sugar to enhance the
sweetness in food and drink. However, the used of saccharin is banned in many
countries because it is carcinogenic. Aspartame has largely replaced saccharin as
the artificial sweetener or choice.
f) Many esters have fruity odours and tastes and are used as artificial flavours. Table
below shows some examples of esters that are used in making drinks.

Ester Benzyl ethanoate Octyl ethanoate Ethyl butanoate

Flavour Strawberry Orange Pineapple

Stabilisers and thickening agents

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 a) Stabilizers and thickening agents improve the texture and the blending of foods
b) Stabilizers are chemicals that are used to enable oil and water in the food to mix
together properly in order to form an emulsion of oil and water. Examples of
stabilizers are gelatin and acacia gum.
c) Stabilisers are added to improve the texture of foods. For examples, stabilsers are
added to ice-cream and peanut butter to keep them smooth and creamy.
d) In the presence of stabilisers, the emulsion of oil does not separate from water.
This means that the stabilisers improves the stability of some foods such as ice-
cream and salad dressings(mayonnaise).
e) Without stabilisers, ice crystals would from in ice cream, particles of chocolate
would settle out of chocolate milk, oil and vinegar in salad dressing will separate as
soon as mixing is stopped.
f) Thickening agents are chemicals that are added to foods to thicken the liquid and
to prevent the foods from becoming liquid. Thickening agents ( also called
thickeners) absorb water and thicken the liquid in foods to produce a jelly-like
structure.

Dyes

a) Dyes(colouring agents) are chemicals that are added to foods to give them colour
so as to improve their appearance.
b) Some foods are naturally coloured, but the colour is lost during food processing.
The foods industry uses synthetic food colours to :

i) Restore the colour of food lost during food processing

ii) Enhance natural colours, so as to increase the attractiveness of foods.
iii) Give colour to foods that do not have colour.

c) Some dyes are naturally plant pigments while others are synthetically prepared.
The synthetic colours used in foods are azo and triphenyl compounds. Both these
compound are organic compounds.
d) The synthetic dyes, brilliant blue, is an example of triphenyl compound. The
synthetic dye, tartrazine and sunset yellow are examples of azo compounds.
e) Azo compounds are organic compounds containing the diazo group, -N=N-, and
are usually yellow, red, brown, black in colour. Triphenyl compounds are organic
compounds containing three phenyl groups, -C6H5, and are usually green, blue or
purple in colour.

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2.3 Reading the food label

1. You must read the label on the food package too identify;

a) brand name

b) the net weight

c) the halal symbol for Muslim consumers

d) the nutrient content

e) food additives used

f) expiry date

g) address of the manufacturer

2. Food additives listed in the food label are usually represnted by the ocde number- E.
This code number shows that the food additives have been approved.

3. Figure below shows a typical food label for an orang drink.

Ascorbic acid Expiry date

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 XYZ Orange Drink

Ingredients : water, sugar, citric acid, E330 Use before

Stabilisers: E466, preservative E211 11-1-2005

Sweetener: aspartame

Colouring agents: E110, E102, Vitamins A and D

Sodium Benzoate

yellow-orange (dye) Tartrazine(dye)

2.4 Effects of food additives on health

1. The types of food additives allowed and the quantity permitted are controlled by the
1983 Food Act and the 1985 Food Regulation.
2. The permissible quantity depends on the type of food and the food additives. For
example, benzoic acid added must not exceed 800 mg per kg in cordial drinks,
whereas sodium nitrite must not exceed 100 mg per kg in meat product.
3. The excessive intake of food additives for a prolonged period of time will ruin our
health. The side effects arising from taking food additives are allergy, cancer, brain
damage and hyperactivity.

4. Allergy
a) Food additives such as sodium sulphite (preservative), BHA and BHT
(antioxidants), MSG (flavouring) and some food colours (e.g, Yellow No. 5) can
cause allergic reactions in some people.

b) The symptoms of MSG allergy are giddiness, chest pain and difficulty in
breathing. This condition is called the ‘Chinese restaurant syndrome’

c) The presence of sodium nitrate or sodium nitrite in food can cause ‘blue baby’
syndrome that is fatal for babies. This syndrome is due to the lack of oxygen in
the blood. Hence, the use of nitrate and nitrite is allowed in baby foods.

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5. Cancer
a) Chemicals that cause cancer are called carcinogens. Sodium nitrite (a
preservative) is a potent carcinogen.

b) The nitrite react with the amines in food to produce nitrosamine which can cause
cancer.

6. Brain damage
Excessive intake of nitrites for a prolonged period of time can cause brain damage. In
this condition, the supply of oxygen to the brain is disrupted and this cause brain
damage.

The rationale for using food additives

Advantages
1.To prevent food spoilage

a) Oxidation and microorganism (bacteria, fungi) are the main causes in the
decomposition of food. In hot climate,meat and fish rot easily. The use of
preservatives is an effective way to prevent food spoilage and to ensure that
foods can be supplied throughout the year.
b) If preservative are not used, food spoilage might drastically reduce the food
supply, making foods to cost more.

2.To improve nutritional value

During food processing, vitamins and minerals may be destroyed. Thus, additives
that improve nutrition can be added. These additives include vitamin B, C and D,
and minerals such as iron. The addition of these additives increase the nutritional
value of foods.

3.For medical reasons

a) Aspartame and sorbitol are used to make foods and drinks sweet without using
sugar. These food additives are particularly useful as artificial sweeteners for
diabetic patients.

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 b) Artificial sweeteners give the sweet taste but without adding calories to the food.
Thus, they can be used to reduce obesity.
c) Potassium iodide is added to table salt to reduce the incidence of goitre.
d) Vitamin C is added to friut juices to prevent scurvy. Vitamin D is added to
margarine to prevent rickets.

Disadvantages
1. Eating food additives such as preservatives, antioxidants and flavour enhancers is
excess quantities over a long period of time is detrimental to health.
2. Some food additives are used to make foods look more appealing. These additives
have little nutritional value. Eating such foods increases the risk of health hazard.
3. Some foods are fortified with excess amounts of nutrients,such as vitamins A and D,
or of trace elements, such as copper and zinc. Eating foods with excessive
amounts of nutrients can ruin our health.

MEDICINE
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3.1 Sources and uses of medicine

1. A medicine is a substance used to prevent or cure diseases or to reduce pain and

suffering due to illnesses.

2. Traditional medicines are medicines derived from natural sources such as plants and
animals without being processed chemically
3. Since ancients, mankind had used various types of plants and roots, animals and
animal part to cure diseases.

4. Medicines obtained from plants are known as herbal medicines. The sources and
uses of some herbal medicines are shown in table below :

Part Part of the plant Uses

used
Garlic Corm * For preventing flu attack or asthma attack
* For reducing high blood pressure

Ginger Rhizome (horizontal ** For treating stomach pain due to wind in the
underground stem) stomach
and leaves * For preventing flu attack
* For supplying heat energy to keep the body

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 warm

Aloe vera Leaves  * For treating itchy skin

 * For treating burns ( scalding) on the skin

Lemon (lime) Fruits * For treating boils or abcesses on the skin

* For preventing flue attack
* For treating skin diseases

Quinine Bark of Cinchona * For treating malaria

tree * For preventing muscle cramps

Ginseng Roots * As a tonic to improve the overall health of

human beings
* For increasing energy, endurance and
reducing fatigue.

Lemon grass Stem/leaves  * Has antibacterial and antifungal properties

* For treating coughs

Tongkat ali Roots * As a tonic for after birth and general health

Some examples of herbal medicine

3.2 Types of modern medicines and their functions

a) Modern medicines can be classified as follows based on their effects on the

human body.

b) Some examples of modern medicines are :

Modern drug Example

Analgesics Aspirin, paracetamol, codeine

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 Antibiotics Penicillin, streptomycin

Psychotherapeutic drugs Stimulants, antidepressants, and

antipsychotics

Analgesics

a) Analgesics are medicine that relieve pain. Examples of analgesics are aspirin,
paracetamol and codeine. Analgesics are sometimes called painkillers.
b) Aspirin and paracetamol are mild painkillers whereas codeine is a powerful painkiller.
c) Analgesics relieve pain but do not cure the disease. Table below shows the chemical
aspect and functions of some analgesic.

Type of analgesic Chemical aspects Function

Aspirin IUPAC name: Acetyl salicylic acid * Reduces fever and inflammation
Functional groups : Carboxylic acid * Relieves headaches, muscle aches
group and ester group and joint aches
* Treat artrithis, a disease caused by
COOH  carboxylic group inflammation of the joints
O * Act as an anticoagulant. It prevents
the clotting of blood and reduce the
O – C – CH3 risk of hearts and attacks
Ester group

Thus, aspirin is acidic in nature

Paracetamol Structural formula: * Paracetamol is similar to aspirin in

its effects
H O * It also reduces or relieves flu
symptoms such as fever, bone
HO - - N – C – CH3 aches, and runny nose.

Thus, unlike aspirin, paracetamol is

neutral in nature.

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Codeine Codeine is an organic compound
that contains the elements carbon,
hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen.
* Relieves minor to moderate pain
* Codeine is more powerful than
aspirin and paracetamol, but less
powerful than morphine. Codeine is
also used in cough mixture for
suppressing coughs.

Types of analgesic and their functions.

Antibiotics : antibacterial medicine

a) Antibiotics are chemicals that destroy or prevent the growth of infectious

microorganisms.
b) Two examples of antibiotics are penicillin caused by bacteria.
c) Antibiotics are used to treat diseases caused by bacteria.
d) Antibiotics are not effective against diseases caused by viral infections such as
influenza, measles, or small pox.
e) Penicillin
i) Penicillin is derived from the mould penicillium notatum.
ii) Penicillins are used to treat diseases, caused by bacteria, such as
pneumonia, gonorrhea and syphilis.
iii) Penicillin is only effective on certain bacteria. For example, it cannot be
used to treat tuberculosis.
f) Streptomycin is the antibiotics that is effective in treating tuberculosis

Psychotherapeutic medicine

a) Psychotherapeutic medicine are a group of drugs for treating or emotional

illnesses.

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 b) Psychotherapeutic drugs can be divided into a few groups as shown in table below
:

Types of Example
psychotherapeutics drugs
a) Stimulants Caffeine, amphetamines
b) Antidepressant Prozac
c) Antipsychotic agents chloropromazin

1.Stimulants

a) Stimulants are naturally occurring or synthetic drugs that stimulate (excite) the
activity of the brain and central nervous system.

b) Adrenaline is a stimulant that the body produces when it needs to prepare for
demanding or energetic activities

c) Stimulants make a person more alert, more energetic, less tired and more
cheerful.

d) Examples of stimulants are caffeine and amphetamines. Caffeine is a week,

naturally occurring stimulant and is found on coffee, tea and Cola drinks.

e) Amphetamines are strong synthetic stimulants and increase alertness and

physical ability.

f) Amphetamines increase the heart and respiration rates, as well as the blood
pressure. As a result, it causes the body to postpone the need of sleep and can
reverse, partially and temporarily, the symptoms of fatigue.

2.Antidepressants

a) Depression is a chronic illness. Most cases of depression are caused by a

chemical imbalance in the brain.

b) People experiencing depression feel hopeless. They experience a loss of

interest in everyday activities such as work or hobbies.

c) There is a strong correlation between the amounts of special chemicals (called

neurotransmitters) in the brain and a person’s mood. If these chemicals get too
low, the person may feel depressed.
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 d) Antidepressants are medicines that increase the brain’s level of
neurotransmitters, thus improving mood.

e) Antidepressants make a person feel calm and sleepy.

3.Antipsychotic medicines

a) Psychosis is the serious mental illness in which people lose touch with reality.
People with psychosis may, Hear voice and see things that are not really
there(hallucinations). Have belief that are not based on reality (delusions)

b) In psychiatry, there are a number of disorders that are classified under ‘

psuchosis’, such as schizophrenias (madness), psychotic depression, mania
and so on.

c) Psychotic patients have extreme mood swings. Their mood changes rapidly
from high spirit to deep depression.

d) Antipsychotic medicines do not cure symptoms to help the person live a more
normal life.

2.3 The side effects of medicines.

Side effects of tradisional medicines

1. It is generally believed that traditional medicines have little side effects compared to
modern medicines. In fact, traditional medicines are sometimes used to counteract
the side effects of some modern medicines.

2. However, taking high doses of quinine for a prolonged period may cause hearing
loss. German health officials recently reported 40 cases of liver damage which were
linked to the herbal medicine containing kava-kava.

3. While the use of traditional medicine is rising globally, health experts have
insufficient data about how it affects patients.

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 4.The World Health Organisation( WHO) hopes to set up a global monitoring system to
monitor the adverse side effects of traditional medicines .

Side effects of modern medicines

Type of modern Side effects

drug
Aspirin  Can cause bleeding in the stomach because
aspirin is very acidic.
 Can cause allergic reactions, skin rashes and asthmatic attacks

Amphetamines  People who abuse amphetamines are excitable and talkative.

 Phsicologically additive and can cause heart attack.
 Can cause anxiety, sleeplessness, aggressive behaviour, and
decrease appetite.
 Can cause enlarged pupils, heavy perspiration and trembling hands.

Codeine  Can cause addiction

Penicillin  Can cause allergic reactions

 Can cause death to people who are allergic to it.

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 Streptomycin  Can cause nausea, vomiting, dizziness, rashes and fever.
 Can cause loss of hearing following long-term use.

Stimulants  Can cause addiction

Antidepressants  Can cause addiction.

 Can cause headaches, grogglness and loss off appetite.

Anti psychotic drugs  Can cause dry mouth, blurred vision, urinary retention, constipation.
 Can cause tremor and restlessness.
Sedation (make people calmer, or to make people sleepy

2.4 Correct ways of modern and traditional medicines

In taking any medicine, we should know why the medicine is prescribed, how the
medicine should be used, what special precautions should be followed, what special
diet should be followed, what are the side effects, and what storage conditions are
needed. In addition, we should note the following points :

Self-medication

Do not prescribe medicines for yourself (self-medication) or for other

people. Discuss with your doctor and listen to him concerning the
medicine to be taken.

Follow the instructions given

Follow the instructions given by your doctor or pharmacist

concerning the dosage and method of taking the medicine.

Medicines for adult and children

Medicines for adult should not be given to children and vice versa.

Side effects
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Visit the doctor immediately if there are symptoms of allergy or other
effects of the drugs.