Digestive System

Copyright © 2001 Benjamin Cummings, an imprint of Addison Wesley Longman, Inc.

 Digestive System Processes
Five Processes
• Mechanical processing and movement: chewing,
mixing
• Secretion: fluid, digestive enzymes and hormones,
bile, acid, alkali, mucus
• Digestion: breaking down food to smallest
absorbable units
• Absorption: through mucosa, into blood or lymph
vessels
• Elimination: undigested material eliminated
 mouth /oral /buccal cavity

• Its functions include:

– Analysis of material before swallowing
– Mechanical processing by the teeth, tongue, and palatal
surfaces
– Lubrication
– Limited digestion
 Types of teeth
There are different types of teeth for different functions:
Sharp pointed teeth
for cutting and
tearing food

Grinding and
mashing food

Crushing and
grinding food

Cutting and chopping food

 •The enamel is the white

Dentition part you can see

covering the crown.
•Enamel is the hardest
substance in the human
body
The crown
•It covers the dentine
is the part
and stops bacteria
of the tooth
getting inside the tooth
above the
gum line The dentine is the
major component within
the tooth.
It is made from softer
The root is material than enamel
the part of so is easier to decay.
the tooth
The pulp contains the
below the
nerves and blood
gum line
vessels of the tooth.
It is underneath the
dentine. This is the bit
which hurts when you
have toothache!
The purpose of the
lateral pterygoids is
to work together to
pull the mandible
forward.
Dissection of the oral
cavity of the pig
 The
swallowing
reflex

•The tongue pushes the bolus to the pharynx.

•Nerves send signals to lift the roof of the mouth (the soft palate) to keep food
from entering the nasal cavity.
•Simultaneously, the larynx moves upward, tipping the epiglottis downward.
•Base of the tongue forces the epiglottis to fully cover the windpipe.
•Oesophageal sphincter opens as muscles of the pharynx relax.
•The bolus is swallowed by rhythmic contractions (peristalsis).
Figure 24.4 Peristalsis
120 grams of glucose / day = 480 calories

Propulsion, deglutition
(swallowing), is
involuntary and uses
cranial nerves IX and X.
Organ Sympathetic Parasympathetic
Sphincters Constricts Relaxes
Salivary glands Produces mucus Produces saliva
Pancreas No supply Produces juice
Blood vessels Constricts No supply
Gastrointestinal (GI) Tract Layers
Structure: common layers throughout the system
• Mucosa: innermost layer, nutrients pass through
• Muscularis mucosa
• Submucosa: connective tissue, lymph and blood
vessels, nerves
• Muscularis externa: two or three layers of smooth
muscle, responsible for motility in GI tract
• Serosa: outermost layer, connective tissue sheath
Gastrointestinal (GI) Tract Wall
The Stomach
 Functions of the stomach

• Bulk storage of undigested food

• Mechanical breakdown of food
• Disruption of chemical bonds via acids and
enzymes
• Production of intrinsic factor
This is the normal appearance of the stomach, which has been opened
along the greater curvature. The oesophagus is at the left.
The Stomach Lining
•G- mucosa containing glandular tissue;
different areas of the stomach contain
different types of cells which secrete
compounds to aid digestion. The main
types involved are: parietal cells which
secrete hydrochloric acid, chief cells
which secrete pepsin
MM- muscularis mucosae
•SM- submucosa
•The stomach contains three layers of
involuntary smooth muscle which aid
digestion by physically breaking up
the food particles;

•OM- inner oblique muscle

•CM- circular muscle
•LM- outer longitudinal muscle
The Stomach Lining
The Secretions of Hydrochloric Acid
The Phases of Gastric Secretion
The Phases of Gastric Secretion
The Phases of Gastric Secretion
Regions of the Small Intestine
The Structure of the Digestive Tract
 Histology of the small intestine

• Plicae
– Transverse folds of the intestinal lining
• Villi
– Fingerlike projections of the mucosa
• Lacteals
– Terminal lymphatic in villus
• Intestinal glands
– Lined by enteroendocrine, goblet and stem cells
The Intestinal Wall
 The Wall of the Small Intestine

Neutralising stomach acids, adds bile and pancreatic juice.

Breakdown of proteins carbohydrates and lipids for absorption.
 Intestinal movements

• Peristalsis
• Segmentation
• Reflexes that are initiated by stretch receptors in
the stomach
• Reflex that triggers relaxation of the sphincter
between the small and large intestines (ileocaecal
valve)
The double muscle layer
(M) moves food through
the intestine by
peristalsis.
The epithelial surface of
the plicae (P) is further
folded to form villi(V).
Each villus has its own
blood supply- the vessels
can be seen in the
submucosa (SM)- and
blood containing
digestive products from
the small intestine is
taken to the liver via the
hepatic portal system.
The Intestinal Wall
 Small Intestine

• Functions:
– Digestion: neutralise acid from stomach, add digestive
enzymes and bile, break proteins, carbohydrates and
lipids to absorbable materials
– Absorption: 95% of food absorbed here

• Structure
– Regions: duodenum, jejunum, ileum
– Mucosa adaptations: villi containing blood and lacteal
capillaries
Accessory Organs: Aid Digestion and Absorption

• Pancreas: exocrine functions

– Secretes digestive enzymes and sodium bicarbonate
• Liver
– Produces bile (acts as emulsifier – begins fat
breakdown
– Hepatic portal system: drains blood from digestive tract
– Metabolic functions: storage, synthesis, chemical
processing
• Gallbladder: stores bile
 Small Intestine

• Duodenal glands (Brunner’s glands) and Paneth

cells at the base of the Crypt of Lieberkuhn
– produce mucus, buffers
• Ileum
– aggregated lymphoid nodules (Peyer’s patches) which
play a role in the body’s immune system. They contain
high concentrations of white blood cells (or
lymphocytes) that help protect the body from infection
and disease.
In the depths of the crypts, you will find clusters
of 3 to 5 cells with coarse red staining granules at
the apical end. They are Paneth cells,named for
 Josef Paneth (1857-1890), an Austrian physician
who discovered them more than a century ago.
They are believed to produce bactericidal
materials and release them into the lumen of the
gut. Paneth cells are found in the small intestine
but not in the large intestine in the mucosa.
Goblet cells aren't found in the stomach
but are numerous in the intestine.
The empty space in the villus is a lacteal (lymphatic capillary).
Note: the simple columnar epithelium (with the microvilli or brush
border on the surface of the epithelium in the section) covering the
surface of the villus with goblet cells (arrowed), and the endothelium
lining the lacteal.
The ileum, the last section of the small intestine, is different
from the duodenum and the jejunum by having more goblet cells in
the mucosa and lymph nodules called Peyer's patches
Note the many
goblet cells on the
villi surface
• Pancreatic duct penetrates duodenal wall
• Endocrine functions
– Insulin and glucagon
• Exocrine functions
– Majority of pancreatic secretions
– Pancreatic juice secreted into small intestine
• Carbohydrases
• Lipases
• Nucleases The
• Proteolytic enzymes
pancreas
The Pancreas
 Large Intestine
Absorbs
nutrients
and water
and
eliminates
waste.
 LARGE INTESTINES

• Mass movements occur within

the large intestines.
• They are long slow-moving
contractile waves that occur 3
or 4 times per day.
• Typically mass movements
occur during or after eating.
The Large Intestine
 Functions of the large intestine
• Reabsorb water and compact material into
feces
• Absorb vitamins produced by bacteria
• Store fecal matter prior to defecation
 PROPULSION
• Peristalsis occurs only after most nutrients have
been absorbed.
• Peristaltic waves initiated in the duodenum begin
to sweep slowly along the small intestines,
moving 10-70 cm before dying out.
• Each successive wave is initiated a bit more
distally, and this pattern of peristaltic activity,
migrating mobility complex, continues until the
undigested food is moved to the ileum (a 2 hour
trip).
• The gastroileal reflex causes the ileocecal
sphincter to relax.
The large intestine primarily absorbs water, and compacts and dries out
the fecal bolus. There are numerous goblet cells whose secretions act as
lubrication for the moving material but no numerous villi for absorption.
 The rectum

• Last portion of the digestive tract

• Terminates at the anal canal
• Internal and external anal sphincters
ABSORPTION
 The Gastrointestinal Tract
• The GI tract digests food, absorbs nutrients and
water into the blood, and eliminates waste
• Components of the gastrointestinal tract
– Mouth-site where food is moistened and chewed
– Oesophagus-tube leading to the stomach
– Stomach-secretes chemicals that work to digest foods
– Small intestine-responsible for the majority of
digestion and absorption of nutrients
– Large intestine (colon)-completes absorption of
nutrients and water
– Rectum and anus-store and eliminate waste
 Accessory Organs that Aid
Digestion and Absorption
• Pancreas: exocrine functions
– Secretes digestive enzymes and sodium bicarbonate
• Liver
– Produces bile (acts as emulsifer – begins fat breakdown
– Hepatic portal system: drains blood from digestive tract
– Metabolic functions: storage, synthesis, chemical
processing
• Gallbladder: stores bile
 FAT FACTS
Fat (lipid) makes up 37% of the calories in the
diet
Fat is energy rich and provides 9 kcal/gm
Dietary lipids are 90% triacylglycerols; also
include cholesterol esters, phospholipids,
essential unsaturated fatty acids; fat soluble
vitamins (A,D,E,K)
Usually all (98%) of the fat consumed is
absorbed, and most is transported to adipose
tissue for storage.
 Lipid digestion and absorption

• Lipid digestion utilizes lingual and pancreatic lipases

– Bile salts improve chemical digestion by emulsifying lipid
drops
– Lipid-bile salt complexes called micelles are formed
– Micelles diffuse into intestinal epithelia which releases
lipids into the blood as chylomicrons
Absorption of Fats
Fat Digestion & Absorption
 Hydrolysis of Fats

• Hydrolysis of triglyceride into monoglyceride and

free fatty acids is accomplished predominantly by
pancreatic lipase.
• Lipase is a water-soluble enzyme, and with a little
imagination, it's easy to understand why
emulsification is a necessary prelude to its
efficient activity.
 Absorption of hydrolysed lipids

• The major products of lipid digestion - fatty acids

and monoglycerides - enter the epithelium by
simple diffusion across the plasma membrane
– Fatty acids and monoglyceride are transported into the
endoplasmic reticulum, where they are used to
synthesise triglyeride.
– The vesicles formed are then transported (via
exocytosis) to the lacteal in the villus, which ends up
being transported via the lymphatic vessel
Small intestine
Portal for transport of virtually
all nutrients

Water and electrolyte balance

Enzymes associated with
intestinal surface membranes
i. Sucrase
ii.  dextrinase
iii. Glucoamylase (maltase)
iv. Lactase
v. peptidases
 Absorption
• Water
– Nearly all that is ingested is
reabsorbed via osmosis
• Ions
– Absorbed via diffusion,
cotransport, and active
transport
• Vitamins
– Water soluble vitamins are
absorbed by diffusion
– Fat soluble vitamins are
absorbed as part of micelles
• Vitamin B12 requires
intrinsic factor
 LARGE INTESTINES

• ABSORPTION

• VITAMINS, ELECTROLYTES,
• AND WATER ARE
• ABSORBED IN LARGE
• INTESTINES.
Digestion and absorption in the stomach
• Preliminary digestion of proteins
– Pepsin
• Permits digestion of carbohydrates
• Very little absorption of nutrients
– Some drugs, however, are absorbed
– Mucous secretion containing several hormones
• Enteroendocrine cells
– G cells secrete gastrin
– D cells secrete somatostatin
 Stomach

• Not much carbohydrate digestion

• Acid and pepsin to unfold proteins
• Ruminants have forestomachs with
extensive microbial populations to
breakdown and anaerobically ferment feed
 STOMACH

• ABSORPTION

• 1. ASPIRIN
• 2. ALCOHOL
• 3. DRUGS THAT ARE FAT SOLUBLE
Absorption of Proteins and Carbohydrates
Protein digestion and absorption

• Low pH destroys tertiary and quaternary

structure
• Enzymes used include pepsin, trypsin,
chymotrypsin, and elastase
– Liberated amino acids are absorbed
 Absorption of Amino Acids

• Similar to that of glucose (active transport)

– However sodium-dependent amino acid
transporters are required
• Absorption of amino acids is dependent on
the gradient of the sodium ions
Carbohydrate digestion and absorption

• Begins in the mouth

– Salivary and pancreatic enzymes
• Disaccharides and trisaccharides
– Brush border enzymes
• Monosaccharides
• Absorption of monosaccharides occurs across the intestinal
epithelia
Role of Endocrine and Nervous Systems
in the Regulation of Digestion
• Regulation dependent on volume and content
of food
– Nervous system: stretch receptors in stomach
– Hormones:
• Gastrin: stimulates release of gastric juice
• Secretin: stimulates pancreas to secrete water and
bicarbonate
• Cholecystokinin (CCK): signals pancreas to secrete
digestive enzymes
Disaccharides
Simple Sugars -
 Carbohydrate absorption

apical basolateral
 Absorption of Glucose

• Glucose is absorbed from the lumen by active transport

– This requires specific carrier molecules (sodium dependent
glucose transporters) in the plasma membrane of epithelial.
– These proteins transport both sodium and glucose into the cell
•Once inside the epithelium, glucose and sodium must be
exported from the cell into the blood.
•Glucose diffuses down the concentration gradient
(facilitated diffusion) into the capillary blood in the villus
•Na+ diffuses into the blood via sodium-potassium pumps
(this requires ATP)
•Other monosaccharides such as fructose are not absorbed by
active transport.This only requires facilitated diffusion
Endocrine and Nervous Systems
Regulation of Digestion
• Regulation dependent on volume and content
of food
– Nervous system: stretch receptors in stomach
– Hormones:
• Gastrin: stimulates release of gastric juice
• Secretin: stimulates pancreas to secrete water and
bicarbonate
• Cholecystokinin (CCK): signals pancreas to secrete
digestive enzymes
Neural Control of small intestines

• Persistalsis is regulated
extrinsically by the autonomic
nervous system.
• The parasympathetic division is
excitatory and the sympathetic is
inhibitory.
 Nutrients may be
Utilized or Stored until needed
Normal Microbiota of the Digestive System
• Oesophagus, stomach, duodenum
– These regions are almost sterile
– Peristalsis and the rapid transport of food helps
prevent colonization by microbes
• Tongue, teeth, jejunum, ileum, colon, rectum
– Tongue and teeth
• Viridans streptococci bacteria are most prevalent in this
region
– Lower small intestine and colon
• Microbiota here are microbial antagonists
• Mucous membrane prevents microbes entering the
bloodstream
 Bacterial Diseases
of the Digestive System

• Bacteria can infect the digestive system and

cause disease ranging from mild to fatal
• Examples of bacterial digestive system
infections
– Dental caries, gingivitis, and periodontal disease
– Peptic ulcers
– Bacterial gastroenteritis
– Bacterial food poisoning (intoxication)
 Peptic Ulcers
• Cause: Helicobacter pylori
• Virulence factor: Presence of flagella, adhesins, urease,
and other enzymes
• Portal of entry: Fecal-oral transmission likely
• Signs/Symptoms: Primarily abdominal pain, although
nausea, vomiting, and weight loss may occur
• Incubation period: Varies
• Susceptibility: Those colonized by H. pylori
• Treatment: Antimicrobial and acid-blocking drugs
• Prevention: Lifestyle changes to reduce risk
Peptic Ulcers cont.
Major Digestive Enzymes
 Word Bank

• Descending •Cardiac •Swallow

• Esophogus •Transverse •Four
•Tongue •Two
• Liver
•Pancreas •Peristaltic
• Small intestine
•Pyloric •Appendix
• Assimilate
•Hepatic duct
• Gall bladder •Ascending
• Villi •Saliva
• Gastric juices •Mouth
 Digestion Worksheet
1. Food goes through the ________ from the
mouth to the stomach.
2. The stomach makes churning movements
and produces __________.
3. The __________ ___________
assimilates dissolved food.
4. The __________ and __________ send
digestive juices into the ____________.
5. The two openings at either end of the stomach
are ____________ and _____________.
6. The _________ carries substances from the
liver.
7. Villi in the small intestine _________ the
dissolved food.
8. The colon has three main divisions:
__________, __________, and __________.
9. Enzymes in _________ help begin
digestion in the mouth.
10. The tongue helps to _________ food.
11. The liver has _________ lobes.
12. __________ movements help in digestion.
13. The __________ serves no known useful
purpose.