Functional anatomy of

digestive tract
 Digestion- the process of breaking feed down into
simple substances that can be absorbed by the body.

Digestive System- the parts of the body involved in

chewing and digesting feed.

Absorption- the process of taking digested parts of

feed into the bloodstream.
Introduction

Three (3) basic types of digestive systems:

►Monogastric – simple stomach.

►Ruminant – multi-compartmented stomach.

►Poultry – simple stomach, but very large and complex large intestine
 Types of Digestive Systems
Monogastrics Ruminants Poultry

Dogs Pigs Beef Cattle Dairy Cattle Chickens

Turkeys
Cats
Horses Goats Sheep

Deer Ostrich
Human
Basic Functional Anatomy
of the Digestive System
– Monogastrics –
Digestive Tract - Pig
Liver Pancreas Cecum
Gall Bladder
Rectum
Esophagus

Stomach
Duodenum
Colon
Small intestine
(jejunum, ileum)
 Organs of the Digestive System
– Monogastrics –
Mouth
►Mechanical breakdown of foodstuffs by chewing (reduces particle
size, increases surface area for action of enzymes).
►Saliva added as a lubricant and, in some species, contains amylase to
begin starch digestion.

 Esophagus
► Tube connecting the mouth to the
stomach.
 Organs of the Digestive System
– Monogastrics –
Stomach
►It protects mucous membrane from corrosive action of HCl by prior
coating membrane with mucous.
►It secretes HCl which converts inactive pepsinogen into active
pepsin.
►It secretes rennin which coagulates milk and helps binding of casein
of milk protein with calcium and thus helps in the digestion of
casein.
►There is some report that gastric mucosa secretes
enzyme lipase which helps small amount of lipid
digestion in the stomach.
►It secretes gastrin which stimulates secretion of
HCl from the stomach.
►Foodstuffs reduced to liquid form.
►Secretes intrinsic factor which helps vit B12
absorption in intestine.
In non ruminant animals like horse, pig and dog etc. the
stomach is simple type.
It is however, subdivided into portion as cardia, fundus,
body and pylorus based on distribution of glands in the
mucous membrane.
The glands in the respective region is named
accordingly as cardiac, pyloric and fundic glands.
The fundic area is the largest area about 60-80% of the
area is interposed between cardiac and pyloric area.
The fundic glands are simple type of gland open into
gastric pit.
Several gastric gland may open into one gastric pit.
The gland have constricted neck, then body and
lastly blind extremity.
The neck of the gland has mucous neck cells that
produce mucous.
The mucous is secreted prior to secretion of HCl to
protect the gastric mucous membrane.
The parietal cell of the stomach secrete HCl.
The chief cell produce the proenzyme pepsinogen.
Gastric glands
 Mechanism of HCl secretion
• The mechanism of HCl secretion by the parietal cells in the stomach is
apparently very complicated.
• According to Davenport theory, hydrochloric acid
secretion is an active process that takes place in the
canaliculi of parietal cells in gastric glands.
• The energy for this process is derived from
oxidation of glucose.
• Carbon dioxide is derived from metabolic activities
of parietal cell.
• Some amount of carbon dioxide is obtained from
blood also.
• It combines with water to form carbonic acid in the
presence of carbonic anhydrase.
• This enzyme is present in high concentration in
parietal cells.
• Carbonic acid is the most unstable compound
and immediately splits into hydrogen ion and
bicarbonate ion.
• The hydrogen ion is actively pumped into the
canaliculus of parietal cell.
• Simultaneously, the chloride ion is also pumped
into canaliculus actively.
• The chloride is derived from sodium chloride in
the blood.
• Now, the hydrogen ion combines with chloride
ion to form hydrochloric acid.
• To compensate the loss of chloride ion, the
bicarbonate ion from parietal cell enters the
blood and combines with sodium to form
sodium bicarbonate.
• Thus, the entire process is summarized as:
• CO2 + H2O + NaCl → HCl + NaHCO3
 Organs of the Digestive System
– Monogastrics –

Liver
►Center of metabolic activity in the body.
►Major role in digestive process is to provide bile salts to small
intestine (needed for digestion and absorption of fats).

Gall Bladder
►Function: Produces bile that aids in digestive process.
► Description: Sac like structure filled with greenish fluid. Located
on the liver.
Organs of the Digestive System
– Monogastrics –

Pancreas
►Provides a potent mixture of digestive enzymes to the small
intestine to help in digestion of fats, carbohydrates, and
proteins.

Small Intestine
►3 sections – duodenum, jejunum, ileum
►Site of final stages of chemical enzymatic digestion.
►Where almost all nutrients are absorbed.
Organs of the Digestive System
– Monogastrics –

Large Intestine
►3 sections – cecum, colon, rectum
►Site of water absorption from G.I. tract.
►Bacterial fermentation occurs (production and absorption
of volatile fatty acids).
 Somewhat limited in monogastrics
►Feces formed.
Basic Functional Anatomy
of the Digestive System
– Ruminants –
Digestive Tract – Beef Cattle
Small intestine
Rectum Rumen
Pancreas

Omasum

Esophagus

Large Reticulum
intestine
Abomasum
Cecum Liver

Gall
bladder
Organs of the Digestive System
– Ruminants –

Mouth, esophagus, liver, pancreas, gall bladder, small

intestine, and large intestine have functions similar to
monogastrics.

 Stomach
► Structure and function of the stomach is the major
difference between monogastrics and ruminants.
► Multi-compartmented stomach – rumen, reticulum,
omasum, abomasum.
Parts of the Ruminant Stomach

Rumen:
►Large, anaerobic fermentation vat.

Rumen Capacity
Species Normal capacity Maximum capacity

Cow (1000 lb) 25-30 gallons 55-60 gallons

Ewe (150 lb) 3-5 gallons 5-10 gallons
Parts of the Ruminant Stomach
Rumen (continued):
►Houses microorganisms.
 Protozoa – 100,000 per gram of rumen fluid.
 Bacteria/fungi – 100 million per gram of rumen fluid.

►Functions of microorganisms.
 Digest roughages to make Amino Acids.

►Volatile Fatty Acids are absorbed in rumen.

 Parts of the Ruminant Stomach

 Rumen (continued):
► Lined with millions of
papillae (short projections
on wall of rumen) needed
for absorption.
 “Shag carpet” appearance
Parts of the Ruminant Stomach` aqs
Rumen (continued):
► Rumen saturated with
gases and in constant
motion.
► Contractions occur at a
rate of 1-3 per minute.
 Serve to mix contents, aid
in mixing of gases, and
move fluid and fermented
feedstuffs into the
omasum.

Taken from “Digestive Physiology of Herbivores”

http://arbl.cvmbs.colostate.edu/hbooks/pathphys/digestion/herbivores/
Parts of the Ruminant Stomach
Rumination:
►Ruminants are well known for “cud chewing”.

►Rumination involves:
 Bolus of previously eaten foodstuff carried back into the mouth.
 Fluid in bolus is squeezed out with the tongue and reswallowed.
May be up to 6-7 times per Bolus
 Bolus is rechewed and reswallowed.

► Rumination may occupy about 1/3

of a ruminant’s day
Parts of the Ruminant Stomach

►Fermentation of foodstuffs in the rumen generates

enormous quantities of gas.
 30-50 liters per hour in adult cattle.
 5-7 liters per hour in adult sheep or goats.

►Belching is how ruminants get rid of fermentation gases:

 Anything that causes a hindrance to belching can be life
threatening.
 Bloating can result in death from asphyxiation.
Parts of the Ruminant Stomach
Reticulum:
► Contains microorganisms (like the rumen).

► Provides additional area for fermentation.

► As fermentation by microorganisms proceed and

feedstuffs are digested, smaller and more dense
material is pushed into the reticulum (from which it
along with microbe-laden liquid is ejected into the
omasum).
The esophageal groove:
In milk fed ruminant animals milk during suckling bypass
rumen reticulum and omasum and reach directly to abomasum.
During milk suckling due to reflex previous action musculature
of rumen to omasum contract momentarily to form a tube like
structure to help milk entering abomasum efferent impulse
passing from brain stem through vagus nerve and the afferent
arising from pharynx.
This reflex gets abolished after weaning.
This reflex has also been seen in adult water deprived animals
to increase blood volume in association with ADH hormone
under extreme condition.
Parts of the Ruminant Stomach

 Reticulum (continued):
► Lining has a honeycomb
structure.
 Catches and holds hardware
consumed by animal.
 Hardware can be removed with
rumen magnate.
Telephone Cord
Wire
 Ruminant Stomach
esophagus

reticulum

rumen

omasum

abomasum

Together the Rumen and the Reticulum make up over 85

percent of the Rumen Stomach
Parts of the Ruminant Stomach
Omasum:

►A heavy, hard organ with a lining

that has many folds (leaves).

► Function: Contains papillae

responsible for grinding roughage.
► Description: Round, muscular part
of stomach with many layers of
tissue that squeezes feed and
removes some liquid.
Parts of the Ruminant Stomach
Abomasum:
►The true, glandular stomach.
 Secretes acids and functions very
similarly to monogastric stomach.
►Unique feature is that it secretes
lysozyme.
 Enzyme that efficiently breaks down
bacterial cell walls.
 Needed to break down the large
quantities of bacteria that pass from the
rumen.
Basic Functional Anatomy
of the Digestive System
– Poultry –
Digestive Tract - Poultry
Organs of the Digestive System
– Poultry –

Specialized Organs in Poultry

Beak
►No lips, no teeth, and no chewing.

Crop
►Out-pocketing of the esophagus that provides storage for
consumed food.
►Foodstuffs moistened and softened (little if any digestion).
Digestive Tract - Poultry
Organs of the Digestive System
– Poultry –

Specialized Organs in Poultry (continued)

Proventriculus
►Glandular stomach where the first significant
amount of digestive juices are added.
Gizzard
►A muscular organ used to grind and break up
food.
►May contain grit (small stones) eaten by animal.
Organs of the Digestive System
– Poultry –

• Grit that is commonly

added to chicken feed
to aid in digestion.
Organs of the Digestive System
– Poultry –
• Feed has to be very high in nutrients due to the rapid movement
through the digestive system.
Organs of the Digestive System
– Poultry –

Specialized Organs in Poultry (continued)

Vent
►Common chamber into which the digestive, urinary, and
reproductive tracts open.
 When fecal material is excreted, the vent folds
back allowing the rectal opening of the large
intestine to push out, closing the reproductive
tract opening.
Specialized Poultry Organs
Crop Gizzard

Vent

Proventriculus
Summary
There are three (3) basic types of digestive systems in
farm animal species.
►Monogastric
►Ruminant
►Poultry

The type of digestive system influences the dietary

foodstuffs the animal can effectively utilize.
Digestive Tract Capacities
Sheep/Goats Cattle Swine Horses
Rumen 5-10 gal 55-60 gal ---- ----
Reticulum 1.5 qt 3-4 gal ---- ----
Omasum 1 pt 1-2 gal ---- ----
Abomasum 1.5 qt 3-4 gal ---- ----
Stomach ---- ---- 2 gal 2-3 gal
Small intestine 2.5 gal 17-18 gal 2.5 gal 12-15 gal
Small intestine
85-90 ft 130 ft 60 ft 70 ft
length
Large intestine 1.5 gal 10 gal 3 gal 30-35 gal
2. Prehension:
• Prehension is the act of getting food into the
mouth.
• Domestic animals do this by using their lips,
teeth, tongue and by head and jaw movements.
• The horse uses its mobile lips to grasp feed.
The incisor teeth are exposed to cut the grass
on the grazing field
• In cattle and sheep the tongue is most
important organ of prehension.
• Pig utilize their snout to burrow the ground
soil and to root up food and then lips collect
the materials into the mouth.
• The carnivors like dog use their paws in the
forelegs to grasp the food for efficient tearing
with help of incisor and canine teeth.
• The herbivorous animals draw fluid by
creating sub atmospheric pressure within
oral cavity by means of tongue and cheeks.
• Dogs and cats drink by lapping water with the
tongue.
• Birds, on the other hand, fill the oral cavity
with water and then raise the tip of their
beak, draining water into the pharynx.
• Prehension is a voluntary reflex and the
trigeminal, facial and hypoglossal nerves
provide motor innervation to the lips, tongue
and muscles of the jaw.
• Sensory information is also important and
this is derived from olfactory, optic and
trigeminal (sensation from oral mucosa, lips
and teeth) input. 
•Mastication
• Mastication involves the mechanical breakdown of
food and allows mixing with saliva.
• During the process of mastication and ensalivation
the food is graded in terms of palatability.
• The taste buds are scattered on the dorsal surface
of the tongue.
• The injurious and poisonous substances in the food
are initially screened by their smell (olfaction).
• The food materials are further subjected to
screening by the taste buds scattered on the dorsal
surface of the tongue.
• The food entering the oral cavity is broken up into small
pieces by a process of chewing or mastication with the aid
of teeth.
• The extent of mastication within the oral cavity depends
upon species but invariably it should reduce to a size which
permits easy swallowing.
• The mastication is partly under voluntary and partly under
involuntary control.
• During the process of mastication the food substances are
continuously mixed up with saliva secreted from the salivary
gland.
• This process is called ensalivation.
•Deglutition:
• The swallowing or deglutition is a reflex process and is
under control of deglutition centre in the medulla.
• The feed material after being properly masticated and
ensalivated are collected by the tongue and placed on
the base of its dorsal surface.
• The nerve endings in the buccal mucous membrane
sense the nature and consistency of feed materials in the
oral cavity.
• A coordinated movement occurs during the involuntary
phase of swallowing.
• The soft palate is elevated, the posterior nares
momentarily produce breath holding, larynx rises, the
aspiration of food is prevented by closure of glottis.
• The epiglottis covers the laryngeal opening.
• The food bolus is directed to the esophagus by contraction
of pharyngeal muscles.
• The muscular wall of the pharynx is continuous with the
muscle of esophagus.
• A series of muscular contractions starting from the pharynx
pass to the esophagus and force the food materials through
the esophagus ultimately to reach the stomach.
•The act of swallowing which carries the
food bolus from oral cavity to the
stomach may be partitioned into four
phases
•1. Oral phase
•2. Pharyngeal phase
•3. Esophageal phase
•4. Gastro-esophageal phase
•1. Oral phase
• The oral phase is under voluntary control.
• The tongue aids in the collection of food materials from
different corners of oral cavity and the collected food
material in the form of bolus is placed on the base of
dorsal surface of the tongue.
• The tongue is then raised and pressed against the hard
palate, simultaneously there is momentary breath
holding.
• Thus the pressure inside the oral cavity is raised and the
bolus moves to the pharynx.
•2. Pharyngeal phase
• In the pharyngeal phase the bolus thus pushed
immediately as it touches the pharynx and
stimulates the receptors in the pharyngeal mucous
membrane.
• This leads to reflex inhibition of respiration, closure
od larynx and shortening of pharynx by muscular
contraction.
• As result of this the food bolus moves to the
esophagus directly.
•3. Esophageal phase
• In the third esophageal stage the presence of food
bolus in the esophagus initiates reflex peristalsis of
esophagus which gives a forward movement to the
food bolus and also regional contraction of the
muscles at the area of food bolus.
• The combined action of peristalsis and regional
contraction of the muscle at the region of food help
to reach the material ultimately to the stomach.
• 4. Gastro-Oesophageal Phase: 
• The muscles of the gastro-oesophageal
region act as a sphincter and maintain a high
pressure region between the oesophagus and
the stomach.
• This prevents the reflux of gastric contents.
• This sphincter open to allow for the
eructation of gas.
• This is mediated by the vagus nerve. 
Movement of stomach
• In order to understand gastric motility, one needs to
appreciate the physiological divisions of the
stomach. 
• They include two parts:
1.Orad region – made up of the fundus and the
proximal part of the body. It functions to receive the
ingested food from the esophagus.
2.Caudad region – made up of the antrum and the
distal half of the stomach. It functions to mix and
churn food and then pushing it into the duodenum.
• Gastric motility can be understood better when
divided into three stages:
• 1. Receptive Relaxation
• When the bolus of food enters and causes distention
of the stomach, a vagovagal reflex is initiated that
causes relaxation of the orad region of the stomach,
hence accommodating the ingested food.
• 2. Mixing and Digestion
• This occurs in the caudal region of the stomach and
involves two types of waves:
• Slow/weak peristaltic constrictor waves – these
waves are regulated by basic electric rhythm and
occur every 3–5 minutes. Their function is to mix
the gastric secretions and the food together and
weak propulsion.
• Powerful peristaltic constrictor rings – this causes
the contraction of the distal antrum, so when the
weak peristalsis waves propel food towards the
distal antrum, the power constrictor waves causes it
to be propelled back (retropropulsion) therefore
mixing the food in the process.
•3. Gastric Emptying
•Two factors controlling the emptying of the
stomach contents into the duodenum are the
pylorus (which is usually tonically contracted,
therefore controls stomach emptying) and antral
peristalsis or pyloric pump (the peristaltic
movements that cause the propulsion of chyme
into the duodenum).
• Factors that affect Gastric emptying:
• Stomach contents: the types of food in the stomach can
influence gastric emptying, for example, the presence of fat
in the stomach contents slows down gastric emptying
because of the production of a hormone called
Cholecystokinin.
• Cholecystokinin is produced by the I cells of duodenal and
jejunal mucosa in response to the presence of fatty acids
and monoglycerides, as well as amino acids.
• Its function is to inhibit and slow down gastric emptying so
that more time can be spent digesting and absorbing food
in the small intestines.
•Similarly, the fastest gastric emptying takes place
when the gastric contents are isotonic in nature,
whereas hypertonic (high osmolality) or hypotonic
(low osmolality) stomach contents slows it down.
•Other hormones that inhibit gastric emptying
include secretin and gastric inhibitory peptide.
•The condition of the duodenum has a strong
influence over stomach emptying as well. Its
distention, irritation, acidity, and presence of fat
slow down gastric emptying. 
• An increased volume of food stimulates the local
and vagal myenteric reflexes that result in the
increased activity of the pyloric pump and the
relaxation of the pylorus.
• Gastrin is another hormone that is released in
response to the distention of the stomach walls due
to increased food volume.
• It also increases the activity of the pyloric pump
and relaxes the pylorus.
• Basic Electric Rhythm
• 1. The resting membrane potential of the smooth muscle cells,
most of the gastrointestinal tract shows a spontaneous
fluctuation between -65 mV and -45mV. (esophagus and upper
part of the stomach are exceptions). This is known as basal
electric rhythm.
• 2. Pacemaker cells called interstitial cells of Cajal present in the
gut wall are probably responsible for generating this rhythm. In
the stomach and small intestine, the interstitial cells of Cajal
are present in the outer part of circular muscle layer, in close
proximity to the myentric plexus. In the colon, they are present
near the Meissner’s plexus in the submucosal border of the
circular muscle.
• 3. Fluctuation in the basal electric rhythm themselves do not lead to
contractile response. However, spike potential arising from the BER
(Basal Electric Rhythm) may cause contraction.
• 4. Entry of Ca ions causes the depolarization phase of spike potential,
whereas repolarization is caused by K+ ion exit.
•Migrating motor complex
•When the stomach and small intestine are
empty, a special type of cyclical contraction takes
place, which is called migrating motor complex
(MMC).
•It starts near the lower end of the stomach and
sweeps down the intestine at the rate of 5
cm/min upto the terminal ileum.
•The movements occur at an interval of about 90
min.
•Both neural and humoral mechanism suggests
the movement is vagally mediated. However,
experiments by cooling the exposed vagus,
which blocks the vagal impulses, failed to
demonstrate any effect on MMC in the
gastrointestinal tract except in the stomach.
•On the other hand, experimental evidences
favor the possible role of motilin in causing the
MMC.
• The presumed functions of MMC are:
• Sweeping the intestine clean of remnants of food
and digested products.
• Sweeping of any bacteria ascending into small
intestine from the colon.
• Causing increase in blood flow, bile secretion and
secretion of pancreatic juice.
• The MMCs stops as soon as food enters into the
stomach and intestine and BER and peristaltic
waves are resumed normally.
Movement of small intestine
1. Movement of small intestine have two purposes:
• Digestive – Movement of intestine help in the digestion of
food by mixing the food with digestive juice.
• They also helps in the movement of the chyme in the aboral
direction.
2. Movement of the small intestine are of four types:
a. Segmentation
b. Pendular movement
c. Tonic movements
d. Peristalsis
A. Segmentation movements
•In this type of movement, a part of the
small intestine is divided into segments of
1-2 cm length by constriction at multiple
points.
•After a while, new constrictions takes place
at the previously dilated places while the
previous places of constriction now
become dilated.
•In the next phase, constrictions again appear at
the dilated part.
•In this way, although there is no propulsion of
intestinal contents, they are mixed intimately
with the digestive juice.
•This facilitates digestion and at the same time,
absorption is also enhanced.
b. Pendular movement
•In this type of movement, the
intestinal contents are moved to and
fro in a longer segment (about 20
cm)
•This helps in proper mixing of food
with digestive juices.
•C. Tonic movements
•In this type of movement, parts of the
small intestine are tonically contracted.
•These divide the intestinal contents into
separate segments and delay, their transit.
•The prolonged contact of the chyme with
gut wall facilitates digestion and
absorption.
D. Peristalsis
•In this type of movement, the chyme is pushed
forward in the aboral direction.
•Presence of the chyme in a part of the
intestine distends it at this point.
•This initiates a reflex, as a result of which
there is contraction proximal to the point of
distention, and relaxation in the distal part.
•So, the chyme now moves distally (aborally).
•Again, the intestinal wall is stretched at this
new position and the same reflex changes
occur again.
•Thus, the chyme is gradually propelled
forwards in an aboral direction.
•This is known as peristalsis.
•Several neurotransmitters play an
important role in the integration of
peristaltic movement.
•Serotonin is released at the site of stretch in
the intestine.
•Acetylcholine and substance P bring about the
proximal constriction while VIP, NO and ATP
cause distal dilation.
•Peristalsis occurs not only in the intestine, but
also in other hollow tubular organs like the
ureter, fallopian tube etc.
•Functions of peristalsis
• It augments digestion of the chyme by mixing it
with digestive juice in the intestine.
• It also augments the absorption the chyme by
propelling it newer areas of the gut.
• It pushes the bacteria, which might have come
from the colon into the small intestine, back into
the colon.
• It increase blood and lymph flow of the intestine.
• It helps to expel intestinal gases.
•Laws of intestine and polarity of the
intestine
• When the chyme stretches a part of the small intestine,
the part of the intestine proximal to this contracts while
the distal aboral part of the intestine relaxes. This is called
law of intestine. The peristaltic movement is a good
example of this law.
• The law of intestine is also responsible for the polarity of
intestine.
• According to the latter, food or chyme normally always
moves in an aboral direction.
•This can be experimentally demonstrated by
resecting a small portion of the intestine and
suturing it back to the site of resection.
•The chyme moves onward normally, if the
polarity of resected intestine is maintained, i. e
the proximal and distal end of resected intestine
continue to remain proximal and distal
respectively even after suture .
•But peristaltic movements come into a halt if
the polarity of the resected gut is reversed.
Movements in the large intestine
• Usually, the large intestine shows sluggish movements.
• Still, these movements are important for mixing,
propulsive and absorptive functions.
Types of Movements of Large Intestine
• Movements of large intestine are of two types:
1. Mixing movements: Segmentation contractions
2. Propulsive movements: Mass peristalsis.
.

1 . MIXING MOVEMENTS –
SEGMENTATION CONTRACTIONS
Large circular constrictions, which appear in the
colon, are called mixing segmentation contractions.
These contractions occur at regular distance in colon.
Length of the portion of colon involved in each
contraction is nearly about 2.5 cm.
2. PROPULSIVE MOVEMENTS – MASS
PERISTALSIS
• Mass peristalsis or mass movement propels the feces
from colon towards anus.
• Usually, this movement occurs only a few times every
day.
• Duration of mass movement is about 10 minutes in the
morning before or after breakfast.
• This is because of the neurogenic factors like gastrocolic
reflex and parasympathetic stimulation.
DEFECATION
Voiding of feces is known as defecation.
Feces is formed in the large intestine and stored in
sigmoid colon.
By the influence of an appropriate stimulus, it is
expelled out through the anus.
This is prevented by tonic constriction of anal
sphincters, in the absence of the stimulus.
DEFECATION REFLEX
• Mass movement drives the feces into sigmoid or pelvic colon.
• In the sigmoid colon, the feces is stored.
• The desire for defecation occurs when some feces enters rectum
due to the mass movement.
• Usually, the desire for defecation is elicited by an increase in the
intrarectal pressure to about 20 to 25 cm H2O.
• Usual stimulus for defecation is intake of liquid like coffee or
tea or water.
• But it differs from person to person.
Act of Defecation
• Act of defecation is preceded by voluntary efforts like
assuming an appropriate posture, voluntary relaxation of
external sphincter and the compression of abdominal
contents by voluntary contraction of abdominal muscles.
• Usually, the rectum is empty.
• During the development of mass movement, the feces is pushed
into rectum and the defecation reflex is initiated.
• The process of defecation involves the contraction of rectum
and relaxation of internal and external anal sphincters.
• Internal anal sphincter is made up of smooth muscle and it
is innervated by parasympathetic nerve fibers via pelvic nerve.
• External anal sphincter is composed of skeletal muscle and it
is controlled by somatic nerve fibers, which pass through
pudendal nerve.
• Pudendal nerve always keeps the external sphincter constricted
and the sphincter can relax only when the pudendal nerve is
inhibited.
Gastrocolic Reflex
• Gastrocolic reflex is the contraction of rectum, followed by the
desire for defecation caused by distention of stomach by food.
• It is mediated by intrinsic nerve fibers of GI tract.
• This reflex causes only a weak contraction of rectum.
• But, it initiates defecation reflex.
PATHWAY FOR DEFECATION REFLEX
• When rectum is distended due to the entry of feces by
mass movement, sensory nerve endings are stimulated.
• Impulses from the nerve endings are transmitted via
afferent fibers of pelvic nerve to the defecation center,
situated in sacral segments (center) of spinal cord.
• The center in turn, sends motor impulses to the
descending colon, sigmoid colon and rectum via efferent
nerve fibers of pelvic nerve.
•Motor impulses cause strong contraction of
descending colon, sigmoid colon and rectum
and relaxation of internal sphincter.
•Simultaneously, voluntary relaxation of external
sphincter occurs.
• It is due to the inhibition of pudendal nerve, by
impulses arising from cerebral cortex.
• The variability in character and shape of feces
among species is primarily a function of the
structural and functional features of the more distal
segments of the colon.
• In horses relatively strong segmentation
contractions form the characteristic fecal balls.
•Rumination
• Rumination permits an animal to forage and ingest food rapidly
and finish chewing later.
• It entails regurgitation of the food (returning it to the mouth)
from the forestomach, remastication (rechewing), reinsalivation
(mixing with more saliva), and finally reswallowing.
• Regurgitation is the only step of rumination that differs
markedly from the initial mastication, insalivation, and
swallowing.
• Regurgitation is preceded by contraction of the reticulum,
which presumably brings some of the heavier ingesta into
proximity to the cardia.
• The sphincter at the junction of the esophagus and forestomach
(lower esophageal sphincter) relaxes as the bolus of food reaches it.
• An inspiratory movement with closed glottis follows.
• The negative pressure produced in the thorax by this movement is
transmitted to the relatively thin walled esophagus, dilating the
thoracic esophagus and cardia.
• The lower pressure in the esophagus than in the rumen coupled with
reverse peristalsis causes a quantity of material (semifluid ingesta)
to pass through the cardia into the esophagus and up to the mouth.
• The regurgitated material consists largely of roughage and fluid,
with little if any concentrate.
• It is well known that whole kernels of corn may pass through the
entire digestive tract with little change in physical appearance.
• Cattle average about 8 hours a day ruminating, with
periods of activity scattered throughout the entire day.
• One rumination cycle requires about 1 minute, of which 3
to 4 seconds is used for both regurgitation and
reswallowing.
• Rumination appears to be largely reflexive, although the
process can be interrupted or stopped voluntarily.
• Both afferent and efferent portions of the refl ex are
probably carried in the vagal nerves.
• Contact of roughage with the wall of the reticulum and
near the cardia is likely the major stimulus for rumination.
Hunger contraction
• Beside the peristaltic contractions that occur when food
is present in the stomach, another type of intense
contractions, called hunger contraction, often occur
when the stomach has been empty for several hours or
more.
• They are rhythmical peristaltic contractions in the body
of the stomach.
• When the successive contractions become extremely
strong they often fuse to cause a continuing tetanic
contraction that some time lasts for 2 to 3 minutes.
• Hunger contractions are more intense in young healthy people who
have high degree of gastrointestinal tones, they are also greatly
increased by the persons having lower than normal level of blood
sugar.
• When hunger contraction occurs in the stomach, the person
sometimes experiences mild pain in the pit of the stomach, called
hunger pangs.
• Hunger pangs usually do not begin until 12 to 24 hours after the last
ingestion of food.
• In starvation they reach their greatest intensity in 3 to 4 days and
gradually weaken in succeeding days.