PHYSIOLOGY

OF SKIN
FUNCTION
SKIN
→ The skin, the body’s largest organ, is the outer body covering
of an animal.

→ It forms a barrier that helps prevent harmful

microorganisms and chemicals from entering the body, and it
also prevents the loss of life-sustaining body fluids.

→ It protects the vital structures inside the body from injury

and
from the potentially damaging ultraviolet rays of the sun.

→ The skin also helps regulate body temperature, excretes

some waste products, and is an important sensory organ.

→ Both delicate and resilient, the skin constantly renews itself

Structure of the Skin
The skin consists of an outer, protective layer (epidermis) and an inner,
living layer (dermis). The top layer of the epidermis is composed of dead
cells containing keratin, the horny protein that also makes up hair and
nails
MAJOR LAYERS of the
SKIN
●EPIDERMIS

→The outer layer of skin which is only a few cells

thick; it contains pigments and pores, and its surface
is made of dead cells that it sheds from the body.

●DERMIS
→ the thick sensitive layer of skin or connective
tissue beneath the epidermis
The thickness of dermis varies among
the species and between different areas
of the body. It is thick in bovine and then
in dog. It is thicker in the dorsal surface
than in the ventral surface of the body.
The cells of the dermis are fibroblast,
mast cells and histiocytes.
Hypodermis

This layer is situated just below the

dermis and consists of loose fibrous
connective tissue packed with fat and
adipose tissues and connects the skin
with underlying body structures. The
hypodermal fat forms foot pad and
digital cushion.
EPIDERMI
S
●Keratinocytes

●Melanocytes

● Langerhans
Cells

● Merkel Cells
KERATINOCYTE
S
About 90% of the cells in the epidermis are
keratinocytes, produces a tough, fibrous protein
called keratin. This protein is the main structural
protein of the epidermis, and it provides many
of the skin’s protective properties.
Two types of keratin are found in domestic
animals
1. Soft keratin which is pliable having
moderate Sulphur content and fairly high
lipid content.
2. Hard keratin which is non pliable and
are found in claws, hoofs and horns.
The old keratinocytes at the upper surface of
the skin constantly slough off. Meanwhile, cells
in the lower layers of the epidermis divide
continually, producing new keratinocytes to
replace those that have sloughed off. By the
time the cells reach the uppermost layer of the
epidermis, they are dead and completely filled
with the tough protein.
MELANOCYTE
S
Scattered among the keratinocytes in the
epidermis are melanocytes, cells that produce a
dark pigment called melanin. This pigment gives
color to the skin and protects it from the sun’s
ultraviolet rays.
The formation of melanin is under the influence of
hormone produced by intermediate lobe of
hypophysis called MSH, and hormones of thyroid,
adrenal and gonads.
Differences in skin color result from differences
in the amount of melanin produced and how
melanosomes, packets of melanin, are arranged
in the keratinocytes.
Particularly in people with light skin, melanin
sometimes accumulates in patches, forming
freckles, age spots, or liver spots.
A type of melanin
called pheomelanin
makes redheaded
people more
sensitive to the sun.
A total lack of
melanin, a genetic
condition called
albinism, makes
people extremely
sensitive to the
sun. Peoplewith
albinism have very
light skin, hair, and
eyes.
LANGERHANS
CELLS
The epidermis also contains a type of immune
cell known as a Langerhans cell. Produced in
the bone marrow, Langerhans cells take up
sentrylike positions in the epidermis, where
they help cells of the immune system recognize
potentially dangerous microorganisms and
chemicals.
MERKEL
CELLS
Another cell in the epidermis is the Merkel cell,
found in sensitive, hairless areas such as the
fingertips and lips. Located in the deepest layer
of the epidermis, Merkel cells contact nerve
endings in the dermis below and function as a
type of touch receptor.
DERMI
S
● Collagen

●Elastin

●Papillary Layer

● Reticular
Layer
COLLAGE
N
The main structural component of the dermis is
a protein called collagen. Bundles of collagen
molecules pack together throughout the dermis,
accounting for three-fourths of the dry weight
of skin. Collagen is also responsible for the
skin’s strength.
ELASTI
N
Another protein in the dermis, elastin, is the
main component of elastic fibers. These protein
bundles give skin its elasticity. Collagen and
elastin are produced by cells called
fibroblasts, which are found scattered
throughout the dermis.
Papillary
Layer
The upper part of the
dermis is known as the
papillary layer. It is
characterized by dermal
papillae, tiny, fingerlike
projections of tissue
that indent into the
epidermis above.
In the thick skin on the palms and soles, the
epidermis conforms to the shape of the
underlying dermal papillae, forming ridges and
valleys that we know as fingerprints. These
ridges provide traction that helps people grasp
objects and surfaces.
Some dermal papillae contain touch receptors
called Meissner’s corpuscles, and many contain
loops of tiny blood vessels. The extensive
network of blood vessels in the dermal papillae
plays an important role in the regulation of body
temperature.
The blood vessels
dilate in hot
environments to help
dissipate heat, and
they constrict to
conserve heat in cold
environments.
The lower layer of the
dermis is called the
reticular layer. It is
made primarily of
coarse collagen and
elastic fibers.
Skin appendages such
as glands and hair
follicles are often
anchored in the
reticular layer of the
dermis.
The reticular layer also contains several different
types of sensory receptors, nerve cells specialized
to detect various stimuli.
SKIN
APPENDAGES
● HAIR

● NAILS

● GLAND
S
HAI
R
Hair is composed primarily of keratin. The dead
keratinocytes fuse together to form the hair. At
the base of the follicle is the bulb, which
contains cells that give rise to the keratinocytes
that make up the hair, as well as blood vessels
that nourish the growing hair.
It gives a great protection to thermal and radiation
injury. It also acts as efficient filter and insulator.
Lengthening fibers of keratin-filled dead cells, grouped around the semi hollow
medulla, make up the cortex. A living structure called the bulb (visible as a
white lump at the end of a plucked hair) surrounds and feeds the root, which
lies in a pocket of the epidermis called the follicle.
Each hair follicle also contains the arrector pili,
a muscle that contracts in response to
cold, fright, and other emotions. When the
muscle contracts, it pulls the hair in the
follicle into a vertical position.
This response may help some mammals keep
warm or look bigger to frighten or intimidate
their enemies.
But in humans, because of our sparse coat
of body hair, it merely produces “goose
bumps.”
The color of hair is due to melanin. Dark hair
contains true melanin like that found in the skin.
Blond and red hair result from types of melanin
that contain sulfur and iron.
Hair goes gray when melanocytes age and
lose the enzyme necessary to produce
melanin.
White hair occurs when air bubbles become
incorporated into the growing hair.
NAIL
S
Nails on the fingers
and toes are made of
hard, keratin-filled
epidermal cells. They
protect the ends of
the digits from injury,
help us grasp small
objects, and enable us
to scratch.
The part of the nail that is visible is called the
nail body or nail plate, and the portion of the
nail body that extends past the end of the digit
is called the free edge. The nail groove is the
fold on the side and the eponychium is the skin
that holds the nail root.
Most of the nail body
appears pink because of
blood flowing in the
tissue underneath. The
pale, semicircular area
called the lunula
appears white due to
an underlying thick
layer of epidermis that
does not contain blood
vessels.
The part of the nail that is buried under the skin
is called the root. Nails grow as epidermal cells
below the nail root and transform into hard nail
cells that accumulate at the base of the nail,
pushing the rest of the nail forward.
GLAND
S
●Sweat Glands
An adult human has between 1.6 to 4 million
sudoriferous glands, or sweat glands. Most are of a type
known as eccrine sweat glands, which are found
almost all over the surface of the body and are most
numerous on the palms and soles. Eccrine sweat glands
begin deep in the dermis and connect to the surface of
the skin by a coiled duct.
In addition, nerve fibers that encircle the
sweat glands stimulate the glands in response
to fear, excitement, or anxiety.
Other sweat glands, known as apocrine sweat
glands, are much less numerous than eccrine
sweat glands. They are also anchored deep in
the dermis, but open into hair follicles rather
than onto the surface of the skin.
 Apocrine sweat glands are located mainly in
the armpit, genital area, and around the
nipples of the breasts.
●Oil Glands
Oil, or sebaceous, glands are found all over the body
except on the palms, the soles, and the top of the
feet. They are most numerous on the face and scalp.
Most sebaceous glands open into hair follicles, but
the glands also occur in some hairless areas, such as
the lips and inside the mouth.
The glands are well developed in horse,
cow, cat and dog and rudimentary in
swine. In sheep the glands are associated
with wool or hair follicle.
In cattle the glands are highly developed
in perineal region and horn, hoof and
muzzle margins and are absent in hairless
parts.
The scent gland in goat, modified
sebaceous glands are found in the base of
horn in both sexes. During breeding
season the glands are hypertrophied and
odorous in male due to the presence of
caproic and caprolic acids and activity is
correlated with male gonadal hormone
testosterone.
There is no nervous control for the activity
of sebaceous glands,
Glands of this type
produce an oily
substance called sebum,
has many fold functions in
animals like bacteriostatic,
fungistatic and emollient
tosuperficial skin layer. It
also functions as
pheromones in animals.
●Wax Glands

Wax, or ceruminous,
glands are located in the
ear canal. They secrete a
waxy substance that helps
prevent foreign particles
from entering the ear.
Ceruminous glands are
modified sweat
glands.