HYPOTHALAMUS

( control )
link NERVOUS SYSTEM
PITUITARY GLAND

Regulate body Produce

processes
stimulating hormone
• ADH (antidiuretic) – stimulates kidney to reabsorb water
• blood pressure • FSH (follicle-stimulating) – stimulate production of mature egg & sperm
• growth • LH (luteinising) – stimulates ovulation & corpus luteum formation
• water balance - stimulates production of sex hormone in male
• TSH (thyroid stimulating) – stimulates the synthesis & release of
thyroxine
• Growth – stimulates protein synthesis & growth.

# OTHER ENDOCRINE GLANDS

SECRETION OF HORMONES REGULATED BY ANOTHER HORMONE

TSH

regulates

the release of hormone thyroxine

high level

inhibits

release TSH

Stops additional thyroxine

SECRETION OF HORMONES REGULATED BY LEVELS OF CERTAIN SUBSTANCES

High level of glucose

stimulates

pancreas
secretes

insulin

converts

Glycogen & stored in the liver.

 SECRETION OF HORMONES REGULATED BY NERVOUS SYSTEM

Hypothalamus

receives

nerve impulse
stimulate

Pituitary gland

release

hormone

# Examples : take a test, when you are surprised, body temperature

 EFFECTS OF HORMONAL IMBALANCE

Effect Causes Disease/condition

Goitre iodine deficiency Creatinism
- enlargement of too little thyroxine (children)
the thyroid gland too much Hypothyroidism
thyroxine Hyperthyroidism
Gigantism too much growth
- body grow too hormone
quickly
Dwarfism too little growth
hormone
Diabetes lack of antidiuretic
insipidus hormone.
large volume of
urine is excreted &
body loses a lot of
water.

Oedema
too much
antidiuretic
accumulation of
excess fluids in the high blood
Diabetes body. glucose can
 HOMEOSTASIS IN HUMANS

HOMEOSTASIS : the regulation of the physical and chemical factors in the internal
environment to maintain a constant internal environment.
# monitoring changes in external & internal environments by means of receptors
# adjusting through a negative feedback mechanism.

Physical factors :
- body temperature
- blood pressure
Chemical factors :
- partial pressure of oxygen & carbon dioxide
- osmotic pressure
- sugar level

Necessity of maintaining optimal physical & chemical conditions in the internal environme
The condition of the environment must be regulated & maintained at a constant state of
dynamic or balanced equilibrium to ensure :
- the physiological processes in the body can proceed at optimum rates
- organisms can adjust to changes in the external environment.
- a constant internal condition is vital for the survival of organisms.
STRUCTURE OF THE KIDNEYS

• Kidneys produced urine and excreted it out from the body.

• situated in the dorsal wall of the abdomen.

• each kidney
- has a cortex (outer), medulla (inner) & pelvis (opens into ureter)
- consists of numerous tubular unit : Nephrons
• each nephron consists of :
- a Bowman’s capsule which begins in the cortex.
- continues to form the proximal convoluted tubule which leads to the medulla.
- form a U-shaped loop called loop of Henle and leads on to form the
distal convoluted tubule before opens into a collecting duct.
- In the Bowman’s capsule is a little mass (knot) of capillaries, arise from a
branch of the renal artery = glomerulus.
- capillaries leave the glomerulus to surround the tubule before enter a branch
of the renal vein.
 Function of Kidney
Excretion: the removal of the metabolites that
have exceeded a critical concentration
Osmoregulation: control the regulation of the
volume & composition of body fluid.

Each kidney consist of about one million nephrons.

 FORMATION OF URINE • ultrafiltration
involves • reabsorption
• secretion
• ULTRAFILTRATION

 Process occurs at the glomerulus.

 Diameter of the efferent arteriole which carries blood out of the
glomerulus is smaller than the afferent arteriole which carries blood
into the glomerulus.

 The high hydrostatic pressure (ultrafiltration) causes many

constituents of blood to be filtered out from the glomerulus into
Bowman’s capsule.
 The filtrate is called glomeruler filtrate.

The characteristic of glomerulus filtrate :

10.Has similar composition as the blood plasma except it does
not contain larger molecules such as blood red cell & plasma
proteins.
11.It has water, urea, glucose, amino acids, vitamins & salt.

 The glomerular filtrate then passes along the nephron to

reabsorpion occur.
 REABSORPTION

• When the glomerular filtrate reachesthe proximal convulated tubule

65% of the water is reabsorb to the blood capillaries by osmosis.

All glucose, amino acids, vitamins & some salts are reabsorb by active
transport. Urea is not reabsorbed.

The fitrate now only contain water, some salts & urea passes along
the loop of Henle.
About 20% of water & some salts are reabsorbed
into the blood capillaries by osmosis & active transport.

Then it continue to pass through distal convoluted tubule and collecting

duct, where some water & salts are reabsorbed into the blood capillaries
depends on blood osmotic pressure.

the reabsorption of water regulated by ADH (antidiuretic hormone)

the reabsorption of salts regulated by Aldosterone hormone.
 SECRETION

•The process involves the pumping out of the waste products from
the blood capillaries into the tubule.

•The waste products such as urea, uric acid & ammonia are
pumped out of the blood capillaries into the distal convoluted
tubule by active transport.

•Some drug and other toxin by simple diffusion, along the tubule.
• The final glomerular filtrate which remains in the collecting duct is
called urine.

The major constituents of urine are 96% of water, 2.5% nitrogenous

products (urea, uric acid, ammonia, creatinine), 1.5% salts & bile
pigments.
From the collecting ducts, urine is channelled into the pelvis &
carried out of the kidney by the ureter to the urinary bladder &
excreted out of the body by urethra.
 CONSEQUENCE OF IMPAIRED KIDNEY
FUNCTION.
If kidney failed to function:
b) Metabolic waste cannot be excreted
c) Blood osmotic pressure cannot be regulated
d) Tissue fluid osmotic balance cannot be maintain

The patients with kidney failure could be treated by:

1. Kidney donation @ transplant.

A suitable kidney donor can donate one of his @ her kidney to the
patient and the unfunction kidney has to remove and replace with
the new kidney.
 2. HAEMODYLYSIS
Dialysis machine is used to remove metabolic
waste such as water, urea & excess salts from
blood.
The procedure is expensive & takes 6-10 hours to
be done at least 3 times a week.
During haemodialysis ,blood from radial artery in
the patient arm passes into dialysis machine and
then flow back into the vein of the same arm.
As the blood passes along the coiled tubing in the
dialysis machine, the urea & salts which are
higher concentration diffuse across semi
permeable tubing walls into dialysis fliud.
 PRACTISING HEALTHY LIFESTYLE
DRUG ABUSE & EFFECT ON HUMAN
Drugs can interfere the action of neurotransmitters by
amplifying or inhibiting nervous transmission.

Drugs intake can cause social problem such as:

 Addict neglect themselves, families, friends & work.
 Turn to crime to get money to buy drugs.
 Tend to share contaminated needles & makes them
susceptible to many diseases such as Hep B & AIDs.
 Addicted mother may give birth to addicted infants.
 Alcohol abuse & effect on human:

Immediate effect:
On the nervous sys. :
 Reduces tension & worries.
 Less alert , slurred speech, blurred vision, slow reaction
poor judgement.
On the circulatory sys:
 Dilation of blood vessel in the skin hence the face looks
red & heat loss easily.
On the digestive sys:
 Stimulates secretion of acid in the stomach that will
irritates the lining of stomach.

Long Term effect:

 Stomach ulcers & liver damage that lead to death.
 Alcoholism
 PLANT HORMONES
Such as auxin, ethylene, giberelliin, cytokinin & abscisic acid.
Growth response towards stimulus in plant known as tropism.

There two type of tropism:

Geotropism: the growth of plant part in response to gravity
Phototropism: the growth of plant part in response to light

Effect of auxin on growth:

In root, the amount growth is stimulate by low auxin levels & inhibit
by higher concentration.
Shoot growth is stimulated by higher levels of auxin that inhibit root
growth.
Auxin hormone always moves away from the light source and
accumulates on the shaded side.
 USES OF HORMONE IN AGRICULTURE.

HORMONES USES
AUXIN To promote growth of adventitious roots
from stem cuttings.
To prevent young fruits from falling
prematurely & also promote
parthenocarpy. Together with gibberellins
hormone.

ETHYLENE To Promote flowering in plants

To induce ripening of fruits.
To promote leaf senescence and
abscission – leaves die earlier & drops from
the plant.