VENOMOUS

SNAKES IN
GEORGIA

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 VIPERS
CARPHOPHIS AMOENUS

DESCRIPTION: All viperids have a pair of relatively long solenoglyphous

(hollow) fangs that are used to inject venom from glands located
towards the rear of the upper jaws, just behind the eyes. Each of the
two fangs is at the front of the mouth on a short maxillary bone that
can rotate back and forth. When not in use, the fangs fold back against
the roof of the mouth and are enclosed in a membranous sheath. This
rotating mechanism allows for very long fangs to be contained in a
relatively small mouth. The left and right fangs can be rotated together
or independently. During a strike, the mouth can open nearly 180° and
the maxilla rotates forward, erecting the fangs as late as possible so
that the fangs do not become damaged, as they are brittle. The jaws
close upon impact and the muscular sheaths encapsulating the
venom glands contract, injecting the venom as the fangs penetrate
the target. This action is very fast; in defensive strikes, it will be more a
stab than a bite. Viperids use this mechanism primarily for
immobilization and digestion of prey. Pre-digestion occurs as the
venom contains proteases, which degrade tissues. Secondarily, it is
used for self defense, though in cases with nonprey, such as humans,
they may give a dry bite (not inject any venom). A dry bite allows the
snake to conserve its precious reserve of venom, because once it has
been depleted, time is needed to replenish it, leaving the snake
vulnerable. In addition to being able to deliver dry bites, vipers can
inject larger quantities of venom into larger prey targets, and smaller
amounts into small prey. This causes the ideal amount of predigestion
for the lowest amount of venom.
Almost all vipers have keeled scales, a stocky build with a short tail,
and a triangle-shaped head distinct from the neck, owing to the
location of the venom glands. The great majority have vertically
elliptical, or slit-shaped, pupils that can open wide to cover most of the
eye or close almost completely, which helps them to see in a wide
range of light levels. Typically, vipers are nocturnal and ambush their
prey.
Compared to many other snakes, vipers often appear rather sluggish.
Most are ovoviviparous: the eggs are retained inside the mother's body, VIPERIDAE
and the young emerge living. However, a few lay eggs in nests.
Typically, the number of young in a clutch remains constant, but as the
weight of the mother increases, larger eggs are produced, yielding
larger young.
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 VIPERS
CARPHOPHIS AMOENUS

VENOM: Viperid venoms typically contain an abundance of

protein-degrading enzymes, called proteases, that produce
symptoms such as pain, strong local swelling and necrosis, blood
loss from cardiovascular damage complicated by coagulopathy,
and disruption of the blood-clotting system. Also being
vasculotoxic in nature, viperine venom causes vascular endothelial
damage and hemolysis. Death is usually caused by collapse in
blood pressure. This is in contrast to elapid venoms, which
generally contain neurotoxins that disable muscle contraction and
cause paralysis. Death from elapid bites usually results from
asphyxiation because the diaphragm can no longer contract, but
this rule does not always apply; some elapid bites include
proteolytic symptoms typical of viperid bites, while some viperid
bites produce neurotoxic symptoms.
Proteolytic venom is also dual-purpose: first, it is used for defense
and to immobilize prey, as with neurotoxic venoms; second, many
of the venom's enzymes have a digestive function, breaking down
molecules such as lipids, nucleic acids, and proteins.[5] This is an
important adaptation, as many vipers have inefficient digestive
systems.

Due to the nature of proteolytic venom, a viperid bite is

often a very painful experience and should always be taken
seriously, though it may not necessarily prove fatal. Even
with prompt and proper treatment, a bite can still result in a
permanent scar, and in the worst cases, the affected limb
may even have to be amputated. A victim's fate is
impossible to predict, as this depends on many factors,
including the species and size of the snake involved, how
much venom was injected (if any), and the size and
condition of the patient before being bitten. Viper bite
victims may also be allergic to venom or antivenom.
VIPERIDAE

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 VIPERS
VIPERIDAE

BEHAVIOR: These snakes can decide how much venom

to inject depending on the circumstances. The most
important determinant of venom expenditure is
generally the size of the snake; larger specimens can
deliver much more venom. The species is also
important since some are likely to inject more venom
than others, may have more venom available, strike
more accurately, or deliver a number of bites in a short
time. In predatory bites, factors that influence the
amount of venom injected include the size of the prey,
the species of prey, and whether the prey item is held or
released.
The need to label prey for chemosensory relocation
after a bite and release may also play a role. In defensive
bites, the amount of venom injected may be
determined by the size or species of the predator (or
antagonist), as well as the assessed level of threat,
although larger assailants and higher threat levels may
not necessarily lead to larger amounts of venom being
injected.

VIPERIDAE

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COPPERHEAD
AGKISTRODON CONTORTRIX

DESCRIPTION: Adults grow to a typical length (including tail) of 50–95 cm (20–37

in). Some may exceed 1 m (3 ft 3 in), although that is exceptional for this species.
[11] Males do not typically exceed 74 to 76 cm (29 to 30 in) and weigh from 101.5
to 343 g (3+9⁄16 to 12+1⁄8 oz), with a mean of roughly 197.4 g (6+15⁄16 oz).[12] Females
do not typically exceed 60 to 66 cm (23+1⁄2 to 26 in),[13][14] and have a mean
body mass of 119.8 g (4+7⁄32 oz).[15] The maximum length reported for this species
is 134.6 cm (53 in) for A. c. mokasen (Ditmars, 1931). Brimley (1944) mentions a
specimen of A. c. mokasen from Chapel Hill, North Carolina, that was "four feet,
six inches" (137.2 cm), but this may have been an approximation. The maximum
length for A. c. contortrix is 132.1 cm (52 in) (Conant, 1958). The body is relatively
stout and the head is broad and distinct from the neck. Because the snout slopes
down and back, it appears less blunt than that of the cottonmouth, A. piscivorus.
Consequently, the top of the head extends further forward than the mouth. The
escalation includes 21–25 (usually 23) rows of dorsal scales at midbody, 138–157
ventral scales in both sexes, and 38–62 and 37–57 subcaudal scales in males and
females, respectively. The subcaudals are usually single, but the percentage
thereof decreases clinally from the northeast, where about 80% are undivided, to
the southwest of the geographic range where as little as 50% may be undivided.
On the head are usually 9 large symmetrical plates, 6–10 (usually 8) supralabial EASTERN COPPERHEAD
scales, and 8–13 (usually 10) sublabial scales.

The color pattern consists of a pale tan to pinkish-tan ground color that becomes
darker towards the foreline, overlaid with a series of 10–18 (13.4) crossbands.
Characteristically, both the ground color and crossband pattern are pale in A. c.
contortrix. These crossbands are light tan to pinkish-tan to pale brown in the
center, but darker towards the edges. They are about two scales wide or less at
the midline of the back, but expand to a width of 6–10 scales on the sides of the
body. They do not extend down to the ventral scales. Often, the crossbands are
divided at the midline and alternate on either side of the body, with some
individuals even having more half bands than complete ones. A series of dark
brown spots is also present on the flanks, next to the belly, and are the largest
and darkest in the spaces between the crossbands.
The belly is the same color as the ground color but may be a little whitish in part.
At the base of the tail are one to three (usually two) brown crossbands followed
by a gray area. In juveniles, the pattern on the tail is more distinct: 7–9 crossbands
are visible, while the tip is yellow. On the head, the crown is usually unmarked,
except for a pair of small dark spots, one near the midline of each parietal scale.
A faint postocular stripe is also present; diffuse above and bordered below by a
narrow brown edge.

AGKISTRODON CONTORTRIX,
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COPPERHEAD
AGKISTRODON CONTORTRIX

BEHAVIOR: In the Southern United States, copperheads are

nocturnal during the hot summer, but are commonly active
during the day during the spring and fall. Unlike other viperids,
they often "freeze" instead of slithering away, and as a result,
many bites occur due to people unknowingly stepping on or
near them.[6] This tendency to freeze most likely evolved
because of the extreme effectiveness of their camouflage. When
lying on dead leaves or red clay, they can be almost impossible
to notice. They frequently stay still even when approached
closely, and generally strike only if physical contact is made.
Like most other New World vipers, copperheads exhibit
defensive tail vibration behavior when closely approached. This
species is capable of vibrating its tail in excess of 40 times per
second— faster than almost any other nonrattlesnake snake
species. EASTERN COPPERHEAD

REPRODUCTION: Eastern copperheads breed in late summer,

but not every year; sometimes, females produce young for
several years running, then do not breed at all for a time. They
give birth to live young, each of which is about 20 cm (8 in) in
total length. The typical litter size is four to seven, but as few as
one, or as many as 20 may be seen. Their size apart, the young
are similar to the adults, but lighter in color, and with a
yellowish-green-marked tip to the tail, which is used to lure
lizards and frogs.
A. contortrix males have longer tongue tie lengths than females
during the breeding season, which may aid in chemoreception
of males searching for females.
AGKISTRODON CONTORTRIX,
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COPPERHEAD
AGKISTRODON CONTORTRIX

VENOM: Although venomous, eastern copperheads are generally not

aggressive and bites are rarely fatal. Copperhead venom has an
estimated lethal dose around 100 mg, and tests on mice show its
potency is among the lowest of all pit vipers, and slightly weaker than
that of its close relative, the cottonmouth. Copperheads often employ
a "warning bite" when stepped on or agitated and inject a relatively
small amount of venom, if any at all. "Dry bites" involving no venom
are particularly common with the copperhead, though all pit vipers
are capable of a dry bite.[32] Pit vipers that are dead are still
dangerous and capable of producing venom in amounts that
necessitate the use of antivenom.
Bite symptoms include extreme pain, tingling, throbbing, swelling,
and severe nausea. Damage can occur to muscle and bone tissue,
especially when the bite occurs in the outer extremities such as the
hands and feet, areas in which a large muscle mass is not available to
absorb the venom. A bite from any venomous snake should be taken EASTERN COPPERHEAD
very seriously and immediate medical attention sought, as an allergic
reaction and secondary infection are always possible.
The venom of the southern copperhead has been found to hold a
protein called "contortrostatin" that halts the growth of cancer cells in
mice and also stops the migration of the tumors to other sites.[35]
However, this is an animal model, and further testing is required to
verify safety and efficacy in humans. The antivenom CroFab is used to
treat copperhead envenomations that demonstrate localized or
systemic reactions to the venom. As many copperhead bites can be
dry (no envenomation), CroFab is not given in the absence of a
reaction (such as swelling) due to the risk of complications of an
allergic reaction to the treatment. The antivenom can cause an
immune reaction called serum sickness. Pain management, tetanus
immunization, laboratory evaluation, and medical supervision in the
case of complications are additional courses of action. In 2002, an
Illinois poison control center report on the availability of antivenom
stated it used 1 Acp to 5 Acp depending on the symptoms and
circumstances.
AGKISTRODON CONTORTRIX,
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 COTTONMOUTH
(WATER MOCCASIN)
AGKISTRODON PISCIVORUS

DESCRIPTION: Agkistrodon piscivorus is the largest species of

the genus Agkistrodon. Adults commonly exceed 80 cm (31 in)
in total length (including tail); females are typically smaller than
males. Total length, per one study of adults, was 65 to 90 cm (26
to 35 in). Average body mass has been found to be 292.5 to
579.6 g (10.32 to 20.44 oz) in males and 201.1 to 254.1 g (7.09 to
8.96 oz) in females. Occasionally, individuals may exceed 180
cm (71 in) in total length, especially in the eastern part of the
range.
Although larger ones have purportedly been seen in the wild,
according to Gloyd and Conant (1990), the largest recorded AGKISTRODON PISCIVORUS
specimen of A. p. piscivorus was 188 cm (74 in) in total length,
[21] based on a specimen caught in the Dismal Swamp region
and given to the Philadelphia Zoological Garden. This snake
had apparently been injured during capture, died several days
later, and was measured when straight and relaxed.[8] Large
specimens can be extremely bulky, with the mass of a
specimen of about 180 cm (71 in) in total length known to weigh
4.6 kg (10 lb). The broad head is distinct from the neck, and the
snout is blunt in profile with the rim of the top of the head
extending forwards slightly further than the mouth. Substantial
cranial plates are present, although the parietal plates are often
fragmented, especially towards the rear. A loreal scale is absent.
Six to 9 supralabials and eight to 12 infralabials are seen. At the
midbody, there are 23–27 rows of dorsal scales. All dorsal scale
rows have keels, although those on the lowermost scale rows
are weak.[8] In males/females, the ventral scales number 130-
145/128-144, and the subcaudals 38-54/36-50. Many of the latter
may be divided.

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 COTTONMOUTH
(WATER MOCCASIN)
AGKISTRODON PISCIVORUS

BEHAVIOR: In tests designed to measure the various behavioral

responses by wild specimens to encounters with people, 23 of
45 (51%) tried to escape, while 28 of 36 (78%) resorted to threat
displays and other defensive tactics. Only when they were
picked up with a mechanical hand were they likely to bite.
When sufficiently stressed or threatened, this species engages
in a characteristic threat display that includes vibrating its tail
and throwing its head back with its mouth open to display the
startlingly white interior,[26] often making a loud hiss while the
neck and front part of the body are pulled into an S-shaped
position.[31] Many of its common names, including
"cottonmouth" and "gaper", refer to this behavior, while its habit AGKISTRODON PISCIVORUS
of snapping its jaws shut when anything touches its mouth has
earned it the name "trap jaw" in some areas. Other defensive
responses can include flattening the body and emitting a
strong, pungent secretion from the anal glands located at the
base of the tail. This musk may be ejected in thin jets if the
snake is sufficiently agitated or restrained. The smell has been
likened to that of a billy goat, as well as to a genus of common
flood-plain weeds, Pluchea, that also have a penetrating odor.
Harmless watersnakes of the genus Nerodia are often mistaken
for it. These are also semiaquatic, thick-bodied snakes with
large heads that can be aggressive when provoked, but they
behave differently.
For example, watersnakes usually flee quickly into the water,
while A. piscivorus often stands its ground with its threat
display. In addition, watersnakes do not vibrate their tails when
excited. A. piscivorus usually holds its head at an angle around
45° when swimming or crawling.

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 COTTONMOUTH
(WATER MOCCASIN)
AGKISTRODON PISCIVORUS

REPRODUCTION: Agkistrodon piscivorus is ovoviviparous, with

females usually giving birth to one to 16 live young and possibly
as many as 20. Litters of six to eight are the most common.
Neonates are 22–35 cm in length (excluding runts), with the
largest belonging to A. p. conanti and A. p. leucostoma the
smallest. If weather conditions are favorable and food is readily
available, growth is rapid and females may reproduce at less
than three years of age and a total length of as little as 60 cm.
The young are born in August or September, while mating may
occur during any of the warmer months of the year, at least in
certain parts of its range. Regarding A. p. piscivorus, an early
account by Stejneger (1895) described a pair in the Berlin
Zoological Garden that mated on January 21, 1873, after which
eight neonates were discovered in the cage on July 16 of that AGKISTRODON PISCIVORUS
year. The young were each 26 cm in length and 1.5 cm thick.
They shed for the first time within two weeks, after which they
accepted small frogs, but not fish. Combat behavior between
males has been reported on a number of occasions and is very
similar in form to that seen in many other viperid species. An
important factor in sexual selection, it allows for the
establishment and recognition of dominance as males compete
for access to sexually active females. A few accounts exist that
describe females defending their newborn litters. Wharten
(1960, 1966) reported several cases where females found near
their young stood their ground and considered these to be
examples of guarding behavior. Another case was described by
Walters and Card (1996) in which a female was found at the
entrance of a chamber with seven neonates crawling on or
around her. When one of the young was moved a short distance
from the chamber, she seemed to be agitated and faced the
intruder. Eventually, all of her offspring retreated into the
chamber, but the female remained at the entrance, ready to
strike.
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 COTTONMOUTH
(WATER MOCCASIN)
AGKISTRODON PISCIVORUS

VENOM: Agkistrodon piscivorus venom is more toxic than that of A.

contortrix, and is rich with powerful cytotoxic venom that destroys
tissue. Although deaths are rare, the bite can leave scars, and on
occasion, require amputation. Absent an anaphylactic reaction in a
bitten individual, however, the venom does not cause systemic
reactions in victims and does not contain neurotoxic components
present in numerous rattlesnake species. Bites can be effectively
treated with CroFab antivenom; this serum is derived using venom
components from four species of American pit vipers (the eastern and
western diamondback rattlesnakes, the Mojave rattlesnake, and the
cottonmouth). Bites from the cottonmouth are relatively frequent in
the lower Mississippi River Valley and along the coast of the Gulf of
Mexico, although fatalities are rare.
Wright and Wright (1957) report having encountered these snakes on
countless occasions, often almost stepping on them, but never being AGKISTRODON PISCIVORUS
bitten. In addition, they heard of no reports of any bites among 400
cypress cutters in the Okefenokee Swamp during the entire summer
of 1921. These accounts suggest that the species is not particularly
aggressive. Brown (1973) gave an average venom yield (dried) of 125
mg, with a range of 80–237 mg, along with LD50 values of 4.0, 2.2, 2.7,
3.5, 2.0 mg/kg IV, 4.8, 5.1, 4.0, 5.5, 3.8, 6.8 mg/kg IP and 25.8 mg/kg SC
for toxicity. Wolff and Githens (1939) described a 152 cm (60 in)
specimen that yielded 3.5 ml of venom during the first extraction and
4.0 ml five weeks later (1.094 grams of dried venom).[14] The human
lethal dose is unknown but has been estimated at 100–150 mg.
Symptoms commonly include ecchymosis and swelling. The pain is
generally more severe than bites from the copperhead, but less so
than those from rattlesnakes (Crotalus spp.). The formation of vesicles
and bullae is less common than with rattlesnake bites, although
necrosis can occur. Myokymia is sometimes reported. However,
venom has a strong proteolytic activity that can lead to severe tissue
destruction.

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 EASTERN
DIAMONDBACK
RATTLESNAKE
CROTALUS ADAMANTEUS

DESCRIPTION: The eastern diamondback rattlesnake is the

largest rattlesnake species and is one of the heaviest known
species of venomous snake, with one specimen shot in 1946
measuring 2.4 m (7.8 ft) in length and weighing 15.4 kg (34 lb).
However, other venomous snakes may rival this species in
weight such as the much longer but more slender king cobra
and the shorter but even bulkier Gaboon viper. Maximum
reported lengths for the eastern diamondback rattlesnake are
2.4 m (8 ft) and 2.5 m (8.25 ft). However, the stated maximum
sizes have been called into question due to a lack of voucher
specimens.[12][13] Males are typically larger than females,
which is rare among snakes (females are usually larger than
males).
EASTERN DIAMONDBACK RATTLESNAKE
Specimens over 2.1 m (7 ft) are rare, but well documented.
Klauber (1998) included a letter he received from E. Ross Allen
in 1953, in which Allen explains how for years he offered a
reward of $100, and later $200, for an 2.4 m (8 ft) specimen,
dead or alive. The reward was never claimed. He did receive a
number of 2.1 m (7 ft) range specimens and some 2.4 m (8 ft)
skins, but said such skins can be taken from specimens as short
as 1.8 m (6 ft).[3] A 2.2 m (7.3 ft) specimen was caught and killed
outside a neighborhood in St. Augustine, Florida in September
2009. The average size is much less. Specimens are rarely found
over 6 feet in length. Lengths of 1.1 to 1.7 m (3.5 to 5.5 ft),[15] and
0.8 to 1.8 m (2.75 to 6 ft) are given.[16] One study found an
average length of 1.7 m (5.6 ft) based on 31 males and 43
females. The average body mass is roughly 2.3 kg (5.1 lb).[18] The
average weight of 9 laboratory-kept specimens was 2.55 kg (5.6
lb), with a range of 0.8 to 4.9 kg (1.8 to 10.8 lb). Few specimens
can exceed 5.12 kg (11.3 lb), although exceptional specimens can EASTERN DIAMONDBACK
weigh 6.7 kg (15 lb) or more. RATTLESNAKE AT THE SAINT
LOUIS ZOO
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 EASTERN
DIAMONDBACK
RATTLESNAKE
CROTALUS ADAMANTEUS

BEHAVIOR: The eastern diamondback rattlesnake frequently

shelters by tunneling in gopher and tortoise burrows, emerging
in the early morning or afternoon to bask.
Like most rattlesnakes, this species is terrestrial and not adept
at climbing. However, it has on occasion been reported in
bushes and trees, apparently in search of prey. Even large
specimens have been spotted as high as 10 m (33 ft) above the
ground.
It is also known to be an excellent swimmer. Specimens have
often been spotted crossing stretches of water between barrier
islands and the mainland off the Georgia coast, in the Gulf of
Mexico and in the Florida Keys, sometimes miles from land. EASTERN DIAMONDBACK RATTLESNAKE

Individual disposition varies, with some allowing close

approach while remaining silent, and others starting to rattle at
a distance of 6–9 m (20–30 ft). The rattle is well-developed and
can be heard from relatively far away. When threatened, it raises
the anterior half of the body off the ground in an S-shaped coil
and can strike to a distance of at least a third of its body length.
Many will stand their ground and may strike repeatedly, but if
given the opportunity, they will usually retreat while facing the
intruder and moving backward towards shelter, after which
they disappear.
One popular myth is that the eastern diamondback rattlesnake
must rattle before striking. On the contrary, it is quite capable of
striking while remaining completely silent. Hawks, eagles, and
other snakes have been known to prey upon young and
adolescent specimens of the eastern diamondback rattlesnake. EASTERN DIAMONDBACK
RATTLESNAKE AT THE SAINT
LOUIS ZOO
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 EASTERN
DIAMONDBACK
RATTLESNAKE
CROTALUS ADAMANTEUS

REPRODUCTION: Rattlesnakes, including the eastern

diamondback, are ovoviviparous. Gestation lasts six or seven
months and broods average about a dozen young. However, the
young only stay with the mother 10–20 days before they set off
on their own to hunt and find cover.
Females give birth to between 7 and 21 young at a time, usually
between July and early October. Neonates are 30–36 cm (12–14
in) in length and are similar in appearance to adults, except for
having only a small button instead of a rattle on the tip of their
tails.

VENOM: The eastern diamondback rattlesnake has the EASTERN DIAMONDBACK RATTLESNAKE
reputation of being the most dangerous venomous snake in
North America. While not usually aggressive, it is large and
powerful. Wright and Wright mentioned a mortality rate of
30%, but other studies show a mortality rate of 10–20%
(untreated).

In proportion to its length, it has the longest fangs of any

rattlesnake species, with calculations leading one to expect a
2.4-meter (8 ft) specimen would have fangs with a total length
of over 25 mm (1 in). For comparison, a 1.5-meter (5 ft) specimen
had fangs measuring 17 mm (2⁄3 in) in length. It has a very high
venom yield, an average of 400–450 mg, with a maximum of
858–1,000 mg. Brown gives an average venom yield of 410 mg
(dried venom), along with LD50 values of 1.3–2.4 mg/kg IV, 1.7–3.0
mg/kg IP, and 14.5–10 mg/kg SC for toxicity. The estimated
human lethal dose is 100–150 mg.
EASTERN DIAMONDBACK
RATTLESNAKE AT THE SAINT
LOUIS ZOO
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 TIMBER
RATTLESNAKE
CROTALUS HORRIDUS

DESCRIPTION: Adults usually grow to total length of 91–152 cm (36–60

in). In Pennsylvania, the smallest size female that could produce
viable eggs was 72.2 cm (28.4 in). Most adult timber rattlesnakes
found measure less than 115 cm (45 in) in total length and weigh
between 500 and 1,500 g (1.1 and 3.3 lb), often being towards the
lower end of that range. The maximum reported total length is 189.2
cm (74.5 in) (Klauber, 1956). Holt (1924) mentions a large specimen
caught in Montgomery County, Alabama, which had a total length of
159 cm (62.5 in) and weighed 2.5 kg (5.5 lb). Large specimens can
reportedly weigh as much as 4.5 kg (9.9 lb).
The dorsal scales are keeled and arranged in 21–26 scale rows at the
midbody (usually 25 rows in the southern part of its geographic range,
and 23 rows in the northern part). The ventral scales number 158–177
in males and 163–183 in females. Males have 20–30 subcaudal scales, TIMBER RATTLESNAKE
while females have 15–26. The rostral scale is normally a little higher
than it is wide. In the internasal-prefrontal area, there are 4–22 scales
that include 2 large, triangular internasal scales that border the
rostral, followed by two large, quadrangular prefrontal scales (anterior
canthals) that may contact each other along the midline or may be
separated by many small scales. Between the supraocular and
internasal scales, only a single canthal scale is present. Five to seven
intersupraocular scales are seen. The number of prefoveal scales
varies between two and eight. Usually, the first supralabial scale is in
broad contact with the prenasal scale, although slightly to
moderately separated along its posteroventral margin by the most
anterior prefoveals.
Dorsally, they have a pattern of dark brown or black crossbands on a
yellowish-brown or grayish background. The crossbands have
irregular zig-zag edges and may be V- or M-shaped. Often a rust-
colored vertebral stripe is present. Ventrally, they are yellowish,
uniform, or marked with black. Melanism is common, and some
individuals are very dark, almost solid black ADULT CROTALUS HORRIDUS, FLORIDA

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 TIMBER
RATTLESNAKE
CROTALUS HORRIDUS

BEHAVIOR: Female timber rattlers often bask in the sun before

giving birth, in open rocky areas known as "basking knolls".
During the winter, timber rattlesnakes brumate in dens and
limestone crevices, often together with copperheads and black
rat snakes.

Males often mate farther away from winter hibernacula than

females.
A lifetime reproduction study of a population in the Adirondack
Mountains of New York found that the first reproduction occurs
at a mean age of 9.6 years. The mean length of reproductive
cycles is 4.2 years, the mean reproductive life span is 9.6 years, TIMBER RATTLESNAKE
and the average fecundity is 7.7 offspring per litter. Nonviable
offspring were found in 20% of the field litters. Most females
only reproduced one. Macrogeographic differences were
observed within the population and may have correlated
resource levels influencing growth rates additionally human
encounters could influence survival.

ADULT CROTALUS HORRIDUS, FLORIDA

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 TIMBER
RATTLESNAKE
CROTALUS HORRIDUS

VENOM: Potentially, this is one of North America's most

dangerous snakes, due to its long fangs, impressive size, and
high venom yield. This is to some degree offset by its relatively
mild disposition and long brumation period. Before striking,
they often perform a good deal of preliminary rattling and
feinting. Cist (1845) described how he lived in western
Pennsylvania for many years, and the species was quite
common there, but in all that time, he heard of only a single
death resulting from its bite.

Considerable geographic and ontogenetic variation occurs

regarding the toxicity of the venom, which can be said for many
rattlesnake species. Four venom patterns have been described TIMBER RATTLESNAKE
for this species: Type A is largely neurotoxic, and is found in
various parts of the southern range. One effect of the toxin can
be generalized myokymia. Type B is hemorrhagic and
proteolytic, and is found consistently in the north and in parts of
the southeast. Type A + B is found in areas where the
aforementioned types apparently intergrade in southwestern
Arkansas and northern Louisiana. Type C venom has none of the
above components and is relatively weak.
The neurotoxic component of the type A venom is referred to as
canebrake toxin, and is a phospholipase A2. It is analogous to
the neurotoxins found in the venoms of several other
rattlesnake species, and when present, contributes significantly
to the overall toxicity. Other components found in the venom
include a small basic peptide that works as a myotoxin, a
fibrinogen-clotting enzyme that can produce defibrination
syndrome, and a bradykinin-releasing enzyme. CroFab ADULT CROTALUS HORRIDUS, FLORIDA
antivenom, while not specific for C. horridus, is used to treat
envenomations from this species.

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 PIGMY
RATTLESNAKE
SISTRURUS MILIARIUS

DESCRIPTION: S. miliarius is a small species, with adults usually

growing to 40–60 cm (16–24 in) in total length (including tail).
The maximum reported total length is 78.8 cm (31.0 in)
(Klauber, 1972). Snellings and Collins (1997) reported a specimen
of S. m. barbouri measuring 80.3 cm (31.6 in), but it had been in
captivity for over 12 years. The largest S. m. barbouri reported by
Gloyd (1940) was a specimen measuring 63.8 cm (25.1 in) from
St. Petersburg, Florida. Shine (1978) suggested that in some
populations, males may be larger than females, but a later SISTRURUS MILIARIUS
study by Bishop et al. (1996) did not find sexual dimorphism of
any kind in a population in Volusia County, Florida.
At midbody, the rows of dorsal scales usually number 23. The
dorsal pattern consists of a series of oval or subcircular spots
with somewhat regular edges. The spots on the flanks are
mostly round and not much higher than they are wide. Belly
pigmentation towards the rear is more limited to indistinct
blotches found on pairs of adjacent scales.[3] Juveniles' color
patterns are similar to the adults, although they may be paler or
more vividly marked, and the tips of their tails are yellow.

BEHAVIOR: S. miliarius is usually seen in the summer sunning

itself or crossing the road late in the day. The tiny rattle makes a
buzzing sound that can only be heard from a few feet away.
Some individuals are very aggressive and strike furiously, while
others seem lethargic and do not even attempt to rattle. It does
not dig its own burrows, but rather uses those dug by small WESTERN PYGMY RATTLESNAKE (SISTRURUS
rodents or gopher tortoises (Gopherus polyphemus). MILIARIUS STRECKERI), WAYNE COUNTY,
MISSOURI
VENOM: Since S. miliarius is unable to produce much venom, it is unlikely to be able to deliver a fatal bite to
a human adult. This snake produces cytotoxic venom that is strongly hemorrhagic and tissue toxic, but
devoid of any neurotoxins. The venom was the basis for the development of the drug eptifibatide, which is
used to prevent clotting during a heart attack. The venom is somewhat different in that it contains
substantial amounts of serotonin and related tryptamine compounds.
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 CORAL
SNAKE
NORTH AMERICAN COLORATION PATTERNS. Experts now
recognize that certain coloration patterns and common
mnemonics - such as the phrase “Red touch yellow, kill a fellow;
red touch black, friend of Jack,” which people sometimes use to
distinguish between the venomous coral snake & non-
venomous milksnake - are not consistent enough to be
trustworthy. While any snake exhibiting the coral snake's color
and/or banding pattern in the southeastern United States will
almost certainly, in fact, be a coral snake, there are coral snakes
CORAL SNAKE
in other parts of the world which are colored differently.
Coral snakes in the United States are most notable for their red,
yellow/white, and black-colored banding. However, several
nonvenomous species in the U.S. have similar (though not
identical) bandings, including the two scarlet snake species in
the genus Cemophora, and some of the kingsnakes (including
the aforementioned milksnakes) in the genus Lampropeltis.
However, in reference to the mnemonic phrase “red touching
yellow, a deadly fellow,” some of these kingsnakes do not
naturally display any red touching yellow, to begin with.
Additionally, some ground snakes in the genus Sonora (of the
southwestern U.S.) can have a color pattern that matches that
of the sympatric Sonoran coral snake (Micruroides
euryxanthus). No genuine coral snake in the U.S. exhibits red
bands of color, in contact with bands of black, except in rare
cases of an aberrant pattern. Thus, on extremely rare occasions
when a certain non-venomous snake might be mistaken for a
coral snake, the mnemonic holds true. However, a red–yellow–
black banded snake in the U.S. (whose red and black banding
actually touch) is rarely a venomous coral snake. EASTERN CORAL SNAKE
(MICRURUS FULVIUS)

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 CORAL
SNAKE
BEHAVIOR. Coral snakes vary widely in their behavior, but most
are very elusive, fossorial (burrowing) snakes that spend most of
their time buried beneath the ground or in the leaf litter of a
rainforest floor, coming to the surface only when it rains or
during breeding season. Some species, like Micrurus
surinamensis, are almost entirely aquatic and spend most of
their lives in slow-moving bodies of water that have dense
vegetation.
CORAL SNAKE
Coral snakes feed mostly on smaller snakes, lizards, frogs,
nestling birds, small rodents, etc. Like all elapid snakes, coral
snakes possess a pair of small hollow fangs to deliver their
venom. The fangs are positioned at the front of the mouth. The
fangs are fixed in position rather than retractable, and rather
than being directly connected to the venom duct, they have a
small groove through which the venom enters the base of the
fangs. Because the fangs are relatively small and inefficient for
venom delivery, rather than biting quickly and letting go (like
vipers), coral snakes tend to hold onto their prey and make
chewing motions when biting.
The venom takes time to reach full effect.
Coral snakes are not aggressive or prone to biting and account
for less than one percent of the total number of snake bites
each year in the United States. The life span of coral snakes in
captivity is about seven years.

EASTERN CORAL SNAKE

(MICRURUS FULVIUS)

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 EASTERN
CORAL SNAKEMICRURUS FULVIUS

DESCRIPTION. M. fulvius is generally less than 80 cm (31 in) in

total length (including tail). The maximum reported total
lengths are 121.8 cm (48.0 in) for a specimen in Florida (Neill,
1958) and 129.5 cm (51.0 in) (Roze, 1996). Males have longer tails
than females, but females reach a greater total length.
The dorsal scales are smooth, and are in 15 rows at midbody.
The ventral scales number 197–217 in males and 219–233 in
females. There are 40–47 subcaudals in males and 30–37 in
females. The anal plate is divided.
The color pattern consists of a series of rings that encircle the
body: wide red and black rings separated by narrow yellow
rings. The head is black from the rostral scale to just behind the
eyes. The red rings are usually speckled with black. People who
live in its natural range are often taught a folk rhyme as children
such as: "Red next to black, safe from attack; red next to yellow,
you're a dead fellow," or "Red touching black, friend of Jack; red
touching yellow, you're a dead fellow", or simply "red and yellow
kill a fellow". These rhymes are useful in teaching children to
distinguish king snakes (Lampropeltis ssp.), which are EASTERN CORAL SNAKE
considered helpful predators of vermin such as rats and mice, (MICRURUS FULVIUS)
from the venomous coral snake, which should only be handled
by an experienced biologist or herpetologist. However, this
rhyme is only applicable to the United States species, and
cannot be used reliably in the Caribbean, or Central or South
America.

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 EASTERN
CORAL SNAKE MICRURUS FULVIUS

VENOM. The venom of M. fulvius is a potent neurotoxin with a median

LD50 of 1.3 mg/kg SC. Envenomation causes rapid paralysis and
respiratory failure in prey. In humans, symptoms include slurred
speech, double vision, and muscular paralysis eventually leading to
respiratory failure. M. fulvius bites and fatalities are very rare. Only two
documented fatalities were attributed to this species in the 1950s,
and only one has been reported since Wyeth antivenin became
available for it in the 1960s. The snakes have a mortality rate between
5–20% The most recent fatality attributed to the eastern coral snake
occurred in 2006 (confirmed in 2009 report). The victim failed to seek
proper medical attention and died several hours after being bitten,
becoming the first fatality caused by M. fulvius in over 40 years.
M. fulvius does not account for many cases of snakebite in the U.S.,
with only about 100 bites each year.The snake is considered secretive
and generally reluctant to bite (its venomous potential was still being
debated in the 1880s), and envenomation (i.e., secretion of venom
during a strike) is thought to occur in only 40% of all bites. Unlike
New World pit vipers, this New World coral snake cannot control the
amount of primarily neurotoxic venom injected. Dry bites often result
from a near miss or deflection; although the venom an adult coral
snake holds is enough to kill up to five adults, it cannot release all its
venom in a single bite. Historically, however, the mortality rate was
estimated to be about 10–20%, with death occurring in as little as one
to two hours, or as much as 26 hours after the bite. This is not that EASTERN CORAL SNAKE
surprising, since the LD100 for humans is estimated to be 4–5 mg of
dried venom, while the average venom yield is 2–6 mg with a (MICRURUS FULVIUS)
maximum of more than 12 mg. This is probably why current standard
hospital procedure in the U.S. is to start with antivenin therapy for
coral snake bites, even if no symptoms are found yet.
Wyeth discontinued the manufacture of coral snake antivenin in
2010, citing a lack of profitability. Pfizer has also decided to halt
production of its antivenin for similar reasons (see Coral snake
antivenom shortage). As of July 2021, Pfizer indicates that antivenom
is available and one source states that production has resumed

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GIVING PEACE OF MIND
ONE PERSON AT A TIME

• • •

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