Lecture 27. Blackbody Radiation (Ch.

2 and 9)

Bose-Einstein Distribution for Phonons

Density of States for Phonons
Energy Spectrum of Blackbody Radiation
- Rayleigh-Jeans Law
- Wien’s Law
- Stefan-Boltzmann Law
We went full circle: from the mystery of the “ultraviolet catastrophe” (Ch. 2) to the
successful quantum description of the photonic gas (Ch. 9).
 Two Types of Bosons
Bosons: particles with zero or integer spin (in units of ħ). The wavefunction of a
system of bosons is symmetric under the exchange of any pair of particles:
Ψ (...,Qj,...Qi,..)= Ψ (...,Qi,...Qj,..). The number of bosons in a given state is unlimited.

Two types of bosons:

(a) Massive bosons: composite particles with non-zero rest mass which contain an
even number of fermions (example: all nuclei with even mass numbers). The
number of these particles is conserved if the energy does not exceed the
dissociation energy (~ MeV in the case of the nucleus).
(b) Massless bosons (particles associated with a field), of which the most important
example is the photon. The number of these particles is not conserved: if the total
energy of the field changes, particles appear and disappear.
 Bosons vs. Fermions
1 - the Fermi-Dirac distribution
f FD ( ε , T ) ≡ nFD ( ε , T ) = function (occupancy):
Fermions: ε −µ 
exp   +1 the mean number of fermions in a
k
 B T particular quantum state:

 ∂ Eint  - the chemical potential, it shows how the internal

µ ≡
∂ N
 energy of an ensemble changes if we add one µ ( k BT << EF ) = EF
 V , S particle at a constant volume (V) and entropy (S)

1
f BE ( ε ) = The Bose-Einstein
Bosons: ε −µ 
exp   −1 distribution
k
 B T

For an ideal non-degenerate gas of massive

bosons, the chemical potential is non-zero and
2 depends on density. For an ideal gas of massless
bosons, µ is zero regardless of density.
FD BE
1 Comparison of the FD and BE distributions plotted
for the same value of µ . The mean number of
ε =µ particles in a given state for the BEG can exceed
0 unity, it diverges as µ → ε .
 Bose-Einstein Distribution Function for Photons
E ph = hν
For photons (µ =0), the BE
E ph = cp ph
distribution coincides with the
E ph hν Planck’s distribution:
p ph = =
c c

1 1
f ph ( ε , T ) = = - the average number of
 ε   hν  photons in a single mode of
exp   − 1 exp   −1 frequency ν = ε /h.
k
 B T k
 B T

f(ν ,T)
The occupancy (the mean number of particles in a
given state) for the BE gas can exceed unity, it
diverges as ε → 0.
ν
hν
The average energy
ε = hν ⋅ f ( hν ,T ) =
 hν 
in the mode: exp   −1
 k BT 

In the classical (hν << kBT) limit: ε = k BT

 Radiation in Equilibrium with Matter
Typically, radiation emitted by a hot body, or from a laser is not in equilibrium: energy is
flowing outwards and must be replenished from some source. The first step towards
understanding of radiation being in equilibrium with matter was made by Kirchhoff, who
considered a cavity filled with radiation, the walls can be regarded as a heat bath for
radiation. The walls emit and absorb e.-m. waves. In equilibrium, the walls and radiation
must have the same temperature T.
The electromagnetic field has an infinite number of modes (standing
waves) in the cavity. The black-body radiation field is a superposition T
of plane waves of different frequencies. The characteristic feature of the
radiation is that a mode may be excited only in units of the quantum
of energy hν (similar to a harmonic oscillators) :
(sorry, cannot use f for frequency, it is ε i = ( ni + 1/ 2 ) hν
reserved for the distribution function)
This fact leads to the concept of photons as quanta of the electromagnetic field. The
state of the el.-mag. field is specified by the average number of photons (ni) for each of
the modes.
The linearity of Maxwell equations implies that the photons do not interact with each
other. (Non-linear optical phenomena are observed when a large-intensity radiation
interacts with matter).
The mechanism of establishing equilibrium in a photon gas is absorption and emission
of photons by matter. Presence of a small amount of matter is essential for establishing
equilibrium in the photon gas. We’ll treat a system of photons as an ideal photon gas.
 Spectral Energy Density
uS(ν ,T) is the spectral energy density (uS (ν ,T) dν is the energy density (per unit
volume) of the radiation with frequencies between ν and ν +dν )
∞
The internal energy u ( T ) = ∫ u S (ν , T ) dν
of the photon gas: 0

In equilibrium, uS (ν ,T) is the same everywhere in the cavity, and is a function of ν and T
only. If the cavity volume increases at T=const, the internal energy U = u (T) V also
increases. The essential difference between the photon gas and the ideal gas of
molecules: for an ideal gas, an isothermal expansion would conserve the gas energy,
whereas for the photon gas, it is the energy density which is unchanged, the number of
photons is not conserved, but proportional to volume in an isothermal change.

A real surface absorbs only a fraction of the radiation falling on it. The absorptivity α is
a function of ν and T; a surface for which α (ν ) =1 for all frequencies is called a
black body.
 Density of States for Photons
In order to calculate the average number of photons per small energy interval dε , the
average energy of photons per small energy interval dε , the total average number of
photons in a photon gas, and its total energy, we need to know the density of states for
photons as a function of photon energy.

kz
1 ( 4 / 3)π k 3 k 3 ( volume) k3 dG ( ε )
N(k) = = G ( k ) = g ( ε ) =
8 π ×π ×π 6π 2 6π 2 dε
Lx L y Lz - so far, similar to our consideration of
the DoS for non-relativistic electrons
kx
However, photons are ultra-relativistic particles:
ky
ε3 ε2
ε = cp = chk G ( ε ) = g 3D
(ε ) = 2 3
6 π 2 ( ch) 2π ( ch)
3 ph

extra factor of 2 due

( hν )
2
dε 8πν 2
to two polarizations: g 3D
(ν ) = g 3D
(ε ) = h 2 = 3
dν π ( ch)
ph ph 3
(the e.-m. waves are c
transverse)
ph ( ν )
g 3D

8πν 2 ∝ν 2
g 3D
ph ( f)= 3
c
ν = ε /h
 Energy Spectrum of Blackbody Radiation
S ( ) ( ) ( )
The average energy of photons with frequency u ν , T dν = hν ⋅ g ν ⋅ f ν , T dν
between ν and ν +dν (per unit volume):
photon average number
hν ⋅ g 3D
ph (ν ) ∝ ν 3
f (ν ,T ) uS ( ν , T ) energy of photons within
this freq. range

× =
ν ν ν

8π h ν3 - the spectral density of the

us ( ν , T ) = hν g ( ν ) f ( ν , T ) = 3 black-body radiation
c exp ( hν / k BT ) −1 (the Plank’s radiation law)
dε
u as a function of the energy: u ( ε , T ) dε = u (ν , T ) dν u (ν , T ) = u ( ε , T ) = u ( hν , T ) × h
dν
8π ε3
u( ε , T ) =
( hc ) 3  ε 
exp  − 1
k T
 B 
u(ε ,T) - the energy density per unit photon
energy for a photon gas in equilibrium with
a blackbody at temperature T.
Classical Limit (small ν , large λ ), Rayleigh-Jeans Law
hν  hν  hν
At low frequencies or high temperatures: << 1 exp   − 1 ≅
k BT  k BT  k BT

8π h ν3 8π ν 2 - purely classical result (no h), can be

us ( ν , T ) = 3 ≅ 3 kB T obtained directly from the equipartition
c  hν  c theorem
exp   −1
 k BT 
Rayleigh-Jeans Law

This equation predicts the so-

called ultraviolet catastrophe
– an infinite amount of energy
being radiated by a black body
at high frequencies or short
wavelengths.
 Rayleigh-Jeans Law (cont’d)

u as a function of the wavelength:

3
 c
h 
 dε hc  8π  λ  hc  8π hc 1
u ( λ , T ) dλ = −u ( ε , T ) dε  dλ = − u ( λ , T ) =  2= 5
λ2  ( hc ) 3 exp hc  λ  λ  hc 
λk T  − 1 exp  − 1
 B   λ k BT 

In the classical limit of large λ :

8π k BT
u( λ, T ) large λ ≈ 1
λ4
λ4
 High ν Limit, Wien’s Displacement Law
hν  hν   hν 
At high frequencies/low temperatures: >> 1 exp   − 1 ≅ exp  
k BT  kB T  k T
 B 
8π h 3  hν 
us ( ν , T ) ≈ 3 ν exp  −  Nobel 1911
c k
 B  T
The maximum of u(ν ) shifts toward higher frequencies with increasing temperature. The
position of maximum:
  hν 
3

   
du d   B k T   3x 2 x 3e x 
= const × = const ×  x − 2
=0
dν  hν  
d 
 hν  
  exp  − 1  e − 1 ( e − 1) 
x

ν max ≈ 2.8
k BT  k BT    k BT  
h
( 3 − x) ex = 3 → x ≈ 2 .8

hν max Wien’s displacement law

≈ 2.8 - discovered experimentally
k BT by Wilhelm Wien
u(ν ,T)

- the “most likely” frequency of a photon in a

blackbody radiation with temperature T
Numerous applications
(e.g., non-contact radiation thermometry)
ν
 ν max ⇔ λ max

hν max
u (ν , T ) u( λ,T ) ≈ 2.8 - does this mean that
k BT
hc
≈ 2.8 ? No!
ν max λmax k BT λmax
3
 c
h 
 dε hc  8π  λ  hc  8π hc 1
u ( λ , T ) dλ = −u ( ε , T ) dε  dλ = − u ( λ , T ) =  2= 5
λ2  ( hc ) 3 exp hc  λ  λ  hc 
λk T  − 1 exp  − 1
 B   λ k BT 
du d 
= const ×  5
1  
= const × − 6
5
− 5
( )
− x −2 exp(1 / x ) 
=0
 2
df dx  x { exp(1 / x ) − 1}   x { exp(1 / x ) − 1} x { exp(1 / x ) − 1} 

hc
5 x{ exp(1 / x ) − 1} = exp(1 / x ) → λmax ≈
5 k BT

T = 300 K → λ max ≈ 10 µ m

“night vision” devices

 Stefan-Boltzmann Law of Radiation
The (average) photon density:
∞ ∞ ∞ 3 3
8π ν2 8π  k BT  x2 dx  kB  3
n = ∫ f ( ε ) g ( ε ) dε = 3 ∫ dν = 3  ∫ x = 8π   T × 2.4
c 0  hν  c  h  0 e −1  hc 
0
exp   − 1
k T
 B  - increases as T 3

8π 5 ( k BT )
∞ 4
The total energy of photons per unit volume : u ( T ) = ∫ ε × g ( ε ) f ( ε ) dε =
15 ( hc )
3
(the energy density of a photon gas)
0

4σ 4 2π 5 k B
4 the Stefan-Boltzmann
u(T ) = T the Stefan-
σ= constant
c Boltzmann Law
15h 3c 2 σ ≈ 5.7 × 10 −8 W / ( K 4 m2 )

The average energy per photon:

u(T ) 8π 5 ( k BT ) ( hc ) π4
4 3
ε = = = k B T ≈ 2 .7 k B T
15( hc ) 8π ( k BT ) × 2.4 15 × 2.4
3 3
N
(just slightly less than the “most” probable energy)
 Power Emitted by a Black Body
For the “uni-directional” motion, the flux of energy per unit area = c×u
T

energy density u

1m2
c × 1s

1
Integration over all angles power emitted by unit area = c×u
provides a factor of ¼: 4
(the hole size must be >> the wavelength)

Thus, the power emitted by a unit-area c c 4σ 4

surface at temperature T in all directions: J = u (T ) = × T = σT 4
4 4 c

The total power emitted by a black-body sphere of radius R: = 4πR 2σ T 4

Some
Consider a black body at 310K. The power emitted by the body: σ T ≈ 500 W / m
4 2
numbers:
While the emissivity of skin is considerably less than 1, it still emits a considerable
power in the infrared range. For example, this radiation is easily detectable by modern
techniques (night vision).
 Problem
The cosmic microwave background radiation (CMBR) has a temperature of
approximately 2.7 K.
(a) What wavelength λmax (in m) corresponds to the maximum spectral density u(λ,T) of
the cosmic background radiation?
(b) What is approximately the number of CMBR photons hitting the earth per second
per square meter [i.e. photons/(s·m2)]?

hc 6.6 ⋅10 −34 × 3 ⋅108 hc

(a) λmax ≈ = − 23
= 1 .1 ⋅ 10 −3
m = 1.1mm = 1.1 meV
5 k BT 5 ×1.38 ⋅10 × 2.7 λmax

(b)
4
( )
J = σ TCMBR = 5.7 ⋅10 −8 W / K 4 ⋅ m 2 × ( 2.7 ) K 4 = 3 ⋅10 −6 W / m 2
4

The average energy per photon: ε ≈ 2.7 k BT

W 
J 2  −6
 photons   m ≈ 3 ⋅ 10 16 photons
N  = ≈ 3 ⋅ 10
 s⋅m 
2
ε(J) 2.7 ×1.38 ⋅10 − 23 × 2.7 s ⋅ m2
 Solar Radiation
The surface temperature of the Sun - 5,800K.

hc
λmax = ≈ 0.5 µm
5 k BT

As a function of energy, the spectrum of umax = hν max = 2.8k BT ≈ 1.4 eV

sunlight peaks at a photon energy of
- close to the energy gap in Si, ~1.1 eV, which has been so far the best material for solar cells

Spectral sensitivity of human eye:

 Sun’s Mass Loss
Beiser 9.22. The Sun’s mass is 2 ·1030 kg, its radius is 7·108 m, and its surface
temperature is 5,800K. Find the mass loss for the Sun in one second. How many
years are needed for the Sun to lose 1% of its mass by radiation?

2π 5 k B 4 W
P ( power emitted by a sphere ) = 4πR σ T σ= −8
2 4
≈ 5.8⋅ 10
15h3c 2 m 2K 4

This result is consistent with the flux of the solar radiation energy received by the Earth
(1370 W/m2) being multiplied by the area of a sphere with radius 1.5·1011 m (Sun-Earth
distance).
4
 hc  W
P = 4π ( RSun ) ( ) ( )
2 2 4
σ  = 4π 7⋅ 10 8
m × 5.7⋅ 10 −8
× 5,740K = ⋅
3.8 10 26
W
 2.8 k B λmax 
2 4
mK

dm P 3.8 ⋅10 26 W
the mass loss per one second = 2 = = 4 .2 ⋅ 10 9
kg/s
dt c (
3 ⋅10 m
8 2
)
0.01M 2 ⋅10 28 kg
1% of Sun’s mass will be lost in ∆t = = = 4 .7 ⋅ 1018
s = 1.5 ⋅ 1011
yr
dm / dt 4.2 ⋅10 kg/s
9
 The Greenhouse Effect
Absorption: 2

( ) 4 R
Power in = α π RE σ ( TSun )  Sun
2 

 Rorbit 
the flux of the solar radiation energy
received by the Earth ~ 1370 W/m2

Power out = 4π RE σ TE
2 4
Emission:

2 1/ 4
α  R  
TE =   Sun   TSun
 4  Rorbit  

Rorbit = 1.5·1011 m RSun = 7·108 m

Transmittance of the Earth atmosphere

α = 1 – TEarth = 280K
In reality α = 0.7 – TEarth = 256K
To maintain a comfortable temperature on the
Earth, we need the Greenhouse Effect !

However, too much of the greenhouse effect

leads to global warming:
 Problem (Final 2009)
Assume that a human body can be approximated by a “black-body” sphere with a radius of
0.25m at T=310K.
(a) (7) At what wavelength does the human body (T=310K) emit the maximum
electromagnetic radiation?
(b) (8) Find the total power emitted by the body and the related mass loss in one second.
(c) (7) Calculate the power measured by a night-vision device with a detector area of 10cm2
positioned at a distance of 100m from the human body.
(d) (8) What is approximately the number of photons hitting the night-vision device per
second?

(a) hc 6.6 ⋅10 −34 × 3 ⋅108

λmax = = −23
≈ 10µ m
5 k BT 5 ×1.38 ⋅10 × 310
W
P = 4π R 2σ T 4 = 4π ( 0.25 m ) × 5.7⋅ 10 −8 ( )
2 4
The total power emitted × 310K
(b) m2K 4
by a black-body sphere
of radius R: = 413W
P 413W −15
The mass loss in one second ∆m = = = 4.6× 10 kg
c 2
3 ×10 m / s
8

P 0.001m 2
(c)
P= ( area ) = 413W × = 3.3× 10 −6
W
4π r 2
4π ×100 m
2 2

(d) The average energy per photon: ε ≈ 2.7 k BT

 photons  P ( W ) 3.3 ⋅10 −6W 14 photons

N  = ≈ ≈ 2.8⋅ 10
 ε ( J ) 2.7 ×1.38 ⋅10 J / K × 310K
−23
 s s⋅ m2
 Problem
Planet Mercury revolves and rotates at the same rate, so one side of the planet is always
facing the Sun. Mercury is a distance of 5.8 x 1010 m from the Sun, and has a radius of 2.44
x 106 m. The radius of the Sun is 7·108 m and its total power output is 4 x 1026 W. In this
problem treat the planet as if it were a black body
a) What is the energy flux of the Sun’s radiation at Mercury's orbit?
b) What is the total power absorbed by Mercury? [Hint: Consider that it appears
as a flat disk to the Sun and it absorbs all of the incident radiation.]
c) If Mercury is in thermodynamic equilibrium, it will emit the same total power as
it receives from the Sun. Assuming that the temperature of the "hot“ side of
Mercury is uniform, find this temperature.
d) What is the peak frequency of the radiation absorbed by Mercury?
e) What is the peak frequency of the radiation emitted by Mercury?

PSun 4 ⋅10 26 W
(a) J= = = 9.46 ⋅103W / m 2
(
4πRorbit 4π 5.8 ⋅1010 m
2
) 2

(b) PMercury = J ⋅ πR 2
Mercury
3 2
(
= 9.46 ⋅10 W / m ⋅ π 2.44 ⋅10 m = 1.77 ⋅1017 W
6
) 2

(c) PMercury = 2πRMercury

2
σTMercury
4
- hemi-sphere

1/ 4 1/ 4
 PMercury   1.77 ⋅ 10 W
17 
TMercury =   =  = 535K
 2π R 2 σ
 Mercury

 ( 6
) 2
 2π 2.44 ⋅ 10 m 5.76 ⋅ 10 W / K m 
−8 4 2
 Problem (cont’d)

(d) 1/ 4 1/ 4
 PSun   4 ⋅ 10 26
W 
TSun =   =   = 5,795K
 4πRSunσ
2
  ( 2
)
 4π 7 ⋅108 m 5.76 ⋅10 −8W / K 4 m 2 


k BTSun 1.38 ⋅10 −23 J / K × 5,795K

ν received
max = 2.8 = 2 .8 −34
= 3.4 ⋅1014 Hz
h 6.62 ⋅10 Js

(e) k BTMercury 1.38 ⋅10 −23 J / K × 535 K

ν emitted
max = 2.8 = 2.8 −34
= 3 .1 ⋅ 1013
Hz
h 6.62 ⋅10 Js