GCE O Level Physics

Definitions and Law & Principles

Chapter 1: Measurement
Quantity Definition
Physical Quantity A quanitty that can be measured and consists of a numerical magnitude and a unit.
Oscillation A complete to-and-fro motion of an object.
Period Time taken for one complete oscillation.

Chapter 2: Kinematics
Quantity Definition
* Scalar Quantities Physical quantities that have magnitude only.
* Vector Quantities Physical quantities that have both magnitude and direction.
* Displacement Distance travelled in a specific direction.
* Speed Rate of change of distance/ Distance travelled per unit time.
Instantaneous Speed Speed of an object in a particular instant.

* Velocity Rate of change of displacement/ Displacement per unit time.

Instantaneous Velocity of an object at a particular instant.
Velocity
Acceleration Rate of change of velocity/ Change in velocity per unit time.
Uniform Acceleration Constant rate of change of veloity.
*
Terminal Velocity The maximum velocity that an object falling through air can ahieve when its weight is equal to the air resistance
against it.

Chapter 3: Dynamics
Quantity Definition
Force A push or a pull that one object exerts on another
Friction A contact force that opposes motion or tends to oppose motion between surface in contact.
Laws & Principles Description
Newton's First Law of Every object will continue its state of rest or uniform motion in a straight line unless a resultant force acts on it
Motion
Newton's Second Law When a resultant force acts object of constant mass, the object will accelerate in the direction of the reusultant
of Motion force. The product of the mass and the acceleration of the object gives the resultant force.
F = ma

Newton's Third Law of For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction, and they act on mutually opposite body.
Motion Eg. Normal Force

Chapter 4: Mass Weight and Density

Quantity Definition
* Mass A Measure of the amount of matter in a body
Weight The amount of gravitational force acting on an object
* Gravitational Field A region in which a mass experience a force due to gravitational attractoin
Gravitational Field he gravitational force acting per unit mass
* Strength

* Inertia The reluctance of a body to change its current state of rest or motion, due to its mass
Density Mass per unit volume
 Chapter 5: Turning Effect of Forces
Quantity Definition
Moment of a Force The product of a force and the perpendicular distance from the pivot to the line of action of the force.
*
Centre of Gravity The point through which the whole weight of the object appears to act.
Stability A measure of the object's ability to return to its original position after it is slightly displaced.
Law & Principles Description
Principle of moment When a body is in equilibrium, the sum of clockwise moments about a pivot is equal to the sum of anticlockwise
moments about the same pivot.

Conditions for equilibrium:

* 1. Resultant force is zero/ All forces are balanced. (All Upward Forces = All Downward Forces)
2. Resultant moment about pivot (or any pivot) is zero. (Sum of all Clockwise Moments = Sum of all Anti-Clockwise
Moments)

Chapter 6: Pressure
Quantity Definition
* Pressure The force acting per unit area
Atmospheric Pressure The pressure exerted by the atmosphere on the Earth's surface

One Atmosphere The pressure exerted by the atmosphere at sea level, 1.013 x 105 Pa
Barometer An instrument to measure differences in the pressur eof gases or liquids
Law & Principles Description
Pascal's Principle If pressure is applied to an enclosed incompressible liquid, the pressure is transmitted equally to all other parts of
the liquid.

Chapter 7: Energy, Work and Power

Quantity Definition
Energy The capacity to do work
Gravitational Energy possessed by an object because of its height from the ground
Potential Energy
Kinetic Energy Energy possessed by a moving object
Work done by a The product of the force on the object and the distance move dby the object in the direction of the force.
constant force W = Fd

Power The rate of work done/ The rate of energy conversion

Law & Principles Description
Principle of Energy cannot be created or destroyed, but only changes from one form to another. The total energy in an
* Conservation of isolated system remains constant.
Energy

Chapter 8: Kinetic Model of Matter

Quantity Definition
Brownian Motion The constant and random movement of heavier suspended particles caused by uneven collisions of surrounding
lighter and fast-moving particles, causing the lighter particles to move in the direction of the resultant force.

Gas Pressure Pressure caused by gas particles as they collide and rebound on the walls of the containers.
Law & Principles Description
Kinetic Model of Tiny particles that make up matter are always in continuous motion
Matter
Gay-Lussac's Law The pressure of a fixed mass is directly proportional to its tempertaure at constant volume
Charles' Law The volume of a fixed msas is directly proportional to its temperature at ocnstant pressure
Boyle's Law The pressure of a fixed mass of gas is inversely proportinoal to its volume at constant temperature
 Chapter 9: Transfer of Thermal Energy
Quantity Definition
Thermal Equilibrium Occurs when both objects are at the same temperature and there is no net flow of thermal energy between them.

Conduction The transfer of thermal energy throguh a medium without any physical movement of the medium.
Convection The transfer of thermal energy by means of convection currents in a fluid (liquid or gas), with physical movements
of the medium due to difference in density.
Radiation The transfer of thermal energy in the form of electromagnetic waves (e.g. infrared radiation) without the aid of a
medium (in vacuum).

Chapter 10: Temperature

Quantity Definition
Temperature A measure of how hot or how cold an object is.
Heat The amount of thermal energy tha tis being transferred from a hotter region to a colder region.
Thermometric Physics property of a substance that changes continuously and linearly with temperature.
Property
Fixed Point Standard degree of hotness or coldness of a substance that are easily obtainable and reproducible.
Ice Point The temperature of pure melting ice at one atmosphere and is assigned a value of 0°C.
Steam Point The temperature of steam from water boiling at one atmosphere and is assigned a value of 100°C.
Resistance Consists of a platinum wire coiled around a piece of mica in a silica tube.
Thermometer
Thermocouple Consists of two types of wires made of different metals (e.g. copper and iron) joined together to form two
junctions.

Chapter 11: Thermal Properties of Matter

Quantity Definition
Internal Energy The sum of potential energy and kinetic energy of all the particles in a substance.

1. Internal Kinetic Energy

Due to the motion of the particles and is directly related to temperature.

2. Potential Eergy of the Internal Energy

Due to the stretching and compression of the interatomic/intermolecular bonds as particles move. Amount of
potential energy depends on the forces between the particles and how far apart they are.

Melting The process in which the energy absorbed by a substance results in a change of state from solid to liquid, without
* a change in temperature.
Melting Point The fixed temperature at which a pure substance changes state from solid to liquid, without a change in
temperature.
Freezing The process in which the energy released by a substance results in a change of state from liquid to solid, without a
* change in temperature.
Freezing point The fixed tmeperature at which a pure substance changes state from liquid to solid, without a change in
temperature.

Note: Melting point of a subtance is the same as its freezing point.

Boiling The process in which the energy absorbed by a substance results in a change of state from liquid to gas, without a
* change in temperature
Boiling Point The fixed temperature at which a pure substance changes state from liquid to gas, without a change in
temperature.
Condensation The process in which the energy released by a substance results in a change of state from gas to liquid, without a
* change in temperature.
Condensation Point The fixed tmeperature at which a pure substance changes state from gas to liquid, without a change in
temperature.

Note: Boiling point of a subtance is the same as its condensation point.

* Heat Capacity The amount of thermal energy required to raise the temperature of a substance by 1K (or 1°C).
Specific Heat Capacity The amount of thermal energy required to raise the temperature of a unit mass of a substance by 1K (or 1°C).
*
 Latent Heat The amount of thermal energy released or absorbed by a substance during a change of state, without a change in
* temperature.
Specific Latent Heat The amount of thermal energy released or absorbed by a unit mass of a substance during a change of state,
* without a change in temperature.
Latent Heat of Fusion The amount of thermal energy required to change a substance from solid state to liquid state, without a change in
temperature.
Specific Heat of The amount of thermal energy required to change a unit mass of a substance from solid state to liquid state,
Fusion without a change in temperature.
Latent Heat of The amount of thermal energy required to change a substance from liquid state to gaseous state, without a
Vaporisation change in temperature.
Specific Heat of The amount of thermal energy required to change a unit mass of a substance from liquid state to gaseous state,
Vaporisation without a change in temperature.
Evaporation Occurs when the more energetic particles at the surface of a liquid escape into the atmosphere at any
temperature, leaving behind less energetic particles.

Chapter 12: General Wave Properties

Quantity Definition
Period Motion A motion that repeats at regular intervals.
One Oscillation One complete cycle of periodic motion.
Crest Highest point of a transverse wave, at positive amplitude.
Trough Lowerst point of a transverse wave, at negative amplitude.
* Wavelength Distance between two successive crests or trough (or points in the same phase).
Frequency Number of ocmplete waves generated per second OR
* Number of crests or troughs that passes through a point per second
* Period Time taken to generate one complete wave/oscillation
Wave Speed Distance travelled by a wave per unit time.
* Notes: All electromagnetic waves travel at the speed of light, 3.0 x 108 m/s.

* Amplitude Maximum displacement of a wave particle from its rest position.

* Transverse Wave Waves that travel in a direction perpendicular to the direction of vibration of particles.
* Longitudinal Wave Waves that travel in a direction parallel to the direction of vibration of particles.
Wavefront An imaginary line that joins all points of the waves that are in the same phase OR
* An imginary line that joins all crests of the wave.
In Phase When any two point sin the waves are moving in the same direction, have the same speed and are at the same
displacement from the rest position.
 Chapter 13: Light
Quantity Definition
Reflection The bouncing back of the light ray that strikes the boundary between two media.
* Normal An imaginary line that is perpendicular to a surface through the point of incidence.
* Angle of Incidence The angle between the incident ray and the normal at the point of incidence.
* Angle of Reflection The angle between the reflected ray and the normal at the point of incidence.
* Angle of Refraction The angle between the refracted ray and the normal at the point of incidence.
Real Image Image that can be captured on a screens
Virtual Image An image that cannot be formed or captured on a screen.
Refraction The change of speed of light, and hence its direction, when it passes from one optical medium to another.

* Refractive Index Ratio of speed of light in vacuum to the speed of light in medium.
Critical Angle Angle of incidence in the optically denser medium such that the angle of refraction in the optically less dense
* medium is 90°.
Principal Axis Imaginary horizontal liine passing symmetrically through the optical centre of the lens.
Principal Focus/ Focal The point on the principal axis where all the light rays parallel to the principal axis converge after refraction by the
Point lens.
Focal Plane Imaginary plane which passess through the focal point and is perpendicular to the perpendicular axis.

* Focal Length Distance between the optical centra and principal focus.
Optical Centre Midpoint between the surffaces of the lens on its principal axis.
Law & Principles Description
Law of Reflection 1. The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal at the point of incidence all lie in the same place.
* 2. The angle of incidence is eqaul to the angle of reflection.

Law of Refraction 1. The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal at the point of incidence all lie in the same place.
2. For two particular media, ratio of sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction is a
constant (aka Snell's Law).

Total Internal The complete reflection of a light ray inside an optically denser medium at its boundary with an optically less
Reflection dense medium.

Conditions for Total Internal Reflection:

* 1. The light ray travels from an optically denser medium to an optically less dense medium.
2. The angle of incidence in the optically denser medium is gretaer than the critical angle of optically denser
medium.

Chapter 14: Electromagnetic Spectrum

Quantity Definition
Ionizing Radiation Radiation that has enough energy to remove electrons from atoms or molecules, thus creating ions.
Ionisation The process of ion formation.

Chapter 15: Sound

Quantity Definition
Sound A form of energy that is transferred from one point to another as a longitudinal wave.
Compression Region in a sound when particles are closer together, resulting in an air pressure higher than surrounding
pressure.
Rarefraction Region in a sound when particles are further apart, resulting in an air pressure lower than the surrounding
pressure.
Echo The repetition of a sound due to reflection of sound.
Range of Audibility The range of frequencies in which a person can hear.
* Ultrasound Sound wit hfrequencies below the lower limit of the human range audibility of 20Hz.
Pitch A property of sound that is related to the frequency of sound wave.
Loudness A property of sound that is related to the amplitude of the sound waves.
 Chapter 16: Static Electricity
Quantity Definition
Ion An atom that is charged.
Electric Force The attractive or repulsive force that electric charges exert on one another.
* Electric Field A region in which an electric charge experiences an electric force.
Electrostatic Charging The process of charging a metallic conductor due to movement of electrons when it is placed near a charged
by Induction object, without contact between the two objects.

Law & Principles Description

Law of Electrostatics Like charges repel and unlike charges attract.
*

Chapter 17: Current of Electricity

Quantity Definition
* Electric Current The rate of flow of electric charge.
Electromotive Force Work done by the electrical energy source in driving a unit charge around a complete circuit.
* (e.m.f)
Potential Difference Work done to drive a unit charge around through the component.
* (p.d)
Ammeter An instrument to measure the strength of an electric current in a circuit.
Voltmeter An instrument to measure
1. E.m.f of a dry cell
2. P.d across an electrical component.

Multimeter An instrument that can measure voltage (p.d), current or resistance.

* Resistance The ratio of potential difference across the electrical component to the current flowing through it.
Resistor A conductor in a circuit that is used to control the size of the current flowing in a circuit.
Ohmic Conductor Conductor that obeys Ohm's Law.
The current flowing through ohmic conductors increases proportionally with the potential difference across it.

Non-ohmic Conductor Conductors that do not obey Ohm's Law.

The current flowing through non-ohmic conductors does not increase proportionally with the potential difference
across it.

Law & Principles Description

Ohm's Law The current passing through a metallic conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference across it,
* provided that physical conditions (eg temperature) remains constant (aka constant resistance).
 Chapter 18: DC Circuit
Quantity Definition
Series Circuit A curcuit where there is only one path through which electric charge can flow.
Current in Series Current at every point in a series circuit is the same.
* Circuit
Potential Difference in Sum of potential difference in a series circuit is equal to the potential difference across the whole circuit.
* Series Circuit

Parallel Circuit A circuit where there is more than one path through which electric charge can flow.
Current in Parallel Current from the source is the sum of the currents in the separate branches of a parallel circuit.
* Circuit
Potential Difference in Potential difference across the separate branches of a paralle circuit is the same.
* Parallel Circuit

Short Circuit Occurs when the current finds a way to bypass the applicance on a path that has little or no resistance.

Potential Divider A line of resistors connected in series, to provide a fraction of the voltage of a source to another part of the circuit.

Transducer Electrical deivce that converts energy from one form to another.

1. Input Transducer
Electrical device that convers non-electrical energy to electrical energy (eg Thermistor, LDR).

2. Output Transducer
Electrical device that converts electrical energy to non-electrical energy (eg Loudspeaker).

Thermistor A resistor which resistance varies with temperature.

Light-dependent A resistor which resistance decreases with increasing amount of light shining on it.
Resistor (LDR)

Chapter 19: Practical Electricity

Quantity Definition
Electrical Power The rate at which electrical energy is supplied or converted.
Circuit Breaker A safety device that can switch the elctrical supply in a circuit when large currents flow through them.

Fuse A safety device added to an electrical circuit to prevent excessive current flow by melting a thin metal wire in it
when a large current flows through it.
Live Wire A wire of an electrical circuit connected to a high potential and delivers current in the appliance. Brown in
* Singapore.
Neutral Wire A wire of an electrical cicuit connected to a zero potential and completes the circuit by providing a return path for
* the current to the supply. Blue in Singapore.
Earth Wire A low resistance wire usually connected to metal casing of electrical appliance which provides low resistance
* conducting path for current flow to earth if the casing becomes "live". Grey in Singapore.
Double Insulation (Normally for appliance with non-metallic casing and that use two-pin plug)

A safety feature with two levels of insulation.

1. Electric cables are insulated from internal components of the appliance.
2. Internal components are insulated from the external casing.
 Chapter 20: Magnetism
Quantity Definition
Magnetic Material Material that can be attracted to a magnet.
Non-Magnetic Material that cannot be attracted to a magnet.
Material
Soft Magnetic A material that can be easily magnetised and demagnetised (e.g. iron).
Material
Hard Magnetic A material that is harder to magnetise and demagnetise (e.g. steel).
Material
Magnetic Domain Consists of a group of atomic magnets pointing in the same direction.
Magnetic Induction The process whereby an object made of a magnetic material becomes a magnet when it is near or in contact with
a magnet.
Magnetic Field A region surrounding a magnet, in which a body of magnetic material experiences a magnetic force.
Neutral Point The point in a combined magnetic field where there is no/zero magnetic effect.
Magnetic Shielding A method using thin sheets of soft magnetic materials (e.g iron or MuMetal, a nickel-iron ally) to divert the
surrounding magnetic fields trhat are present.
Law & Principles Description
Laws of Magnetism Like magnetic poles repel and unlike poles attract.

Chapter 21: Electromagnetism

Quantity Definition
Fleming's Left Hand A method to deduce the direction of the force acting on a current-carrying conductor in a magnetic field.
Rule
Right Hand Grip Rule 1. A method to deduce the direction of the magnetic field around a current-carrying conductor.
2. A method to deduce which end of a solenoid the north pole Is based on the direction of the current flowing
through the coils of the solenoid.

Direct Current (d.c) A mechanical device that works on the priciple that a current-carrying coil in a magnetic field experiences a
Motor turning effect to convert electrical energy to mechanical energy.
Split-Ring Its function is to reverse the direction of the curernt in the coil every half a revolution, hence ensuring the coil will
* Commutator always turn in one direction.
Law & Principles Description
Motor Effect An effect on a current-carrying conductor when the current-carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field and it
* experiences a force.
Chapter 22: Electromagnetic Induction
Quantity Definition
Magnetic Flux in The number of magnetic field lines linking the solenoid.
Solenoid
Electromagnetic The process through which an induced e.m.f is produced in a conductor due to a changing magnetic field.
Induction
Alternatiang Current A mechanical device that uses electromagnetic induction to convert mechanical energy to changing magnetic
(a.c) Generator field.

Fixed Coil Generator A variation of a.c generator which magnets rotate with respect to fixed coils.

Fleming's Right Hand A method to deduce the direction of the induced current in a closed circuit given the direction of the applied force
Rule in a magnetic field.
Transformer A device that can change a high alternating voltage (at low current) to a low alternating voltage (at high current),
or vice versa.

1. Step-Up Transformer
Number of turns in secondary coil is greater than that in primary coil, resulting in an output voltage that is greater
than the input voltage.

2. Step-Down Transformer
Number of turns in secondary coil is lower than that in primary coil, resulting in an output voltage that is lower
than the primary voltage.

Ideal Transformer A transformer whose efficiency is 200% with no power loss.

i.e the power supplied to the primary coil is full transferred to the secondary coil.
Joule heating The physical effect by which the pass of current through an electrical conductor produces thermal energy.

Cathode-Ray An electronic device that can be used to measure voltages, study waveforms and measure short intervals of time.
Oscilloscope