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CASE FI LE
COPY
ANALYSIS OF
ANALYSIS OF
COMPILED BY
Richard J. Allenby
ACKNOWI,EDC, M ENTS ........................................................ IX
E. A. Whitaker
11
Provisionally Approved Nomenclature .....................................
12
Proposed Nomenclature ..................................................
12
Geology ....................................................................
12
Preliminary Comparison of Apollo 8 and Lunar Orbiter Photography. .........
Robert G. Strom
Introduction ........................................................ 12
Resolution .......................................................... 12
13
lIigh-Illumination Photography .......................................
15
Terminator Photography. ............................................
16
Summary ...........................................................
16
Preliminary Interpretations of Lunar Geology. ..............................
D. E. Wilhelms, D. E. Stuart-Alexander, and K. A. Howard
lfi
Lunar Far Side ......................................................
Lunar Near Side ....................................................
111
iv CONTENTS
Page
Craters ................................................................. 21
Crater Characteristics ................................................ 21
F. EI-Baz
Introduction .................................................... 2 l
Crater Interiors ................................................. 22
Crater Rays .................................................... 23
Blocks ......................................................... 23
Crater Chains ................................................... 25
Rayed Craters and Bright-Halo Craters ................................ 29
Newell J. Trask and Gordon A. Swann
Itypersonic Gas Flow ................................................ 3[)
J. A. O'Keefe, W. S. Cameron, and Harold Masursky
Possible Volcanic Features ................................................ 32
Landforms .......................................................... 32
F. El-Baz and H. G. Wilshire
Sublimates .......................................................... 34
E. A. Whitaker
Colorimetry. 35
General Statement--The Color of the Moon ................................ 35
E. A. Whitaker and A. F. H. Goetz
Apollo 8 Color Experiment ............................................... 36
A. F. H. Goetz
Introduction ........................................................ 36
The Experiment ..................................................... 36
Data Return ........................................................ 36
Image Processing .................................................... 36
Photometry ................................................................. 38
An Investigation of the Lunar Heiligenschein ................................ :18
E. A. Whitaker
Theoretical Photometry .................................................. 41)
H. A. Pohn, R. L. Wildey, and H. W. Rodin
Introduction ........................................................ 40
Significance of Photography ........................................... 40
Advantages of Apollo 8 Photographs Over Earlier Data .................. 40
Preliminary Results .................................................. 41
Photometric Function Reductions ......................................... 41
James L. Dragg and Harold L. Prior
Visibility and Apollo 8 Photographic Results ................................ 44
K. Ziedman
Introduction ........................................................ 44
Summary of Results ................................................. 44
Discussion .......................................................... 48
Comparison of Orbital and LM-Descent Viewing Conditions .......... 48
Shadow Visibility and Visual Dynamic Range ....................... 49
Lunar Surface Simulation ............................................. 51
Evaluation of Photoclinometric Profile Derivation ........................... 51
B. K. Lucchitta and N. A. Gambell
Origin of the Study .................................................. 51
Procedure .......................................................... 52
Geometric and Film Parameters ................................... 52
Format and Microdensitometer Parameters ......................... 52
Selection of Photograph .......................................... 52
Obtaining Parameters ............................................ 52
Scanning of the Area and Computer Program Modification ........... 53
Results ............................................................. 53
Comparison With Photogrammetrie Profiles Obtained From the AP/C
Plotter ....................................................... 53
Comparison of Slopes From Lunar Orbiter Frame H-33, Framelet 739,
With Slopes From Apollo 8 Frame 2082-D ....................... 55
CONTENTS V
Page
D. D. Lloyd 78
Experiment Operation ....................................................
Hardware and Image Motion Compensation Considerations ................... 79
Hardware Limitations of Light-Collecting Capability ..................... 79
Derivation of IMC: Requirements ..................................... 79
Techniques for Providing the Required Geometric Instructions ................ 80
81
Measurement of Residual Smear ...........................................
81
Method ............................................................
Measurement Data Obtained ......................................... 81
81
Results .............................................................
81
Summary ................................................................... 82
References ..................................................................
CHAPTER 3. ASTRONOMICAL AND EARTH OBSERVATIONS ............... 85
_5
Astronomical Observations ....................................................
L. Dunkelman and Robert O. Hill
Astronomical Moonwatch During Apollo 8 ...................................... 85
William B. Chapman
Preliminary Results of Apollo 8 Optical Tracking Experiment ..................... 86
Harold B. Liemohn _6
Introduction ............................................... 86
Participants ............................................................ 86
Sightings .............................................................. 88
Unconfirmed Interpretation .............................................. 88
Discussion of Photographs ............................................... 91
Conclusions ............................................................ 92
Smithsonian Observations of Apollo 8 Near Earth ...............................
Staff, Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory, and Otha H. Vaughan, Jr.
vi CONTENTS
Page
Introduction ......................................................... 92
The Baker-Nunn Camera ................................................. 92
The Observations ........................................................ 93
Mission Events Related to Mount tfaleakala Photography ................ 93
Mission Events Related to the San Fernando, Spain, Photographs ......... 95
Data ................................................................... 96
Discussion ............................................................. 101
References .................................................................. 102
CHAPTER 4. BACKGROUND ................................................ 103
Introduction ................................................................ 103
Richard J. Allenby
Photographic Objectives ...................................................... 104
Robert O. Hill and Lewis C. Wade
Notes on Film Selection and Use .............................................. 106
James L. Dragg and Robert O. Hill
Use of Type 2485 Film ....................................................... 107
L. Dunkelman and Robert O. Hill
Calibration Information ..................................................... 107
James L. Dragg and Alan Wells
Introduction .......................................................... 107
RICHARD J. ALLENBY
Apollo 8 was launched from Cape Kennedy, Fla., at 7:50 a.m., e.s.t., on
December 21, 1968. Two hours 50 minutes later, translunar injection was per-
formed; and astronauts Col. Frank Borman, the commander; Capt. James A.
Lovell, Jr., the command module pilot; and Maj. (now Lt. Col.) William A.
Anders, the lunar module pilot, were on their way to the Moon. The spacecraft
was placed in an elliptical lunar orbit at 69 hours 8 minutes after liftoff. After
flying two elliptical orbits of 168.5 by 60 nautical miles with an inclination of
12 ° to the Equator, the spacecraft was placed in a nearly circular orbit of 59.7
by 60.7 nautical miles, in which it remained for eight orbits. At 89 hours 19
minutes, transearth injection was performed from behind the Moon. A nearly
flawless mission was completed on the morning of December 27 when splashdown
occurred in the Pacific Ocean after a total elapsed time of 147 hours.
Lt. Gen. Sam C. Phillips, the Director of the Apollo Program, announced
that such a mission was being considered at a press conference on August 19,
1968. Formal announcement that NASA was preparing Apollo 8 for an orbital
flight around the Moon was released to the press on November 12, 1968.
The primary purpose of this mission was to further progress toward the goal
of landing men on the Moon by gaining operational experience and testing the
Apollo systems. However, a great effort was also made to accomplish worthwhile
scientific tasks with photography and visual observations by the astronauts.
In planning the scientific tasks to be attempted on this mission, it was
obvious that one of the prime tasks should be photography of the lunar surface.
Such photography would furnish valuable information on the following:
1. Approach topography and landmarks for the early Apollo landings
2. The scientific merit and the roughness of areas for possible follow-on
Apollo landings
3. The broad structure and characteristics of the lunar surface
During the orbital part of the mission, a major portion of the lunar far side
would be in sunlight. Although almost all of the far side of the Moon has been
photographed by the automated Lunar Orbiter spacecraft, the photography
generally was made with the spacecraft relatively far from the Moon, limiting
the Lunar Orbiter photographs to an average resolution of approximately 100
meters. Thus, Apollo photographs of the far side would have much better reso-
lution than existing pictures.
Finally, it was recognized that contamination, both as it relates to window
fogging (which did occur) and to contamination clouds around the spacecraft,
shourd be studied for both scientific and operational interests.
vii
vln INTRODUCTION
ix
1
Visual Observations
WILLIAM A. ANDERS, JAMES A. LOVELL, AND FRANK BORMAN
angles, appeared very much like mare materials regular ground. In some places the texture was
we had studied on moderate-resolution, moderate- similar to sets of linear sand dunes. Locally, the
Sun-angle Orbiter photographs, except for the trend of this texture was roughly parallel to ir-
greater number of small bright halo craters ob- regular chains of craters set in an irregular herring-
servable at zero phase. The surface of the mare bone pattern. This was particularly pronounced
materials in the southern part of the Sea of near the western rim of the far-side basin XV.
Tranquility on the approach to landing site 1 and At high phase angles near the subsolar point,
the terminator resembled the surface of a frozen the visible surface texture of the far-side highlands
sea with a broad, but irregular, swell. Although was donlinated by a peppering of small bright
not as concentrated as in the far-side basin XV, halo craters. There were many times more such
the domes, cones, filled craters, depressions, and craters than we had expected to see based on our
overlapping benches on the mare materials near premission studies of Orbiter photographs.
landing site 1 gave the area an appearance similar
to a subdued version of the Pinacate volcanic
Slopes
region of Sonora, Mexico, as seen from aircraft
at about 40 000 feet altitude. We found that we could see considerable detail
The marelike materials of the far-side crater on slopes, both those in shadow and those under
Tsiolkovsky were the darkest appearing materials high illumination. Under high-Sun-angle illumi-
we observed. Our fiightpath took us about 200 nation (low phase angle), the slopes of crater
n. mi. north of Tsiolkovsky, and our visibility walls, particularly the steep walls of new craters,
to the south was limited by window fogging; showed a wide spectrum of albedo variation. The
however, this mare did appear to be very smooth, albedo texture of these walls was one of downslope
again with the exception of the ubiquitous small streaking of the lower two-thirds to three-quarters,
craters. Through the monocular telescope, and and a tendency toward roughly horizontal banding
then barely with the unaided eyc, we were able in the remaining upper portion of the walls. The
to discern several large boulders on this surface texture strongly suggests that talus slopes have
next to the base of the central peak. To be ob- formed downslope from layered materials in the
servable from over 200 n. mi., these boulders upper crater walls. The fact that small craters are
must be several hundred meters in diameter. One very rare on these steep slopes relative to the
of the boulders appeared to have a track leading nearby fiat areas indicates relatively continuous
away from it, indicating it had rolled off the and recent downslope movement of material.
central peak. Other than these boulders in Tsiol- The inner wails of large craters are characterized
kovsky, no boulders were observed on mare ma- by terraces and/or lobes of material that strongly
terials, even during use of the spacecraft sextant suggest slump and landslide activity. These proc-
for landmark tracking. esses are probably the dominant processes in the
gradual subduing of the raised portions of the
rims of large craters.
Highland Areas
PROBABLE IMPACT FEATURES The very dark marelike areas in the crater
Humboldt were visible to us after the transearth
Small Bright Halo Craters insertion burn. These irregular lobate areas form
a discontinuous ring between the brighter floor
One of the most striking features of the lunar
and walls of the crater, and in shape and detailed
far side is the number of small (less than 1000
outlines they strongly resemble the young dark
meters in diameter) rayed and bright halo craters
lava flows of the western United States. In ad-
that are visible near the subsolar point. There
dition to these marelike areas between the floor
were several times more of these bright craters
and wall, there were several very bright polygonal
than we had expected from our premission study
cracks visible in Humboldt's floor materials at
of Orbiter photographs. At progressively lower
our particular lighting angle.
Sun angles on the surface, these presumably fresh
The volcanic appearance of the surface textures
craters become visually less obvious; but we should
of materials in the far-side basin XV and in the
expect that they are also more abundant in the
vicinity of landing site 1 have been mentioned
landing areas than previously indicated.
in 'L preceding section of this chapter.
Large Impact Craters
Dark Craters
Our limited observation of large craters having
Two distinct examples of sharply defined, fresh-
the irregularly surfaced rims and apparent ejecta
looking dark craters several miles in diameter
blankets characteristic of impact craters did not
were observed. These craters have very dark in-
disclose much new information except for the
terior walls in contrast to the bright walls of most
observations on slope surface textures reported
other fresh-looking craters. One such crater was
in the preceding paragraphs. Some large craters
somewhere southeast of the Sea of Crises and
have single large spiral patterns on their floors
north of our orbital path; and the other was south
which are difficult to explain except by some form
of our path at about l l0 ° E longitude. These
of differential slumping. We were, however, im-
craters nmst be classified as of uncertain origin
pressed by the relatively subdued features of most
and certainly are not as clearly of impact origin
large far-side craters compared to most craters
as many of the fresh: craters we observed.
visible in the mare regions of the near side.
The crater Taruntius, although it has a well-
Possible Lava Tubes
defined central peak and surrounding array of
secondary craters, is unusual in appearance as The western rim and inner walls and bench of
compared to other large impact craters. Its single the far-side basin are crossed by a branching
rim is sharper in cross section, and there is a pattern of irregular troughs. The pattern strongly
prominent, roughly circular crack pattern in its resembles that of lava tubes such as those in
floor materials. flows on the slopes of Maunaloa, Hawaii. This
resemblance recommends caution when inter-
PROBABLE VOLCANIC FEATURES preting similar features on the Moon as trains of
secondary impact craters.
Regional Features
The region known as Smyth's Sea contains Regional Faulting
several examples of large craters with concentric Craters and crater-related features dominate
double rims. The material of the floors of these the portion of the Moon we viewed from Apollo 8;
craters and that between the double rims appeared however, several well-developed examples of
identical in texture, albedo, and color to the sur- graben-type regional faulting were visible. Al-
rounding mare. These observations support pre- though we were specifically interested in observa-
vious proposals we have heard that mare materials tions related to the question of regional strikeslip
were once relatively fluid and were implaced faulting, no evidence of such faulting was ob-
largely by volcanic processes originating essen- served. Local enechelon offsets in grabens indicate
tially directly below their present location. that shearing stresses have been present but, were
4 ANALYSIS OF AI'()LL(I 9, PH()T()(Ht, API1Y AND V]SUAL (t[_SI';RVATIONS
released by graben development rat her than strike- the clues to major topographic variations insofar
slip faulting as is common oll Earth. This differ- as these variat ions were related to different surface
ence between tcrrestrial trod hmar regional faulting prop(q'ties. The lack of clear-cut topographic pat-
suggests the possibility of a major difference in terns ma(h_ recognition and tracking of navi-
tectonic processes anti/or crustal lnechani('al prop- gation'tl l.mdmarks very difficult in this area.
erties.
The most slriking grabens observed were the EARTHSHINE
Cauchy rilles northeast <)f landing site 1 in the
()ur major surprise with respect to visibility
Sea of Tranquility. The southernmost graben
was the _,larity with which features could be
grades without interruption into a set of two
viewed in (,arthshine, p,trticularly after a few
irregular fault scarps which are stepped (town t<)
minutes of light adaptation. At one point we
the south.
were able t() (listinguish the floor, benches, and
w,dls of tim crater Copernicus with surprisingly
GENERAL LUN_AR VISIBILITY good definition, l,an(hnark tracking would prob-
ably be feasible in earthshinc, but difficult. There
Terminator does not generally appear to be sufficient light to
•((tempt hmdings under these conditions; however,
Our training had indicated that the observation
this possibility should not be eliminated without
of fine topographic details would be best at and
further study.
near the terminators. This fact was even more
pronounced in flight than we had anticipated. Also
confirmed was the ability to see detail in the ASTRONOM ICAL OBSERVATIONS
shadowed side of craters due to backscattered
light from the brightly illuminated opposite wall Solar Corona
of the crater. Detail was also visible in the bright
The solar corona wa_s observed ()nee through
wall areas.
the scanning telescope just before spacecraft sun-
rise. It. '_ppe'_red a_s a very bright glow just above
Zero.Phase Angle
the sunrise l)oint at the horizon with dimmer
Visibility was poor in areas viewed at low phase streamers falming out above and away from this
angle, but was better than had been expected. t)oint.
Topographic detail could be picked out in areas
Dim-Light Phenomena
within about 5 ° of zero phase, particularly at tow
Sun angles; that is, when we looked at the lunar No specific dim-light t)henomena were observed,
surface along the Sun line. Part of the explanation alth(iugh are'is proposed to contain them were
of our ability to see detail at or near zero phase exanfined visually. The Magellanic clouds appear
may be tied to the fact, that this point is always to have been observed, however, (luring the night
moving along the surface. This allows the inte- pass of one (if the hte lunar orbits.
gration and extrapolation of detail observed first
under favorable lighting to be carried into the Terrestrial Observations
zero-phase area.
Very little time was dew)ted to observations of
the Earth on Apollo 8. One interesting high-
Subsolar Area
altitude cloud, however, was seen shortly after
The visibility in the subsolar area was similar spaeecr'fft sunrise (luring the two orbits prior to
to that near zero phase close to the terminators, tr:mshmar injection. This was a long, thin, brown-
except that topographic detail was difficult to ish-gray ('loud that appeared to be slightly north
observe due to the complete lack of shadows in of our t r:_ck and below our orbital altitude of
the surrounding terrain. Albcdo differences were, qbout 100 n. nil. This cloud may be related to
of course, clearly visible within this area and were our S-1VB effluents.
VISUAL
OBSERVATIONS
TABLE1-I.---CriticalItem Checklist
An asterisk indicates an item for which visual obser- • Identify source of any observed flows
vation may be particularly fruitful. Type: Mare basin, mare region, very dark region, light
basin, smooth terra, very light region
(A) Apollo Sites Relief: Low domes, low ridges, rimless depressions,
• Note contacts other than those now known (see Apollo patterns, boulders, halo craters
Color: Variation, change sharpness, associations, shape
Site Landmark Chart)
• Source: Point, line, multiple, covered, direction
• Subjective judgments on lighting limits for LM landing
• Note albedo contrasts at zero phase *Benches: Type, color contrast, pattern contrast, crater
contrast, front slope relations, superposition
Regional contacts, color variations, •landmarks
• Identify any eruptive cones, flows, or domes at base of • Subjective judgments on SCT tracking of landed LM
crater-wall scarps • Note association and direction of boulder tracks
Type: Rayed, bright-halo, sharp-rimmed, low-rimmed, Association: Isolated, crater rim, crater wall, slope, dark
subdued halo, talus, slide
6 ANALYSIS ()F APOLLO 8 PHOTOGRAPHY AND VISUAL OBSERVATIONS
• Note location and associations of any observed outcrops • Determine if rim is a composite of cones, domes, and/or
• Association: Crater wall, central peak, rille wall, terra flows
slope, eruptive feature Shape: Circular, polygonal
*Characteristics: Size, shape, color, reflections, accessi- *Rim : Extent
bility • Crest: Cones, breaching, slumps
Walls: Textures, patterns, •layers, •cones, contacts,
(DC/EC/CC) Dark Halo/ElongateChain Craters caves, •colors
Floor: Filling type, flow patterns, eruptive features,
• Identify any shallow impact crater fields near base of source
• Note any albedo contrasts on cliffs and stee l) slopes Darkness (Spacecraft)
*Lunar sunrise: (flows, ol)seurations • Note beginning and extent of limb I)rightening prior to
sunrise
Earthshine • Note first observation of contamination cloud and
change in visibility immediately after sunrise
• Evalu'_te landing and landmark tracking feasihility IAmb brightening: Start GET, start position, max GET,
Washout: Horizontal limits, vertical limits, range func- max position, colors, diffuse light GET, diffuse light,
tion, terrain function, relief definition limit position
Visibility: Dark adal)tation, features visible, nfinimum Solor corona: First light GET, boundary GET, streamer
crater size, Earth angle function direction, bead GET, bead position, colors
*Features: Known detail, relief contrast Exterior contamination: Cloud GET, visibility change
Zero phase: Albedo contrast, washout, *spotnwter star recognition, S/C shadow
*Landmarks: Smallest crater, initial points
Translunar / Transearth
Transients
• Note celestial position and coverage of any dim-light
*Variation: Temporal, nmvement, terminator, position Libration l)oints: 21.5 hours GET, Pisces (*), Aries (a),
Pleiades
*Source : Feature, area
2
Initial Photographic Analysis
J_
/
/
/
/
\ /
\ /
illumination. Although analysis of tile material 1)y 17 ° N, ll7 ° E. For Apollo 8 frame 2506-B, the
two Soviet groups (Leningrad and Moscow) pro- corresponding coordinates were 8 ° S, 67 ° E, a
duced somewhat different results, the Moscow difference ,_f 25 ° latitude and 50 ° longitude. To
group added 18 new n_unes to the more t)rominent facilitate comp'_rison of the photographs, an image
features. The most (lefinitive (liscussion of the of frame 2506 w.a_ projected onto a precision
Luna III material is prot)ably that given in 36-inch-dianmter Inatte-white hemisphere using
references 2-1 and 2-2. tt 101/_-inch-focus lens for nearly correct restora-
tion of the get_metry. The direction from which
this image w_s then photographed was approxi-
mately the same ,as that of the Luna III photo-
graph, although the correct scale distance could
not be duplicated. Figure 2-2 is a reproduction
of this recentered view. Figure 2-3 is a somewhat
High.Illumination Photography
One of the most important aspects of the Apollo
8 photography is the acquisition of high-resolution
photographs under high-illumination conditions.
For the first time, it is possible to compare topo-
graphic features photographed by Lunar Orbiter
under relatively low lighting conditions (phase
angle of approximately 20 ° ) with the same features
photographed by Apollo 8 under high lighting
conditions (phase angles greater than or equal to FIGURE 2-5.--Comparison of photography of same area
the interior slopes near the rim crest, the material (b) Apollo 8 frame. 2112-D (Sun angle 62°).
INITIAL PHOTOGRAPHIC ANALYSIS 15
Terminator Photography
Tile Apollo 8 mission succeeded in obtaining
well-exposed vertical terminator photography at
ph-Lse angles less than 7 °. Tim Lunar Orbiter
records contain only a few medium-resolution
t)hotographs with Sun angles less than 7 °, and
even these are not well exposed near the termi-
nator. This type of photography is important,
because it shows very small elevation differences
and emphasizes fine structural detail that is not
apparent on photographs taken at higher Sun
•ingles. Analysis of terminator photography is not
only important to the geologic interpretation of
surface features but it is also helpful to mobility
studies for roving vehicles.
Figure 2-9 is an Apollo 8 photograph taken at
5 ° S, 153 ° W, near the sunset terminator at a Sun
angle of 2 ° . This photograph shows numerous
shallow depressions and swales that are not visible
at higher Sun angles. Unfortunately, all well-
exposed Apollo 8 vertical high-resolution ternli-
nator photography was taken of the highlands on
the far side of the Moon. The astronauts described
the mare surface very near the sunrise terminator
as having undulations similar to the surface of
the sea. It is important to determine if these
slight undulations are no more than features simi-
lar to the shallow depressions and swales seen in
AND K. A. HOWAaD
Summary
The Apollo 8 photography is an important Lunar Far Side
source of new information for geologic and terrain The Apollo 8 photography augments the Lunar
studies of the lunar surface. Several of the new Orbiter photography of the far side. For the first
aspects of this photography include: time, good high-illumination photographs were
taken from a spacecraft so that areas of different
1. Undistorted stereoscopic coverage along a
reflectivity could be delineated; ill particular,
continuous strip of terrain of more than
4800 kin. rayed craters and mare areas. Reflectivity as seen
on near-full-Moon photographs has been an es-
2. Relatively distortion-free, full-disk lunar sential tool ill small-scale (1:1@000 and
photographs. 1 : 5 000 000) lunar geologic mapping, and the lack
3. High-resolution photography exhibiting a of high-resolution reflectivity data has reduced
continuous variation of Sun angles from 0° the effectiveness of large-scale mapping. Such data
to 80 ° . are useful in estimating relative crater ages, lo-
cating rough terrain (bright), and identifying
The resolution of the Apollo 8 vertical pho-
young volcanic deposits (dark). The Apollo 8
tography is roughly 1.2 to 4.2 times higher than
far-side photography also includes the best termi-
the best far-side Lunar Orbiter records, and thus
nator photography obtained from a spacecraft.
provides the highest resolution of the lunar far
Both the high-Sun and low-Sun vertical photo-
side acquired to date.
graphs show good detail of the area directly under
Conclusions from a comparison of the Lunar
the orbital track, and the oblique photographs
Orbiter low-illumination and Apollo 8 high-illumi-
reveal a mountain range that had not been pre-
nation photography include:
viously identified.
1. The degree of brightness is directly related Two extensive ray systems that just overlap
to the inclination of the slope; the steeper the are shown in high-illumination Apollo photo-
slope the brighter it is at high Sun angles. graphs. A discussion of these ray systems, forming
2. The bright interior slopes of craters result the so-called Soviet Mountains, and the source
from the downslope movement of material, ex- craters is given in the section of this chapter
posing fresh surfaces. entitled "Discussion of Named Features." These
3. All small craters with bright rays and nimbi two relatively small craters must be among the
on the high-illumination Apollo 8 photography youngest on the Moon. Other such brightly rayed
correspond to sharp, fresh-appearing craters on craters will probably be found from future high-
the low-illumination Lunar Orbiter records. How- illumination photography of the rest of the lunar
ever, not all small sharp-appearing craters on the far side.
Lunar Orbiter records are bright on the high- Albedo variations are quite distinct in most
illumination Apollo 8 photographs. Since the high-Sun photographs (fig. 2-10). The abundance
bright-halo craters are apparently the freshest and wide distribution of fresh, rayed craters, down
craters, it appears that the examination of high- to the smallest resolvable sizes, are particularly
illumination photography is the best method of impressive. Most of the ray patterns are sym-
determining the degree of freshness of craters. metrical; however, several bright-rayed craters
4. For safety reasons, bright, blocky crater display ray-excluded zones. A discussion of this
halos and bright, possibly unstable, slopes should fact and of possible causes is given in the section
be initially avoided in ground operations. How- of this chapter entitled "Craters."
ever, bright craters may be ideal for gathering Albedo differences are also distinct on mare
fresh rocks that have been excavated from the surfaces. For example, Mare Smythii, whose cir-
solid subsurface layer. cular form shows up with exceptional clarity,
INITIAL PHOTOGRAPHIC ANALYS I._, 17
FIGURE 2-10.--Stereoscopic pair (Apollo 8 frames 2103-D and 2104-D). These photographs were taken at high Sun
illumination and show various geologic features such as stripes in mass-wasting debris on crater walls; horizontal
structure high on crater wails; numerous small, bright cnLters; and topographic features barely visible monoscopically.
with the 250-mm lens. One of these (fig. 2-12), north of landing site 1 (Apollo 8 frame 2345-E).
pass (also magazine E) show the crater Daguerre a fairly fresh crater with secondaries (frames 2262
(T/O 94) and nmch of Mare Nectaris. The copies to 2264), turned out to be not so fresh and was
of these which were available for study are to() partly missed; the pictures are of little interest
dark to be useful, but copies viewed earlier -it except as fill-in. Crater Behaim (T/O 63), with a
the NASA Manned Spacecraft (;enter were good domieal central peak (frames 2268 and 2269),
and potentially useful. However, these extremely was well photographed, although the angle was at
oblique photographs should be used in conjunction approximately the extreme of usefulness (10 ° from
with vertical photographs from Lunar Orbiter, the groundtrack); however, 1he peak lacks (tetail,
which show shapes in plain view better than and nothing was learned ._bout its origin. The
Apollo 8. Southwest of Daguerre is a cracked, low, crater Ansgarius was also included with these
circular, domelike area about 30 kin in diameter targets "rod provides a view of older, large er,tters.
that is cut by fresh cracks and split into blocks
standing at various levels. This feature was ob-
CRATERS
served on Lunar Orbiter photographs (H-72), but
its r,dsed, domelike character was not recognized Crater Characteristics
until the Apollo 8 picture, which was taken at a
lower Sun illumination. It is one of several probable F. EL-BAz
FIGURE 2-19.--Impact crater with well-developed field of secondaries (Apollo 8 frame 2245-E).
the product of ejected material from impact craters chain is discontinuous; the crater in the lower
and are described as secondary crater chains. right corner of the photograph is separated from
Apollo 8 photography includes several examples the rest of the chain. Between this crater and the
of crater chains (figs. 2-21 and 2-22). In figure next one in the chain is a trough which is probably
2-21, a crater chain is made of several round-to- a graben. The four craters in the middle are of
elongated craters alined in one direction. The approximately equal size but of varying depth.
INITIAL PHOTOGRAPHIC ANALYSIS 27
The largest depression, on the upper left end of that the chain is of internal origin; that is, that
the chain, has an elongated form, a raised-but- it is a volcanic crater chain.
not-very-sharp rim, and an irregular interior. This The photograph in figure 2-22 was taken at
interior is suggestive of a crater pair rather than low-Sun angle, about 7 ° . Although shadows cover
of a single crater. These characteristics suggest part of the crater interiors, much detail is clearly
28 ANALYSIS ()F APOLLO 8 PHOTOGRAPIIY AND VISUAL ()BSERVATIONS
visible. The crater chain running from the lower Both parts of the crater chain are surrounded
right to the upper left parts of the photograph is by lineaments, which form an irregular V-shape
different from the crater chain described pre- pointing toward the lower right, end of the chain.
viously. Ill this case, a larg(', elongated depression Such features have been called "herringbone"
abuts against a crater with a polygonal form. structures and are thought to be the product of
Following a break in the chain, ,_ crater cluster deposition of material from ejecta streams that
made of craters similar in shape is seen. The are secondary to a larger impact crater. (See the
craters of the cluster are of different sizes, but section of lifts chapter entitled "ftypersonic Gas
their depths are proportional to their sizes. Flow.") This '_rray is located at about 5 ° S,
INITIAL PHOTOGRAI'HIC ANALYSIS 29
photographs. Allowing for differences in judgment around small craters (10 to 100 meters in diameter)
as to what constitutes a sharp crater, the two consist of })locks quarried from lunar bedrock
curves are in essential agreement for crater diam- beneath the lunar regolith that have not been
eters of 100 meters. Accurate counts of rayed and exposed to the darkening effects of space radiation
bright-halo craters for diameters less than this (ref. 2-5). Thus, the number of subresolution
cannot be made on the Apollo 8 photographs blocks around small craters in the Apollo landing
presently available to us; and whether the two sites may be higher than currently anticipated.
curves continue to agree to smaller sizes is not If this interpretation is correct, however, there
known. High-Sun-angle photography with higher should be a limiting diameter below which craters
resolution could answer this question. Nor is it do not have bright halos or rays; the limiting
known if the points for the bright-halo and rayed diameter at any point would depend on the local
craters apply equally to the areas studied and to thickness of the regolith. Estimates of the thick-
the Apollo landing sites, but it seems likely that ness of the regolith in the landing sites range
they do. Visual comparison also shows clearly from 1 to 10 meters (ref. 2-6); new craters up to
that some large, sharp craters (up to several 40 meters in diameter might lack ejected blocks
kilometers in diameter) do not have bright halos, if they formed in an area of the thickest regolith
although they do have bright walls. Apparently, development. Other origins for rays and bright
the rays and bright halos are of such a thickness halos should not be ruled out at present. The
that they have been destroyed on some large importance of pulverization, grain size, and grain
craters, although this degradation has not ap- shape in producing rays has been emphasized
preciably changed the apparent sharpness of the (ref. 2-7); and an origin as sublimates resulting
rim crest. from the impact of cometary debris has been sug-
An important observation made during the gested by some. Determination of whether or not
comparison of the Apollo 8 and Lunar Orbiter there is a cutoff in bright-halo craters below a
photographs is that several craters on sunward- certain diameter that correlates roughly with the
facing slopes are not especially sharp and yet have thickness of the regolith would have an important
distinct bright halos. These craters have somewhat bearing on the validity of these theories.
fuzzy, indistinct halos on the Lunar Orbiter pho-
tography, and it was not clear if these were Hypersonic Gas Flow
genuine bright halos or were some sort of optical
effect developed on the bright, sunward-facing J. A. O'KEEFE, W. S. CAMERON, AND
slope. The first interpretation now appears to be HAROLD MASURSKY
correct. In annotating large-scale photographs of
the Apollo landing sites for use in the onboard High-resolution lunar photography, especially
data package, all mappers noticed similar ques- that of Apollo 8 and Lunar Orbiters IV and V,
tionable bright-halo craters without sharp rim shows a curious set of markings, denoted "grass
crests on sunward-facing slopes. Some of these raking" by the Apollo 8 astronauts, around most
were shown as bright-halo craters, but many were of the large impact craters. Near Tycho, Co-
not. It now appears that the number of bright- pernicus, Aristarchus, MSsting C, and the un-
halo craters in the landing sites should be in- named far-side crater at 11 ° S, 165 ° W, a pattern
creased at least by these examples which earlier is visible, the predominant element of which is a
were in question. The bright-halo craters without kind of braid. Figure 2-19, from Apollo 8 photo-
sharp rim crests probably are morphologically graphs, shows a sharp, new, far-side impact crater.
subdued from the time of their formation because Figure 2-21, centered near 7 ° S, 167 ° W, shows
of _he instability of loose debris on the slopes. part of the pattern near the same crater. Figure
Assessment of the hazards posed by the probable 2-24 from Lunar Orbiter V shows part of the
increase in the number of rayed and bright-halo pattern near Copernicus with its "bird's-foot"
craters in the Apollo landing sites depends on the pattern. Lineations are seen which form approxi-
interpretation placed on these features. The usual mately equal angles with the radius from the
interpretation is that the rays and bright halos center of the crater. In some regions, these line-
INITIAL PHOTOGRAPHIC ANALYSIS 31
FI(IUal_ 2-24.--Chain of secondary craters of Copernicus, showing bird's-foot pattern (Lunar Orbiter V frame M-144).
ations are visible as appendages to craters, es- glasses (ref. 2-10). Even if the amount of water
pecially when these craters occur in lines. In other contained in the lunar rocks is small, the strong
areas, the lineations are not obviously associated heating of many cubic miles of rock by a large
with craters but simply extend across the surface. impact event will produce large volumes of ga_s.
The characteristic thing about the lineations is Great impact events arc thought to produce ,_
that, wherever they are observed, they make, in base surge similar to those produced by atomic
any given region, a definite angle with the radius blasts (ref. 2-11). The base surge is a particulate-
from the center of the associated crater. material-laden mass of gas that pours out over
The markings may be caused by splashing of the surrounding region with high velocity after
ejecta from secondary craters. Similar markings the event. Perhaps deposits formed by this
have been experimentally produced (ref. 2-8) by mechanism surround young lunar craters like
hypersonic turbulent flow in wind tunnels (fig. Censorinus, M6sting C, Aristarchus, and the Marc
2-25). These markings are also found on reentry Orientale basin.
heat shields. On the lunar surface, the base surge would
It has been shown that the Ries suevite pro- expand into a vacuum and reach very high ve-
duced by shock metamorphism accompanying the locities. At a temperature of 2000 ° C, the velocity
impact event has lost most of it,s water (ref. 2-9). of sound in the gas is probably near 1 km/sec,
Similar results are known for the other impact and the Mach angle from the patterns appears
32 ANALYSIS ()F APOLLO 8 PHOTOGRAPHY AND VISUAL OBSERVATIONS
FIGURE 2-26.--Stereogram of area on lunar far side depicting a probable volcanic cone (Apollo 8 frames 2055-D and
2056-D). (a) Frame 2055-D, (b) frame 2056-D.
FIGURE2-29.--Unusual surface markings in region of northern Mare Marginis and crater Goddard (from Apollo 8 frame
2208-D).
INITIAL PHOTOGRAPHIC ANALYSIS 35
under high illumination. In these photographs, Earth as caused hy differences in particle size
tile full extent of this unusual group of markings (rcfs. 2-21 and 2-22), age (refs. 2-23 and 2-24),
call be appreciated. Figure 2-29 illustrates the or composition (ref. 2-25). A strong argument
brightest region of these markings, which surround has been made in favor of compositional differ-
the large (lark-floored crater God(lard, and should ences being the cause of color differences, based
be compare(I with figures 10, 11, trod 12 of refer- on the results of an extensive series of differential
ence 2-15. (?lcarly, more work needs to be done photometric measurements.
on these features I)efore any firm conclusions can If subsequent evidence proves the correlation
be drawn. between spectral reflectivity and composition, and
sufficient "ground truth" can be obtained, accu-
COLORIMETRY
rate high-resolution color measurement will be a
useful tool in geologic m'tpping of the lunar
GENERAL STATEMENT--TIlE COLOR ()F
TIlE MOON surface.
Photoelectric photometry is the most accurate
E. A. WUITAKER AND A. F. H. GOETZ means for making spectral reflectivity measure-
ments. Accuracies of 0.1 percent were obtained
(_onfusion has arisen over apparently conflicting
(ref. 2-25). However, at the present time, pho-
estimates of the coh)r of the surface of the Moon.
tometry is a slow, point-for-point method, not
Tile astronauts' most frequent lunar descriptions,
suitable for large-area coverage or convenient data
such a_s "gray" 'md "whitish-gray," agree with
display. With some sacrifice in accuracy, photo-
measurements made 1)y Surveyor III (ref. 2-16).
graphic methods can be used. By using micro-
However, precision measurements niade from the
densitometry, photographic plates can be analyzed
Earth definitely show that the color is not pure
for quantitative color differences; but, again, data
gray but, as the astron'mts also suggested, rather
display is difficult, and the method is time con-
a brownish gray. Correctly exposed color fihns,
taken either from lunar orbit or from the Earth, suming. Telescopic color-difference pictures that
give qualitative color information in inmge form
invariably display a warm rather than a cool tint.
have been produced (ref. 2-26). In this method,
It has long been recognized that the color of
a print is produced from a sandwich of a blue
the lunar surface is not entirely nmnotonous, but
negative and a red positive plate. Color bound-
that small differences of tint are displayed by the
aries, particularly in mare regions, are easily de-
ln._ria (ref. 2-17). More recently, it has been
tected. Errors are introduced, however, because
found that the color also changes with phase, a
phenomenon caused by differential polarization
1.0 ;0-
at different wavelengths. The mean relative re- s
of the difficulty of accurately controlling the 4350 ._) aad 29+0.6NI) (center wavelength
photograplfie developnmnt and reproductitm proc- 6600 ,_), were mounte([ in :_ slide devil.e, which
esses over a wide dynamic range. attached to the lens in lieu of a filter. Exposures
An image-processing nwthod has been developed were made :alternately through each filter. The
to utilize the high information content and goo(t time between exl)osures was less than 5 seconds.
display characteristics of photography and to Using the Hasselbla(l camera and 80-mm lens,
circumvent the difficulties of standard micro- ]ulmr-surface resolution from orbit was expected
densitometry in order to obtain quantitative coh)r to ])e 50 meters, apl)r(,ximatcly 20 times greater
information. Details of this nletho(l will be dis- titanthe best t';arth-I)_ed telescope ph<)togr'q)hy.
cussed in the folh)wing sectimL
A study of differentitd (.ohn" phohmmtry (ref. Data Return
2-25) reveals thqt a large mmd)er of spectral For operali(mal reasons, no sche(luled T/t) pho-
curves, particularly in the mare regions, exhibit togr'q)hy, including re(l-blue filter phot,)gral)hy ,
a nearly linear 1)ehavior in the wavelength region was carried out in the ninth orbit. At /his time,
of 4000 to 7000 _. Therefore, the greater the wave-
the filter holder was used to reduce the light level
length separation of the points in the spectruln in the television ('amera. Following TE[, "L nuln-
observed, the greater the differelwe signal ot)- bet of red-blue phot,Jgraphs were taken with
tained. Typical differences obtained across color
the 250-ram lens. Accidentally, 33 expo-
boundaries in the maria, after a]bedo norlnali- sures were nmde on St)368 (color) fihn anti
zation, are 4 to 7 percent. Such color differences were, therefore, not usal)le for analysis. Un-
are not detectable by the eye or on color fihn fortunately, these were the best exposures nmde,
without special enhancement teelmiques. a_ the inmges filled almost the entire, frame.
Shortly after TEI, eight pairs of red-blue photo-
APOLLO 8 COLOR EXPERIMENT graphs were expose(l on type 2485 high-spee(l filnL
This film had been intended for <lint-light photog-
raphy, but was exposed 'tccordiiig to the plan for
A. F. H. GOETZ
type 3400 fihn. Thirteen exposures were also made
Introduction using the polarizing filters. No exl)osure calibration
was made l)efore processing the 2485 film (maga-
Apollo 8 presented a unique pl'ttform from zine G). Therefore, no quantitative color data
which to perform high-resolutioll lunar coloN- can be retrieve([ fronl these images. Mag,Lzine E
metric photography. All previous spectral reflec- (type 3400 fihn) cont.dns 10 pairs of red-blue
tivity or color measurements, with the exception exI)osures. However, the full-Moon, quarter-phase
of those made by Surveyor (ref. 2:16), have been images measure only 8 mm or less in diameter,
made from the Earth where even good atmos- making them unsuitable for analysis.
pheric seeing limits resolution to approximately
1 km at the lunar subearth point. Furtherlnore, Image Processing
no far-side color lne-Lsurements had I)een under-
The requirement for reducing a large lmmber
taken prior to Apollo S. of coh)r-sep'n'ation t)hotographs to obtain high-
resoluti(m, (tuantitative color data precluded the
The Experiment
use of standard microdensitometry methods.
The design of the Apolh) 8 two-color experiment The Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) hnage
was largely dictated t)y hardware and mission Processing I,abor:Lt,wy offered to assist in the
constraints. Color-separ._tion i)h,)tography on analysis of Apolh_ 8 t wo-col()r t)hotography. The
black-and-white fihn was the only feasible lnethod process is :t variation of routines use(l in the
for obtaining quantit._tive color information from analysis of other tyl)es of i)hotograp]ty (refs. 2-27
orbit. Two flters were chosen to give the greatest an(I 2 28).
wavelength separation connnensurate with space- To develop and test, the met h(_(l, telescope
craft-window transmission and fihn-sensitivity photogral)hs of several hmar areas were taken
constraints. The filtem, 47B (center wavelength through a Sl)acecrafl window and thl'ough the
INITIAL PHOTOGRAPHIC ANALYSIS 37
appropriate filters. The film and processing were in a "picture" that is independent of overall
identical to that, used for the Apollo 8 flight. all)edo differences, the negative values of which
Sensitometric calibration strips were l)reexposed represent varying shades of one color, while zero
through the same filters. represents gray, and positive values represent the
Both the film and the calibration strips were other color. The colors are progressively more
digitized with a scanning spot size of 25_. A intense :_s the DN departs from zero.
10 000-picture-element (pixel) sample of each cali- Figures 2-31 and 2-32 are the original, scanned
bration step was scanned. Plots of the digital photographs, taken with 47B and 92q-0.6ND
number (DN) versus density (D) of the initially (center w,tvelength 6600 /_) filters, respectively.
exposed wedges produced overall system calibra- Plato, Sinus Iridum, and a portion of Mare
tion curves, DN versus the logarithm of the ex- Imbrium are visible. Figure 2-33 is the difference
posure (log E) for each of the filters.
Each picture was scanned several times, and
the multiple scans were averaged to minimize
noise, after which ._ geometric correction program
was used to register the red and blue pictures to
each other. These became the master input, pic-
tures for the processing.
Each picture was then converted to the log E
domain through application of the appropriate
calibration curve to each pixel. The relative ex-
posure between pictures was then adjusted to
give an equal DN in each picture in an area
defined by observation to be gray. Subtraction
of one picture from the other is the equivalent
of taking the ratio of the exposures, which results
(blue) filter. The original negative was scanned with spite of albedo contrasts, such as the eastern rim of
a 25u spot size and the tape replayed to produce Sinus Iridum, demonstrate the dynamic range and
picture in which the light areas are blue and the lunar photometry (refs. 2-34 and 2-35) is not
dark areas are red. The differences have been sufficiently precise to separate this opposition
expanded to nearly fill the dynamic range of the effect from the general linear phase effect.
processor. A point known as Mare Imbrium 2 From the work reported in reference 2-20, it
(ref. 2-25), located southeast of Heraclides Prom- was predicted that the surface of the Moon should
ontory, was chosen to be gray. display a strong heiligenschein. This prediction
The major color boundary in .Mare IInbriun_ was first confirmed by photographs transmitted
has been measured photoelectrically (ref. 2 25). by Surveyor I (ref. 2 36) in which the shttdow of
A color difference of 5.54-0.5 percent was meas- the camera is seen to be surrounded by a bright
ured across the boundary at the points Mare halo several degrees in di'mmter. Although a few
Imbrium 3 and 4. The corresponding difference photographs transmitted by Lmmr Orbiter V in-
found by image l)rocessing is 54-2.5 percent. ('lude the zero-phase point, those Apollo 8 photo-
graphs that include this point afford the first
PHOTOMETRY opportunity to make detailed measurements of
the lunar hciligenschein. For accurate work, a
AN INVESTIGATION OF THE LUNAR recording nlicrophotonmter should be used and
HEILIGENSCHEIN allowances shouhl be made for vignetting and
other geometrical effects. However, as an interim
E. A. WmTAKER
procedure, two frames (frames 2126 and 2148)
The occurrence of the heiligenschein as a ter- which showed |ninimunl albedo differences in the
restrial phenomenon has undoubtedly been known area of the heiligenschein were chosen. A trans-
since ancient times. More recently, it has been parent |nillimeter scale was attached, in turn, to
described and its production attributed to two each of these frames (which were in tile form of
distinct phenomena (refs. 2-29 and 2-30): positive fihn transparencies), and nleasurements
1. Internal reflections within transparent beads of density were taken at eight l-ram intervals in
(as in beaded projection screens, reflective tape, each direction outward from tile brightest point
and paint) or drops (as in dew on a lawn). using a simple visual spot densitometer. Two of
2. A shadowing phenomenon in structures such the sensitometric step wedges at the tail of the
as vegetation, whereby all shadows are hidden ._t film were also measured.
very small phase angles. Once the density differences of the original
Recent work (ref. 2-7) has shown that a number wedge steps and the scale of the photograph were
of terrestrial substances display a distinct heiligen- known, the actual relative reflectivity of the lunar
schein effect; but, from this work, it not possible surface at various angular distances from the
to decide whether or not other phenomena may zero-phase point, was easily determined. The re-
also be effective. sults are presented in table 2-I.
Photometric work (ref. 2-31) has established To determine the brightness/phase-angle curve
the fact that the brightness of all illuminated for larger phase angles, it is advantageous to make
portions of the Moon increases rapidly near full use of the integrated brightness measurements of
Moon. A similar effect was noted and measured Rougier (in ref. 2-37). The lunar photometric
(refs. 2-32 and 2-33) in the case of the asteroids. function has been correctly shown (ref. 2-38) to
It was found that, for phase angles greater than be the product of the folh)wing three phase func-
approximately 5 ° , brightness increased linearly tions :
(on a logarithmic scale) with decreasing phase; 1. The phase function of the particles forming
but, for angles less than 5 °, the brightness in- the "fairy castle" layer.
creased much more rapidly. This nonlinear surge 2. The I_ommel-Seeliger term cos i (cos i q- cos e)
was termed the "opposition effect." Later, a simi- for the visible shadowing within that layer, where
lar phenomenon on the Moon was noted and i is the angle of incidence and e is the angle of
measured (ref. 2-20), the brightness at 1 ° phase enlergence.
being almost 50 percent greater than at 5 ° . Prior 3. A ret rodirective function which corrects the
INITIAL PHOTOGRAPHIC ANALYSIS 39
4f
TABLE 2-I.--Measurements of the Heiligenschein 1.4
'\ Contribution to
\, by shadowing
1.1 \ ....... From .1 \
{) ............ [) 1.15 1 .(}0
i heiligenschein N
I ........ • 7 I. 30 .9O
\ measurements \
I .4 1.40 • 84
_1.0
3 ............ 2.2 1.49 .78
4 ............ 2.9 1. ,)(3 .73 A:= o ?'_
3.6 l .61 .72
Significance of Photography
Since the Earth subtends an angle of about 2 °
(diameter) at the Moon, and the Sun subtends
about 0.5 °, the closest possible approach to zero
phase for telescopic observations is about 1.5 ° at
FmURE 2-35.---Apollo 8 frame 2148, showing zero-phase
the center of the disk. (The range is from 1.25 °
point.
at the limb nearest eclipse to 1.75 ° at the far
limb, for no penumbral shadowing.) The photo-
metric function rises sharply with decreasing phase
angle in this region; therefore, the extrapolation
to zero phase is subject to error. Apollo 8 photo-
graphs are the first ones taken from lunar orbit
to contain the zero-phase point within tile range
of calibration.
t.0
.9
E.
'l
7_
.6 shownl
Function
at g • 0 °
I
begins
may
I
for
illumination
at about
not
point
I
g - 3°
be regular
source
L I I I
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Phaseangle, g, deg
FI(;URE 2 38.--Lunar photometric function near zero FIGURE 2-39.--Apollo 8 frame 21,t7-D, showing densi-
3.0
2"8f
1 f"
2.0 Principal point
1
1.8 Zero-phasepoint
FI(_UaE 2-40. Apollo 8 frame 2147-D master positive traces and points.
3.2
2. All frames were taken approximately verti-
cally, allowing simplified geometrical calculations
based on single densitometric scans through the
principal point and zero-phase point. Magazine C 3.0
frames were taken with a 12 ° camera pitch angle.
The principal point and zero-phase point were
located on each frame, and densitometric traces 2.8-
(figs. 2-39 and 2-40) were extracted from frame
edge to frame edge through these points. A second-
generation master positive was used for all scan- 2.6-
ning. A mean brightness trace was fitted to each
microdensitometer trace. The assumption was :.
made that variations of the microdensitometer _2.4
trace from the mean brightness trace were caused _E
by local variations in albedo and slope, and that
the mean trace corresponded to a uniform sphere 2.2
and albedo. Eighty-two data points were ex-
tracted, and the phase angle g and luminance
longitude _ computed for each data point. Con- 2.0
version of the microdensitometer data to exposures
was performed through the use of sensitometric
strip 4B (fig. 2-41) preexposed onto the head end I. 8
Absolute log E ol step Ii: 8.82-10
of the flight film. The exposures were corrected 0.15 log E relative steps
for lens transmission characteristics, but have not
i I I I I i I
been corrected for potential spacecraft-window- 1.613 12 11 10 g 8 7 6
transmission effects. The values for each frame
Step
were then normalized to zero phase.
Data points within each frame were limited to FI(_uIcE 2-41.--D log E curve for strip 4B Apollo 8
IOO
90
8O
....a = 0 °
6O
[]
/ 0
L I
-20 -10 0 I0 20
Phase angle, deg
and luminance longitude. Data points and fitted kaya data, with a slightly sharper falloff from
curves are plotted (fig, 2-42) for a = 0 °, 4.7 °, 9.4 °, zero phase. This sharper falloff may be an im-
-4.7 °, -9.4 °, - 13.95 °, and - 18.1 °. The curve provement in the function, or it may be indicative
for zero a is also plotted against the JPL fits of an adjusted function for the highlands of the
(ref. 2-39) to data of Fedorets and Sytinskaya, lunar far side. The data scatter does indicate that
with all curves normalized to zero phase. The additional and more detailed reduction of this
results show (fig. 2-43) a better fit to the Sytins- type is warranted from the Apollo 8 photography.
44 ANALYSIS OF APOLLO 8 PHOTOGRAPHY AND V]SUAL ()B,SERVATIONS
lOO
Summary of Results
The terminology for the viewing conditions of
interest is illustrated in figure 2-44. For simplicity,
L, Data points from
•Local vertical
.- Lunar surface
Observed surface point..
"Sun elevation angle (esl
Local hor izonta I.,
FIGURE 2-45.--Equal phase angle contours from 1 °'to 10 ° for Apollo 8 frames 2124 and 2125. (a) Frame 2125, (b)
frame 2124.
46 ANALYSIS OF APOLLO 8 PHOTOGRAPHY AND VISUAL OBSERVATIONS
INITIALPIIOTOGRAPIIIC
ANALYSIS 47
r ....
t.
points. (a) Frame 2271, (b) frame 2272, (c) frame 2273,
(d) frame 2339, (e) frame 2340, (f) frame 2341, (9)
fr._me 2342, (h) frame 2818, (i) frame 2819, (j) frame
angles, whereas relative terrain heights and slopes Aspect angle and g for four altitudes are shown
are best seen at low Sun angles. as a function of 0L in figures 2-47 and 2-48.
Zero-phase points, or what appears to be near-
Phase angle wa.s calculated by assuming zero
zero phase, were obtained on a few frames covering phase at the surface point corresponding to 0_t of
maria regions and under conditions similar to
those of LM descent. These are frames 2271,
2272, and 2273 (magazine E) of the training se-
quence near landing site 1 (250-mm lens); 2339 90
to 2342 (magazine E), taken near Mare Fecundi-
8O
tatis (80-mm lens); and 2818, 2819, 2820, and
2821 (magazine C), with a near-zero-phase point
70
in Mare Tranquillitatis (80-mm lens). This set of
photographs is shown in figure 2-46 and is dis- 60
cussed further in the section of this chapter en-
titled "Simulation of Lunar Module Photography 50
and Lunar Module Landing Conditions."
Discussion
the 16 ° 0a point; substantial foreshortening of ing the Apollo 8 results to the effect that the eye
surface features occurs beyond this l)oint for the has a greater dynamic range than film. Such
comments -ire misleading unless the ,lctual con-
higher altitude. In fact, the horizon is reached .'Lt
OL=20 ° at 60 n. mi. This results in poorer visi- ditions of measurement are specified, such as type
bility of features at 60 n. nit. comt)ared to 1 n. mi., of fihn, granularity, D log E curve, and type of
relative to their visibility at OA= 16 ° when viewing criteria (such as discriminable gray steps or re-
down range of that point. Note also that the abso- solvable detail) by which the film and visual
lute value of 0L to the 0A = 16 ° point increases dynaInie ranges are me:_sured. Visual dynanfic
about 10 ° between 60 and 1 n. mi. range is often described by the total operating
A plot of g versus OL corresponding to the pre- range of the visual system for t he lowest threshold
ceding conditions (zero phase set at 0A =16 ° for for seeing t.o the point at which light intensity
all altitudes) is shown in figure 2-48. For this will cause pain or dam'tge. This description is
case, the variation of 9 about the zero-phase inappropriate as a basis for comparison to fihn
point is the same at each altitude for a given OL sensitivity. Although the eye can operate over tl
variation. The only change is a (lisplacement of range of IO ta, it cannot (to so at any one time.
the function along the 8L axis of an amount equal At a given time, the eye has a single operating
to the central angle between the zero-phase points point, and the variation in light level around the
for the various altitudes. operating point to which it responds is sub-
The importance of these comments is in the stantially smaller than the total rangc of 10 TM.
fact that observing the lunar surface at a OA of The operating point itself is determined by the
16 ° from 60 n. mi. does not effectively simulate adaptation luminance to which the eye is exposed.
the LM landing situation, due to the foreshorten- The adaptation level is a weighted function of the
ing effect. At this altitude, a series of photographs luminance distribution in the visual field, and can
that include the zero-phase point for Sun elevation roughly be taken "_s the average luminance. De-
angles from about 10 ° to 30 ° is required to cover pending on the adaptation level, the eye may have
the range of conditions during LM landing. a dynamic range greater or smaller than a given
film-development combination. In the case of
seeing in shadows, the eye has an advantage over
Shadow Visibility and Visual Dynamic Range film in that: it can adapt to the clark and, therefore,
become more sensitive if the shadow region is
The demonstration of visibility in shadow re- observed over a time period.
gions has implications for lunar surfa(_e operations The amount of light in a shadow region needed
and for future lunar photography. Shadow regions for visibility was bounded by examination of two
have been considered a potential hazard for sur- criteria :
face extravehicular activity and for LM and flier
1. What luminance level is necessary to raise
operations, because holes in shadows or pro-
the brightness of a snmll clark spot just above
tuberances covered by shadows might not be de-
complete black when it is seen against a larger,
tected. The luminance in the shadow observed
bright surround? This is the minimum luminance
from Apollo 8 is presumably caused by back-
necessary to perceive anything in .t shallow and
scatter from adjacent illuminated areas. This effect
can be considered a noise level.
is especially evident in shadows within craters.
An estimate can be made of the amount of illumi- 2. What luminance level is necessary to see
50 ANALYSIS OF APOLLO 8 PHOTOGRAPHY AND VISUAL OBSERVATIONS
detail inside a dark spot bounded by a larger, lumens/ftL Entering this value on the ordinate
bright surround? This criterion will require a of figure 2-48, a just=visible luminance of 0.3 to
greater luminance than the first and can be used 0.56 ft-L is obtained, or about 0.001 to 0.002 of
as an upper estimate. the surround luminance.
As is usually the case, such threshold values To estimate the luminance required for detailed
will depend on many parameters: the angular size visibility, the size and contrast of the detail should
and luminance of the surround; the angular size be specified. Unfortunately, thLs cannot be done
of the dark area; the angular size and contrast without additional information from the crew as
of the critical detail for the second criterion; and to visible feature size. However, an experiment
the specific judgment required of the observer. described in reference 2-42 can serve to set an
To correlate with Apollo 8 observations, a sur- upper luminance level for small detail. Subjects
round should be used that subtends at least 20 ° in that experiment estimated orientation of
to 30 ° at the eye and a dark area should be used Landolt "C" ring of the following dimensions:
that simulates a shadow that subtends 2 ° to 5 °. outside diameter =9.65 minutes of arc, stroke and
The size of features visible to the crew in the gap width= 1.93 minutes of arc. Contrast ratios
shadow is not known to this author. were determined for various background and sur-
Data from reference 2-40 approximate the con- round luminances and sizes using the following
ditions necessary for estimating the first criterion. equation :
From a 180 ° surround with a 1.5 ° dark area, the
Lr- LB
just-visible luminance in the 1.5 ° area was de- Contrast ratio C-
termined as a function of surround luminance. LB
The results are shown in figure 2-49. Also plotted where Lr = target luminance for 50 percent correct
are the results obtained in reference 2-41 for a judgments and LB = background luminance.
somewhat different type of experiment, although For a background (or shadow) size of 5 ° and a
these results agree well with the reference 2-40 surround luminance of 17'6 ft-L, the following
data in the region of interest. At a 10 ° 0s, the contrast thresholds were found for 50 percent
average luminance of the lunar surface is 325 ft-L correct judgments: at a shadow luminance of
for viewing vertically, assuming an overall re- 18.7'3 ft-L, C=0.25; at a shadow luminance of
flectance factor of 0.1, a reflectance of 0.25 along 1.57 ft-L, C = 1.5. Because lunar=feature contrasts
the line of sight, and solar illumination of 13 000 in shadows are likely to be on the order of a few
tenths or less, it is concluded that shadow lumi-
nance would have to be on the order of 10 ft-L
2[- for detection of small detail. This detail size is
tI- probably unrealistic; critical feature size was more
likely in the region of 10 to 20 minutes of arc,
, -1t-
oF Stevj in which case a tenfold reduction in threshold to
-2I- about 1 ft-L is reasonable.
= -'r
_' 4
,g."
-3
J
-2 -i
I
0
I I
i
I
2 3
[ I
4 5
I
It is concluded
greater
that shadow luminance was
than 0.6 ft-L and less than 1 to 10 ft-L
"" LO surround luminance, for 325-ft-L average lunar surface luminance. Be-
ft- L
,Beam splitter
_.. F-'--'_-'- 35-ramcamera
Central Solarsimulator "_"-]__ 28-mm-focal-length
",_I,, For a given surround
area Surround source, angular _ lens
diameter diameter /",, ' "_ luminance, the just- subtense : 0.5 + " I _ .- Source elevation
Stevens 5.1 c 58° "i'_ _visible luminance in _--"_ angle
"-" J the central area
Lowry 1.5 ° 180°
\ J (analogous to shadow) 1:25,000scalemodel
was determined of site 3
EVALUATION OF PHOTOCLINOMETRIC
PROFILE DERIVATION
10. Exposure values for the c'dibration gr'ly More l)reeise latitude and longitude were de-
scale (Apollo 8 type 3400 fihn). rived from Lunar Orbiter photography by image
11. Density values for the gray scale of the matching, using Lunar Orbiter II frame H-33.
fourth-generation, 70-ram, type 3400 film. The north (leviation angle was obtained by the
12. Shutter speed of c'unera for the picture same method. Thus, the values used were (1)
used. 174.3 ° E, (2) !).9 ° S, and (3) 183 ° N deviation
angle (as defined in ref. 2-44).
Format and _Vlierodensitometer Parameters The l'ttitude and longitude of tile subsolar point
are necessary for calculating the coordinates of
The following format is require([ in the program
the zero-p]mse point. To obtain these quantities,
from reference 2-43:
the exael time at which the photograph was taken
1. Chit area of approximately 20 mm by 8 mm
has to be known. The time was approximated to
(20 mm along thE phase line).
within an hour (1) by knowing the orbit number,
2. Fifteen parallel scans along traces of thE
the position at which the picture was taken, and
phase planes (scans 0.6 mm apart).
3. Up to 500 points per scan.
4. Phase angle between 40 ° and 110 °.
TABLE 2-II.--Joyce-Loebl MK CS Micro-
5. Machine parameters as given in table 2 II.
densitometer Parameters
6. A nfinitape, onto which the density levels
Condenser, mm ....................... 32
•Lre coded in 168 steps (binary eo(le(t (te('imal).
Optieal rnagnifiealion faclor. ........... 2()
Mechanical magnification factor ....... 10
Vertical aperlure, mm ................. 1.5
l [[)rizonta] aperl ure, rnln .............. l ..3
Spot size, mm ..................... 0.075 by 0.075
[n the case of c'tmera-axis lilt, a(hliti(mal parameters Wedge, dem, ily units ................. F 140,0to2.4
are ile(!essary for the ('onll)uHtli[)ns. l';ne,,der levels ...................... 1--168
INITIAL PHOTOGRAPIIIC ANALYSIS 53
the time required for one orbit; and (2) from the 2. The correct exposure values for the Apollo 8
orbit number, position, and time of -1 television fihn (type 3400) gray scale had to be substituted.
transmission to Earth. Knowing the time, the 3. A scale conversion front 70-mm to 35-ram
coordinates of the subsolar point were interpolated fihn had to be eliminated.
from ephemeris data for 1968. A supporting con>
puter program established the picture-frame co- Results
ordinates of the zero-phase point and the scan
Comparison With Photogrammetric Profiles
angle. Because of a Lunar Orbiter scale conversion
Obtained From the A P/ C Plotter
in the computer program, the scan angle was
erroneously established as 4 ° (measured clockwise Figure 2-52 shows an outline of the area
from the X-axis). Although it was not used, the scanned. The initial point is at the northeast
correct scan angle was later established as being
10 °. The coordinates of the initial point were
measured with the Mann comparator on the 70-
ram film. The density values of the calibration
gray scale were calculated from microdensitometer
scans. It was found convenient to use a density
of 0.3 as a base for the measurements. Nine steps
of the gray scale were used for the density-to-
brightness conversion (table 2 III).
('orner ()f the (_utlin('d "u'ea. Th(, sc,annitlg (lirection rehdively flat, with gentle ups "ul(t (Iowns ((m
ix toward th(, n(n'thwest. Tol)ogr;q)hic profiles of the ord(,r _Jf 400 meters) amt some dropoff tow'tr(I
the 15 scans (fgs. 2 53 IHI([ 2 54) were ])l(_tt(,(| the, (,n(l. The l:lst scans (south side of picture)
on th(' XYZ t)l()tt(,r at "t scale of 1:100 000. The show a (h'finit(, rise over the rim of the crater
first few scans ;tt the north si{t(, ()f the ph()togral)h (1200 nteters). Ph(_t()granimetrie profiles 'dong the
show a relatively fiat er:d(,r bottoni with a slight sam(, t)lan(, al_ng scan 1, al)proxinmt(,ly scan 8,
rise (approximat(,ly 600 met(,rs) ovc,r th(, ('rat(,r :tn([ scan 15 (fig. 2 55) were provided by the
rim, "u_d 't marked (]ropoff (atq)r(_xinmtely -300 AP/(' t)lott(,r. In a comparis(nl ])etwoen the
meters) at th(, ('tl(]. Th(, interm(,di'd(, srm_s are m('tho(l_, scan 15 (fig. 2-56) shows good agreement
_ 1500
•- _ 100o f
,aJ
50o
J
__13
_8
_7
_6
_4
_3
5o
8
--Initial point
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I i I I I I I l I I J I
0 2 4 6 8 lO 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30
Ground distance, kilometers
between tile two profiles. Scan 1 was tilted to Comparison of Slopes From Lunar Orbiter Frame
adjust the slightly rising, fiat crater floor to .dmost H 33, Framelet 739, With Slopes From Apollo 8
horizont'd "rod shows a marked diversi<m in tile Frame 2082-D
elevati(m of the riln and in the area outside the
crater. Scan 8, when tilted to fit the equivalent An area lying within the site scalmed on Apollo
t)hotogrannnetric scan, shows some agreement in 8 fihn w'ts scalmed on Lun,u" Orbiter II fihn in an
snmll scale features t>ut is too h,w in the begimfing effort to coral)are slopes. Figure 2-57 shows the
and in the end. location of both sites. The large outline shows the
Apolh) 8 area scanned on frame 2082-D. Un-
fortunately, the <tifferenees in scale of the photo-
1600
gral)hs m'_ke conlparison difficult. Plmtometrie
_ 1200 reduction of the site on Imnar Orbiter II fr'une
_ 800 M 33 was impossible because of the extreme con-
trasts in brightness. Figure 2-58 shows plots from
_ 4oo!
o 15
scans Inade on H-33 and the corresponding parts
14
froln scans limde <m fralne 2082. Scan 15 (Lunar
Orbiter photogral)h) should .tpproxinmte scan 13
(Apolh) photograph), while scan 1 should be
equivalent to scan 10.
Et_luation
2OO0
1500
1000
5OO 1:1
0
a_ _3
E
Equivalent to photoclinometry scan 15
o looo
800
1:5
600-
400-
200
I
1500
1000
500 .... 11 2
0 _ ../-
C
600
40O
_ 1:5
200
1._0-
1000
500 _- _ _ 1:1
0
C 1
E 1000 1:5
d
._o 800
merry scan 1
o_ 600
oJ
4O0
200
I J I I I I 1 I I I l I I I I b l ] I I I I I I ] I
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28
(3round distance, kilometers
2000
1800
1600
1400 _Scan 3
_n
_ 12oo
E
g 1000
800
w
6OO
400
200
5 I0 15 20 z_
(a) Ground distance, kilometers
1800
1600
1400 Scan 2
1200
-- / Scan _ 8
E 1000
c"
/ .-_/__'/_'/ _ Photogrammetry
800
4OO
Photochnometry
200
0 j L I / i
,,,I t L L I I I I I I i i i I ] 1 L I L L [ I
5 10 15 20 25
(b} Ground distance, kilometers
1600
1000 / Photogrammetry
£
o
800 / __ ---.. Photoclinometry
000 // _ _.
40O
-- _ /" k-- Scan 1
200 f _ -- "" J" _"--
I_ I L I L l 1 I _',-.i i
5 10 15 20 25
{c) Ground distance, kilometers
FIGURE 2-56.--Photogrammetric profiles compared with three photoclinometric scans. (a) Photogrammetrie scan 3 and
photoclinometric scan 15; (b) photogrammetric scan 2 and photoclinometric approximately scan 8; (c) photogram-
metric scan I and photoclinometric scan I.
58 ANALYSIS OF APOLLO 8 PHOTOGRAPHY AND VISUAL OBSERVATIONS
The sign convention used is that N la! and E long are posilive.
CP-1 CP-2
[CP-3]
were scaled from sheets from the four map series (ACIC) value in table 2-VI is from reference
(refs. 2-45 to 2-48) which cover the lunar far side.
2-47. In the last row of table 2-VI, the Army
References 2-45, 2-46, and 2-47 are carried Map Service (AMS) and ACIC maps iire com-
on board Apollo missions and are used for a pared. As shown in table 2-VI, the largest differ-
gross form of navigation, to locate photographic ence is 1.58 °. Although it is realized that three
targets, and to locate targets for optical sightings, points are a small sample from which to develop
respectively. Reference 2-48 is used for planning statistical parameters, the positional uncertainty
purposes. (1 sigma) of the maps should be estimated a_u not
To compare the positions, the Apollo 8 values larger than 2 ° (60 kin). The estimated uncertainty
were subtracted from the map values (table 2-VI). used prior to Apollo 8 was 10 ° (300 km).
The Aeronautical Chart and Information Center In addition to the three control points located
Comparison Latitude
Difference Longitude I Difference
CP-1
CP-2
Landmark B-1
trends, but all data are for locations within 4-5 ° 1744 - x Ranger _ impact analysis
-" 1736
of the Moon. "'x ".': "°
°.
I I I I I I I ] I I I
The Ranger VIII impact analysis point (ref. _0
17_60 50 40 -30 -20 -I0 0 I0 20 30 40
2-50) is also with respect to the center of mass of Longitude, deg
the Moon. The solid curve represents results of a
harmonic analysis of radii derived from Earth- FIGURE 2-63.--Determinations of lunar radii in the equa-
TABLE 2-VI I.--Preliminary Results From Analyses mission represents a number of firsts, among which
of Apollo 8 Landmark Sightings are the following:
1. The first photography obtained from lunar
Site orbit which included the return of the original
I,ali_ude Longit u(ie ltadius, km
negatives.
2. The first new lunar photography, for all
n-1 .......... 2.54 ° N 35.(}1 ° E 1737.5 practical purposes, since the Lunar Orbiter pho-
CP-1 ......... -6.28 ° S - 158.07 ¢ W 1742.0
tography of almost 2 years ago.
CP-2 ......... -9.71 o S 163.21 ° E 1737.5
3. The largest scale photography ever obtained
of the lunar far side.
Because surveying and mapping, particularly
results from different orbital passes and somewhat by photogrammetric methods, play an important
different procedures, are shown in table 2-VII. role in the NASA lunar exploration program, it is
These data are with respect to the center of mass only logical to assess the value of the Apollo 8
of the Moon. photography from this standpoint. Such an assess-
The B-1 landmark is on the near side of the ment is of even greater importance in view of the
Moon, and photogrammetric analyses of Lunar limited availability of lunar photography that
Orbiter photographs give a radius of 1735.2 km lends itself to the production of the required
for this point compared with 1737.5 km given in surveys and maps. As a result of these moti-
the table. The 1735.2-km value seems to be con- vations, personnel of the MSC Mapping Sciences
sistent with the results in figure 2-63, indicating a Laboratory undertook an investigation of the
possible bias in the 1737.5-km value in the table. photogrammetric potential of the Apollo 8 pho-
Landmark CP-1, judging from its appearance in tography. This investigation included an evalu-
the Apollo 8 photography, seems to be representa- ation to determine what photography was suitable
tive of the mean surface level in its area. However, for photogrammetric data reduction, stellar cali-
landmark CP-2 is a small crater inside a large brations of the Apollo 8 cameras, sample control
crater, which is in turn inside a still larger crater extension to determine the value of the pho-
of approximately 40 km in diameter; this point tography for establishing lunar control, and the
seems to be well below the mean surface level in production of a topographic map to assess the
its area. value of Apollo 8 photography for mapping. The
Considering the results in table 2-VII inde- results of these investigations, which will subse-
pendently, there is some evidence of larger lunar quently be described in more detail, show that the
radii with respect to the center of mass for the Apollo 8 Hasselblad photography represents a
far-side points. If only the B-1 site is biased, the valuable medium for photogrammetric surveying
evidence is somewhat strengthened. However, and mapping of the lunar surface. Therefore, it is
these data are not considered to be sufficiently concluded that surveying and mapping based on
convincing to confirm (or deny) the hypothesis Apollo mission photography can play an important
concerning a displacement between the center of role in the missions leading not only to the first
mass and the center of figure of the Moon. lunar landing but also to subsequent lunar explo-
ration.
not considered suitable for photogrammetric data camera was located obliquely to the spacecraft
nor was much lunar control available. There were, With this in mind, photographs 2052 to 2055
however, four points on the lunar surface with and 2664 to 2667 were triangulated as a block at
coordinates established by sextant observation CP-1, and photographs 2091 to 2095 and 2702
from Apollo 8 (CP-1, CP-2, and CP-3, and land- to 2705 were triangulated as a block at CP-2.
mark B-l). Since vertical photography was taken In both blocks, the exposure stations were con-
over three of these points, the investigation cen- strained ill latitude and height but allowed to
tered around these control points and an at_mpt adjust in longitude, that is, downtrack. In ad-
to recover the orbital camera positions.
dition to enforcing CP-1 or CP-2, the exposure
The three control points are located on the base as determined by the 20-second intervalom-
lunar far side. The coordinates of these points eter was also enforced. Once the adjusted exposure
are listed in table 2-IV. The photography which stations were obtained, the positions were con-
covers these three control points was obtained
verted to time values; that is, to ground elapsed
from magazine D (revolution 4) and magazine C time (GET). The adjusted camera data for the
(revolution 8); the specific coverage is given in block at CP-2 are found in table 2-IX.
table 2-VIII.
The solutions seem satisfactory, although the
Because no stereoscopic model contained more
results should be treated as preliminary. Although
than one control point, it was decided to analyti- the 15 to 20_ plate residuals might seem high
cally triangulate short strips at CP-1 and CP-2 for conventional aerial triangulation, it must be
and to impose the constraint that adjusted coordi- remembered that corrections were not applied for
nates of the exposure stations lie on the orbit. the differential pressure and the effect of the
spacecraft window. Because the strips are con-
TABLE 2-VIII.--Photographic Coverage of tinuous between CP-1 and CP-2, another check
Control Points
is afforded by computing the average exposure
interval between the two points. The time interval
Control point Magazine D Magazine C
photographs photographs I between magazine D photographs 2055 and 2091,
as determined from the two triangulations, proved
CP-I ..................... 2052 2664 to be 697 seconds. Thus, the exposure interval
2053 2665 is 697/36, or 19.36 seconds. The time interval
2054 2666 between magazine C photographs 2667 and 2702
CP-2 .................... 2702 proved to be 693 seconds, so the exposure interval
2703
is 693/35, or 19.80 seconds. These exposure inter-
2704
2705 vals confirm the feasibility of this approach, and
CP-3 .................... 2161 2771 efforts are currently underway to refine the tri-
2162 2772 angulation.
2773 It is felt that these results show both that
orbital data for the Apollo 8 vertical-strip photo-
By frame numbers.
graphs can be recovered and that the photography
H
can be utilized to extend lunar control. This rap=-- dx
C
aspect of the investigation is continuing, and the
and
next step will be to perform continuous triangu-
lations from CP-1 to CP-2. An endeavor is also
being made to acquire spacecraft attitude infor-
mation and to include the information in the
where
reduction.
rap= relative horizontal accuracy
Topographic Mapping H = flight height
Another aspect of the investigation of the sur- dx = accuracy of image measurement
veying and mapping potential of the Apollo 8 mh = relative vertical accuracy
photography was its suitability for the production c = focal length of camera lens
of topographic maps. Two approaches were used. B = space base between exposure
One was a theoretical estimation of the relative
The horizontal accuracy can be estimated by
horizontal and vertical accuracies obtainable, and
using, for dx, the plate residuals from the tri-
the other was the production of a topographic
angulations. Using 20p, one then gets mp_30
map of a small, interesting area of the lunar
meters for the vertical photography taken with
surface.
the 80-ram lens from the circular orbit of 60 n. mi.
A theoretical estimate of relative horizontal and
This value is probably optimistic, however, be-
vertical accuracies can be obtained by the use of
cause the only present method of scaling the
the following equations:
5OOO
\ 1400
I_C
TL v3
o
000
IPGI
IPG:
IPG3
I PG3
[HP
IHI
IHC IHC
IDC
-ii.
i ! _'-_< :_
174.2° IVP/IVC 11.1 °
175.4°
0 5 10 15 • 20 kilometers
0 5 10 miles Explanation
Contour interval: 200 meters (--') Crater rim 0 Leveling point
- Supplementary contour r_ Scaling point
/ flO, 000
/I /./- \
I / //
9500 _
/ // .t -..
\.
\
•1_ i II 19000"i \_ \\
\
1
!\ ',
)
Y /
f /
/ i
1
i I
\_/' ) \ "-.. /
l
.I
/
\ _ 95o01 .J
',__.--" \
\
"-- 9500
\,
Explanation
0 1 2 3 4 5 kilometers
tj
Crater rim
0 1 2 3 .4 miles
Pl<iUlli,: 2-67. Contour rail I) of a special feature in the model of verti( al photography
o "ll,000
o_E 9,000 i_ _
rz,, I I J
I I
0 5 tO 20 30
40 5O
(a) Ground distance, kilometers
Photogrammetry
-- -- -- I sodensitometer
__ iI,
000
>.e.,
_E %000 r I
I 1
0 5 l0 20 30 40 50
tO) Ground distance, kilometers
F/,u}{_: 2-68.--Profiles in east-west (lireetion in the model of vertical I)hotog,. q)t y. (a) 1)rofile I-lIP, (b) proiile I-tIC.
c"
o _ II,O00[Z _ . _
'_ c_ 9,o0oF---"--
> -_ _ .. . _ - -
_-ll I I 5I I l I t J 1 I •
-_ E 7,000 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
(at Ground distance, kilometers
_ ll,
O00c
_ 9,ooop---'--. _- _ _ _
,_, E 7,000_ IIII 1 I I I I l t I
0 5 I0 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
(b) Ground distance, ki[olnelers
FIGURE 2-6t).--t'rofiles in north-south (lircclion in model of vertical l)hologr.q)hy. (a) Profile I-VP, (b) profile I-VC.
lO.Or
-....,.
// I-D i
o a;
- I-D2
L_
I-D 3
84_
81oF i J ; ; -T_L i L
0 J )
iJ3 14 15
Ground distance, kilomelers
Model of Convergent Photography ( i_lagazine C) 2-72, was coInpiled using the same procedure for
Parameters
I_'ralz_e Frame Frame Frame
2082 2081 2082 2081
EI-VF
FmVRE 2-71.--Apollo 8 photographs used in model of convergent photography. (a) Apollo 8 frame 2703, (b) Apollo 8
frame 2704.
74 ANALYSIS OF APOLLO 8 PHOTOGRAPHY AND VISUAL OBSERVATIONS
/
/
/
G
oVl
Explanation
Crater rim
Scarp
N o
I Leveling point
[]
Scaling point
\
rl'-Vp -
scale is 1:200 000, and the contour interval is roughness studies or to test the repeatability of
this model.
250 meters, larger than the first model. This may
show the difference between vertical and conver-
Comparison Between Photogrammetric and
gent photography. The scale of the full-sized map Photoclinometric Profiles
is a 8.4480 magnification of the 1 : l 689 600 model
scale. Profiles I-PG 1, I-PG 2, and I-PG 3, as shown
Parameters from the output of the AP/C com- in figure 2-74, were measured point, by point from
the model of vertical photography for comparison
puter after relative orientation and the absolute
orientation transformation of this model are listed with profiles IDT-1, IDT-8, and IDT-15 meas-
ured with the microdensitometer. Since the profiles
in table 2-XI.
Profiles II-HP and II-VP of figure 2-73 were obtained from the microdensitometer measure-
ments are not entirely covered in the stereoscopic
plotted directly from the AP/C plotter in the
east-west and south-north directions, respectively, model, a short distance on each profile could not
be measured on the AP/C plotter, but the scales
as indicated in figure 2-71(b). No attempt was
made to measure profiles analytically for surface of both methods were checked very closely. Be-
Elevation,
meters
13,000
11,000 _
F
I
9,000 _1 I I I I I I
I I 5O
20 30 40
0 5 10
Ground distance, kilometers
(a)
Elevation,
meters
14,000
12,000
10,000
I
8,000 I I I I I [ ] I I I
0 5 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
(b) Ground distance, kilomelers
FOJUaE 2-73.--Profiles in east-west and south-north directions in model of convergent photography. (a) Profile II-HP,
(b) Profle II-VP.
76 ANALYSIS OF APOLLO 8 PHOTOGRAPHY AND VISUAL OBSERVATIONS
2OOO
Photogrammelry
1800 .... I sodensitometer
1600
,,_1400 L
o_
1200 - /
E
_" 10O0
800 _ _1t \N
600
4OO
200
I I I I I J I i : L I I I I 1 I I r J L i l I II[Ij
0
5 10 15 20 25 30
(al
Ground distance, kilometers
1800
1600
1400
1200 _. 2
lOOO _. / f --_
'- _ "" _ Photogrammetry
c
._o 800 ...: _ -- -- -- I sodensitometer
_o
L_J 600
4OO
200
1 J J j l I I l i l i I
i I I
i I J I J _'k, l ! I l I I i I
0
5 t0 15 20 25 30
(D)
Ground distance, kilometers
1600 - 1
1400
1200
Photocjrammetry
1000
"_ -- ---- Isodensitometer
._ 800
_ 6oo
uu
4OO
200
IJ l I J I I i J I I I I I i I I I I t l I I I_["" I I ; J
0
5 10 15 20 25 30
(c)
Ground distance, kilomelers
Photogrammetry
------Isodensitometer
E- 2000,__
Photogrammelry
------ Isodensilometer
5 10 15 20 25
Ground distance, kilometers
(e)
Phologrammetry
-- -- -- I sodensilometer
_ 2000
_ tooo t
FmUHE 2-74.--Comt)arison 1)etween photogrammetric and l)hotoclinometrie methods. (a) l)rofile I-PG 1, (b) Profile
I-PG 2, (c) Protilc I P(; 3, (d) Profile I-PG ] with reduced vertical s(,ale, (e) l'rofile I-PG 2 with reduced vertical
cause of the lack of ground-control points, leveling This may mean that the CFL of the 250-ram lens
procedures are arbitrary in both methods; there- may (lifter very greatly from its designed value.
The location of the principal point of the 250-mm
fore, slope comparison between each pair of profiles
can only be made by rotating one to make the lens may be farther away from the center of the
best fit with the other. Photogrammetric profile photograph than for the 80-ram lens. Lens dis-
tortions of the 250-ram lens may be nmch more
I-PG 3 comparcs well with IDT-15. Profiles
I-PG 2 and IDT-8 are still somewhat similar. significant than the lens distortions of the 80-ram
The most difference occurs between profiles I-PG 1 lens. These answers can only be obtained from a
careful camera calibration using the standard
and IDT-1, especially at the east side (left).
photogrammetric calibration.
Discussion Two saw teeth appear at the lower edge of each
photograph from the Apollo 8 mission. These
Camera Calibration two saw teeth may be used as references for the
The sums of the squares of the residuals for the location of the photograph principal point and
relative orientation of the two models from maga- also for film shrinkage correction in both the X
zines D and C, taken with the SO-ram lens, are and the Y directions.
Og2 and 21g 2, respectively, as determined by the
Establishment of Control Points
AP/C eomiSuter. In both cases, parallax measure-
Because most overlapping pairs of photographs
ments were made on 12 evenly distributed points
over each model. However, for the oblique model of m,tgazine D and part of magazine C have good
exposures for mapping purposes or for geological
of magazine A taken with the 250-ram lens, eon-
vergenees for the relative orientation could not. interpretation, a system of control points by
be obtained, even though parallax measurements photogrammetric methods can be established.
were made only on six points. Camera calibration This system of control points, which would be
of great value in future mapping for geological
data for only the 80-ram lens were received after
all the measurements were made. The calibrated purposes, (,an be accomplished by strip aerial
triangulation using pure analytical methods or by
focal length (CFL) is 79.95 mm, which is close
instrumental triangulation, especially with the
to 80 mm. No indication is shown in the cali-
bration data for the location of the principal point.. AP/C plotter.
7_ ANALYSIS ()F AI'()LLO 8 PIt()TOGRAPHY AND VISUAL I)BSEI_,VATIONS
tions in the orbit are "q)l)roximately the same, 2308:1: :: i:', : : : 2296
_,, , lq ,b, , t ,
then a model in the AP/(' t)lotler can be leveled 2309:',:: ;::_,: ', : : : 2295
by iterations of absolute orienlalion until the :::ll ::ll; : ; : : I 2294 2293 2292 2291 b
EXPERIMENT ()PI<RATION
23(13 .............................. 10
aperture off/5.6. The initial 29 photographs (2271
221(/4 ............................. 10
to 2299) were taken -it a shutter speed of 1/250
2305 ............................. 25
second. The final 10 photographs (2300 to 2309) 2306 .............................. 2O
were taken at a shutter speed of 1/60 second. 2307 ............................. 20
The film used was black-and-white Panatonfic X, 221(18 ............................... 2(1
2210!1 .............................
SO-3400, magazine E. (These 10 photographs
were the only SO-3400 fihn phoh)graphs taken at
" Sinalles! ._cale faclor.
1/60 second. All others were taken "it 1/250
second.) t, Addilional time required 1o change shutler exposure
(I/250 lo 1/60 sec .
This sequence of photographs w,L,_ taken at the
same time that '1 landmark !raining sequence
(maneuver and operation) was performed. Tile peak or crater edge which is part of a crater pair.
commander (CDR) was viewing tile lunar surface He viewed the lunar feature through the crew
north of landing site 1 through the left-hired optical :alinement sight (COAS), which is rigidly
rendezvous window. He viewed an area near mounted to tile spacecraft with its optical axis
Maskelyne F, and, in p,lrticular, u lunar feature aline(l along the X-axis. To enable the CDR to
at approximately 5° N, 34 ° E, vonsisting of a view the lunar feature through the COAS, the
79
INITIAL PHOTOGRAt'IIIC ANALYSIS
spacecraft moves about 13 meters, producing a compensation to be less accurate than the 10
smear of approximately 13 meters if uncompen- percent required. One of these could arise from
sated. Without this smear (that is, with compen- uncertainties in the capability of the spacecraft to
sation) a resolution of approxinmtely 2.7 meters respond to the specified commands. (The control
with a 500-ram lens, or approxinmtely 5.4 meters of the attitude engine thrust levels as it acts
with a 250-ram lens, could be obtained.
against the inertia of the spacecraft.) Fortunately,
A 100-ram lens would provide a basic resolution the uncertainty here is much less than 10 percent.
of approximately 13.2 meters. A combination of (It is, in fact, less than 1 percent.) The second
13-meter smear (corresponding to 1/125 second) factor is in the uncertainties introduced by inaccu-
with 13.2-meter resolution provides significant rate geometric instructions to the spacecraft atti-
image degradation of resolution and is near the tude control system.
upper limit of acceptable smear. (A smear equal The LM photography simulation/IMC experi-
to 40 percent of the basic resolution is more ment, performed as a piggyback operation added
acceptable as a goal.) For 100- or 80-ram lenses, to the training sequence performed on revolution
a shutter speed of 1/250 second or less should 3 of Apollo 8, was intended to provide an initial
be used for all exposures until the combination of evahmtion of any problems involved in achieving
1/250 second and maximum 'tperture requires the desired spacecraft roll rate.
nmre light. (A shutter speed of 1//250 second was
selected for all regular photography during the
Apollo 8 mission.) TECHNIQUES FOR PROVIDING THE
When the 250-ram lens is used uncompensated REQUIRED GEOMETRIC INSTRUCTIONS
for IMC, a shutter speed of 1/'250 second produces
an undesirable smear of 6.6 meters imposed upon There are several possible techniques for pro-
the basic resolution of 5.4 meters for vertical viding the required geometric instructions to the
photography; however, for nonvertical photo- spacecraft, control system. The preferred method
graphs at a range of 200 kin, the basic resolution would be to obtain the instructions directly from
is approximately 10.8 meters, and the smear of a prestorcd computer software program. The
6.6 meters can be considered acceptable for most necessary computer program is, however, not yet
lighting conditions. (However, 1,/250 second pro- available.
vides insufficient light when the angle of Sun ele- Two alternative methods involve astronaut par-
vation is less than 20°.) ticipation. In the first method, the astronaut
Image motion compensation to reduce the 13 substitutes for the desired computer software pro-
meters (produced with 1/125-second exposure) gram. He inputs to the control geometric instruc-
to 1.3 meters, 10-percent residual, is within the tions based on printed instructions provided him
state of the art of IMC cameras. Better than 1- preflight, hi the second method, the astronaut
percent residual was achieved with the Lunar watches the point of photographic interest with
Orbiters. Image motion compensation based on his eyes and fires the reaction control system to
spacecraft velocity and relative "altitude derived minimize relative rate. This sighting can be
from tracking data can do better than the re- through a reflex camera or through a separate
quired 10 percent residual, if the camera has a optical sighting instrument which looks down the
mechanism for moving the film to achieve compen- same axis as the camera; for example, the COAS
sation. Such a camera is desirable. Without com- can be used to aim a rendezvous-window-mounted
pensation in the camera, the camera must be camera.
bracket mounted to the spacecraft and the space- The LM photography simulation/IMC experi-
craft must be rolled to provide IMC. (This tech- ment performed on lunar revolution 3 of Apollo 8
nique has limitations when an attempt is made to used a downgraded modification of the second
achieve a strip of photography.) The spacecraft method. The method was downgraded in that the
is oriented toward the target of interest (luring nmneuver was not performed for the specific pur-
the roll.
pose of obtaining photographs and, naturally, it
Two factors might generate uncertainties in could not be optimized for the photographic
spacecraft roll, which, in turn, might cause the purpose. The photographic experiment rode piggy-
INITIAL PHOTOGRAPHIC ANALYSIS 81
Results
back on a maneuver performed to optimize the
viewing convenience of the astronaut. The sig- Tile piggyback IMC technique produced partial
nificant part of the IMC experiment (that carried compensation :rod improved the resolution ob-
out with the shutter speed of 1/60 second) was, tained in photograph 2304.
in fact, not started until the spacecraft was The data obtained from this experiment confirm
vertically over the target (table 2-XII). One effect that any reasonable operation of -r technique for
of this delay w'_s to cause glare oil the film. A providing IMC will enable high-resolution pho-
second effect was to cause low exposure, since the tography to be obtained of the landed LM, the
phase angle was never below 86 °. A third effect shape of its shadow, and the surrounding lunar
is that the phase of correction of the roll may surface.
have been partially or fully missed.
SUMMARY
MEASUREMENT OF RESIDUAL SMEAR
The Apollo 8 mission provided much new infor-
mation which both supplements and complements
Method
the Lunar Orbiter material. In particular, the
Certain of the photographs taken to evaluate high-illumination photography is of great value.
the piggyback IMC technique were measured by The following are some of the valuable aspects
the Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory to determine of the high-illumination photography:
the estimates of residual smear. The apparatus 1. Inner walls of craters are seen better than
has a 1# slit providing a measurement accuracy before. (In the majority of Lunar Orbiter photo-
of 1000 lines/mm. A model 1140 Mann miero- graphs, these walls are either overexposed or are
densitometer was used to measure the change in in shadow.) Patterns resulting from downslope
transmittance of the film between shadows and movement are obvious. Lunar rock layers show
the adjacent illuminated surface. up clearly.
In this technique, the shadow edge is scanned 2. For the first time, it is possible to correlate
in the direction of spacecraft travel, and the rate brightness (reflectivity) and topography at com-
of change of transmittance with distance is used paratively high resolution.
as a measure of modulation transfer factor (MTF) 3. Before the Apollo 8 mission, it was thought
and, thus, resolution. The change of intensity is that photogrammetric analysis of lunar photo-
adjusted for the effect of Sun penumbra lighting. graphs would be restricted to photography ob-
tained at Sun evaluations lower than 45 ° . It has
Measurement Data Obtained now been demonstrated that photogrammetric
analysis can be made of photographs obtained
The previously mentioned method of estimating
even at the zero-phase point.
residual smear, using fourth-generation positiw_
4. For the first time, ejecta (ray) patterns from
transparencies, obtained the following measure-
ment data. small, bright craters are visible in detail. Ballistics
The resolution of the preexposure bar chart was of ejection may be determined for otherwise ap-
parently similar craters which show distinctly
46 lines/mm. This chart., recorded preflight on the
(tiffercnt ray systems. Many more of these craters
film by an 80-ram lens, was for comparison pur-
were visible than had been anticipated.
poses to show basic unsmeared resolution.
Five measurements were taken on frame 2304 5. For the first time, surface brightness at. zero-
(26, 20, 19, 30, and 34 lines/ram). The average phase angle has been measured.
In addition, the following results were obtained
resolution was 26 lines/ram.
from the photographs:
Uncompensated photography would have pro-
duced a film smear of 15 lines/mm at a vertical 1. The photography has improved our knowl-
edge of the topographic character of far-side
range of 102 km computed as follows:
features.
(250 mm_ = 66 2. Several l,argets of opportunity yielded sig-
_0 X 1.6 km km / mu or 15 lines/mm
nificant geologic information.
The value would be less at greater ranges. 3. Stereoscopic coverage, permitting photo-
82
ANALYSIS OF APOLLO 8 PHOTOGRAPHY AND VISUAL OBSERVATIONS
REFEREN CES
2-34. SYTINSKAYA, N. N.: Work Done by the Leningrad CHARLES J.; AND WOLLENHAUPT, WILBUR I{.:
6, no. 3, 1952, pp. 116-120. 1966, Maurice L. Anthony, ed., AAS Science and
2-35. FEDORETS, V. A.: Photographic Photometry of the Technology Series, c. 1967, pp. 137-154.
Lunar Surface. Uch. Zap. Kharkov Univ., vol. 42, 2-51. BRAY, T. A.; AND GOUDAS, C. L.: A Contour Map
Based on the Selenodelic Control System of
1952, p. 49.
A.C.I.C. Icarus, vol. 5, no. 5, Sept. 1966, pp.
2-36. STEINBACHER, a. It.; GUNTER, R. L.; SPENCER,
526-535.
R. L.; ET AL.: Surveyor I Mission Report. Part
3
Astronomical and Earth Observations
- I - - ]- - m ......
Pers(mnel
()bservai ory L(ica(ll)ll Telescope
21 22 23 24 25 26
W W W _/ ......
Pie-du-Midi ................................ S W
S ................ W
Table Mountain ............................ S S
S ................ W
U.S. Naval ................................ S S
S W S W
:M(mnt Wilson ............................. S S
......... , ......... S
Fullerton .............................................. , .........
88 ANALYSIS OF APOLLO 8 PHOTOGRAPtIY AND VISUAL OBSERVATIONS
the sidereal rate and obtained trailed images of some flashes at. about 05:30 G.m.t., which may
three objects on 25 plates of 4X emulsion. Flash have been as bright as fifth magnitude, but no
durations of less than 1 second were noted visually, photographs were obtained. Although most ob-
but photographs show bright periods lasting sev- servatories were ready to operate that night, the
eral seconds. Corralitos ()bservatory obtained weather in the Southwest was generally bad.
photographs of the image-orthicon presentation,
but did not detect flashing as ._ result of long UNCONFIRMED INTERPRETATION
integration time. The U.S. N'Lwfl Observatory
On December 21, the observatories undoubtedly
detected four flashing objects surrounding a cen-
detected some SLA panels, as well as the CSM
tral dim object, but was unable to photograph
more than three objects at one time. Table Moun- and S-IVB. The S-IVB was kept in inertial hold,
tain, Lowell, and Mount Wilson Observatories so that its brightness should have been fairly dim
and steady. The CSM attitude changed slowly, so
also reported sightings and m.tde photographs.
that its diffuse component changed slowly and
On Sunday and Monday, I)ecember 22 and 23,
any bright flashes would be widely spaced. The
only two sources were reported. Their brightness
four SLA panels were blown off in opposite di-
diminished proportionally to the square of the
rections -rod tumbled wildly, which may account
distance so that, near the Moon, the magnitude
for most of the bright flashing sources. The bright
was approximately 14 to 15. Such sources would
cloud which was observed at 17:30 G.m.t. was
be very difficult to detect close to the lunar cres-
produced by venting of the S-IVB.
cent. The two objects were separated by several
On December 26, several tests were made of the
minutes of arc on December 21 and by 20 to 30
orientation thrusters, which may account for
minutes of arc on December 22. This is in ap-
parent agreement with the motion of the CSM some bright flashes. Also, if a water dump had
toward the dark limb and the motion of the taken place, the ensuing cloud of ice crystals
S-IVB toward the bright limb. would account for the bright flash which was
reported. The solar position and spacecraft orien-
The transearth trajectory was marked by a
wide range of brightness on l)ecembcr 26. At tation were more favorable during this phase of
the mission, so that the reflection was generally
Lick Observatory, 150 minutes of television tape
brighter than on December 21.
were filmed with a video camera on the 120-inch
telescope. Lick reported magnitudes varying from
DISCUSSION OF PHOTOGRAPHS
10 to less than 17, the threshold of the Lick
instrument. Fullerton, Calif., reported a highly The dates, times, and distances of the Apollo
variable source averaging about l lth magnitude spacecraft from the Earth in the photographs
and fading oecasionally below the Fullerton instru- presented as figures 3-1 to 3-9 are shown in
ment threshold of 13th magnitude. Fullerton saw table 3-IV.
FmUR_: 3-1 ,--CSM, S-IVB, and one SLA panel at 02:01 G.m.t. on December 22, 1968.
The photographs in figures 3-1, 3-4, and 3-5 flashing) are trailed against the stellar background
were taken at Catalina Observatory, Tucson, in this 2-minute exposure. They are separated
Ariz., with the 61-inch NASA reflector. Corralitos by 3 minutes of arc, or a minimum of 100 kin.
Observatory, Las Cruces, N. Mex., supplied the North is at the top right of this photograph, and
the apparent motion with respect to the star field
photographs in figures 3-2 and 3-6. These photo-
graphs were taken with the Corralitos 24-inch is to the southeast (left).
reflector coupled to an image-orthicon light in- In figure 3-2, two photographs taken 150 sec-
tensifier. The photographs in figures 3-3, 3-7, onds apart are superimposed with the star field
and 3-8 were taken at the U.S. Naval Observa- displaced vertically to show the apparent motion
tory at Flagstaff, Ariz., with a 61-inch reflector. of five objects. Objects 1 and 2, which are not
The photograph in figure 3-9 was taken at Lick resolved here, are thought to be the CSM and
Observatory, Mount Hamilton, Calif., with a 36- one SLA panel; objects 3 and 5 are additional
inch Crossley reflector. panels; and object 4 is the S-IVB booster. The
In figure 3-1, the CSM (center), the S-IVB apparent stellar magnitude of the objects ranges
(right, very faint), and one SLA panel (left, approximately between 11 and 14.
In figure 3-3, the CSM (center), the S-IVB in the 2-minute exposure in figure 3-4. At this
booster (upper right), and one SLA panel (lower distance, the spacecraft is moving slightly faster
left) have an apparent stellar magnitude of 12 than the sidereal rate, so that its apparent motion
to 14. The dotted appearance of the images in is toward the southwest with north at the top.
this 5-minute exposure is caused by stepping the The S-IVB booster is tumbling nearby and is not
telescope drive at the apparent rate of motion of visible.
the spacecraft. In figure 3-5, the telescope has been driven to
The CSM, which has an apparent stellar magni- compensate for the apparent motion of the CSM
tude of 13 to 14, is trailed against the star field (below) and the S-IVB (above). The apparent
separation is only 2.5 minutes of arc, but the
linear separation is about 2000 km, since the
S-IVB will pass in front of the Moon and the
CSM will pass behind.
Apollo 8 is seen in figure 3-6 at 02:34 G.m.t.
on December 23, about 260 000 km from the
Earth. Four frames of the image-orthicon presen-
tation spaced at 10-minute intervals have been
superimposed to show the apparent motion of
SMITHSONIAN OBSERVATIONS
OF APOLLO 8 NEAR EARTH
OBSERVATORY, AND
INTRODUCTION
Station Nmnber X, Mm Y, Mm Z, Mm
THE OBSERVATIONS
FIGURE 3-13.--CSM and S-IVB immediately after FIGURE 3-15. l,ooking up exhaust plume during burn of
entering sunlight. S-IVB J-2 engine.
ASTRONOMICAL AND EARTH OBSERVATIONS (,)5
nlaneuver. This event is a nonpropulsive vent and, burned until 18:29:34, and ,nodule engine 2 burne(t
at the time of the start of this event, there were until 18:29:08. Approximately 220 kg of pro-
approximately 1440 kg liquid hydrogen and ullage pellants were consumed during this burn sequence.
gaseous hydrogen on board the })oost stage. The The "slingshot" maneuver resulting from the
liquid hydrogen vent operation lasted until liquid hydrogen vent, the liquid oxygen dump,
17:01:56, at which time it was ternfinated. A tot.fl and the APS ull'_ge burn caused the TLI boost
of 1437 kg of liquid and gaseous hydrogen was stage to ac(tuire a retrovelocity of 41.9 m/see.
vented. The astronauts observed this event an(l At 18:19:16 G.m.t., the ('SM could be seen on
noted it as "spectacular..., spewing out from the tracking film, and by 18:20:54, the S-IVB
all sides like a huge water sprinkler." At 17:36:00, wax visible emerging from the ehmd forme(I by
a second evolve maneuver, which had been re- the liquid oxygen dump.
quested by the astronauts, was performed. This At 18:54:03 G.m.t., the ambient helium in the
maneuver placed the CSM at approximately 1000 liquid oxygen 'uld liquid hydrogen tank repressuri-
meters slant range above and behind the TLI zation spheres was dumped via the liquid hy-
boost stage (fig. 3-11).
(lrogen t'mk. This dump lasted for 200 seconds,
At 17:46:60 G.m.t., the liquid hydrogen con- and approximately 28 kg of helium was dumped
tinuous vent valves were opened prior to the start during this time.
of the programed liquid oxygen dump. At At 18:57:24 (km.t., the .I-2 engine control
17:58:56, the "slingshot" AV mode of the I)oost sphere was vented. This event requires about 300
stage was started by opening the main liquid seconds vent duration. Approximately 0.9 kg of
oxygen valve and using ullage gas prcssurization helium was ventc_d. After all of the programed
to force the liquid oxygen through the engine dumps of propellants and other gases from the
injector plate and out through the nozzle throat TLI boost stage had been completed, the inert
and the expansion skirt of the J-2 engine. At stage weighed 23 670 kg. The last frame that
17:59:25, the J-2 engine start sphere was vented, shows the S-IVB was taken at lq:07:52. The
and a total of 1.8 kg of gaseous hydrogen was CSM is last seen on a frame taken at 19:08:24,
dumped. This event took "tpproximately 150 sec- and the ch)ud (lisappeared at about lq:54:26.
onds. During the main liquid oxygen dump Observ:_tions ended approximately 4 minutes
through the engine, a steady-state liquid flow r'_te later. Two other objects are visible intermittently,
of 1.4 m3/sec was reached in 40 seconds. After 126
one of thenl between 18:21:18 and 18:33:04, and
seconds of dump, gas ingestion was indicated by the other bet ween 18:35:32 and 18:49:03.
a sudden flow-rate increase. After 150 seconds of
Figure 3 18, a frame exposed for 1.6 seconds,
dump, approximately 3329 kg of liquid o_,gen is typic,t] of the frames taken between about
had been dumped. Ullage gases continued to be 18:20 :rod 19:07. The large cloud maintained its
dumped until the time of programed liquid oxygen characteristic "mushroom" shape (luring most of
dump ending (by closing the nmin liquid oxygen the observing period. Slightly above it and to the
value) at 18:03:56. At this time, "_pproximately right is the smaller butterfly-shaped cloud with
200 kg of gaseous oxygen ullage gases relnained the brighter S-IVB at its center. Between the
in the liquid oxygen tank.
S-IVB an(l the large cloud, ahnost directly on
At 18:03:59 G.m.t., the liquid oxygen nonpro- line with the "stem" of the large cloud, is the
pulsive vent valve was opened and renmined open starlike CSM.
for the duration of the mission. At 18:04:04, cold
DATA
helium gas was dumped overbo._rd through the
liquid hydrogen tank and its vent system. Ap- Thirty-four positionsof the CSM and 32 po-
proximately 64 kg were dumped, and the time sitionsof the S-IVB were preciselymeasured in
required for this dumt) was '_pproxinmtely 3000 Cambridge; the observatory's standard proce-
seconds.
(lures for photoreducing satellite inmges were used
At 18:16:56 G.m.t., the S-IVB auxiliary pro- (ref. 3-3).
pulsion system (APS) ullage engines 1 and 2 were Tables 3-VI, 3-VII, and 3-VIII list observed
commanded to start a burn. Module engine 1 positions of lhe CSM, the S-IVB, and two SLA
97
ASTRONOMICAL AND EARTII OBSERVATIONS
Declination, rms,
(kmA., rillS, Right
Date, hr:min :see _' See of Station
hr: rain : see msee " ascension,
yr : mo :day arc c
hr : min : sec _'
l 45 14.33 4 9004
20 23 6.045
12 21 18 21 10.7077
1 42 47.21 4 90O4
20 23 44.607
12 21 18 22 41.1831
1 36 37.94 4 9004
20 24 57.796
12 21 18 25 27.6893
1 34 18.78 4 9004
20 25 23.845
12 21 18 26 29.8132
l 32 54.85 4 9004
2(1 25 45.787
12 21 18 27 28.6320
1 31 50.29 4 9004
18 28 .6320 211 25 59.243
12 21 9004
1 29 27.34 4
20 26 25.610
12 21 18 29 4.6319 9OO4
1 28 15.01 4
18 29 36.6317 20 26 38.522
12 21 4 9004
20 28 .114 1 20 55.64
12 21 18 32 48.6313
4 9O04
20 28 22.423 1 19 9.76
12 21 18 33 56.3477
98 ANALYSIS OF APOLLO 8 PHOTOGRAPHY AND VISUAl, OBSERVATIONS
The positions have not been corrected for paral- 3. Right ascension of ascending node =
lactic refraction; the correction seldom exceeds
(141-590°+0.016 °) -0.0073 ° (T- To)
2 seconds of arc.
4. Inclination = 30.739436 °
From these data, preliminary orbital elements 5. Eccentricity = 0.975975
were derived by using the December 10, 1968, 6. Mean anomaly (in revolutions)=
version of the SAO differential orbit improvement
(0.007819±0.000051) +(0.06245±
(DOI) program (refs. 3-7 and 3-8). The following 0.00055) (T- To)
are the preliminary orbital elements for the CSM:
1 52 24.25 4 9004
18 11,I 16.0254 20 22 4.834
196_ 12 21
1 48 10.34 4 9004
18 21 10.7088 20 22 55.616
12 21
20 22 58.942 1 47 52.46 4 9004
12 21 18 21 18.71187
1 44 49.46 4 (,}004
18 22 41.1847 20 23 34. 536
12 21
1 39 25.32 4 9004
18 25 11.61`t04 2(} 24 38. 285
12 21
1 38 49.80 4 9004
12 21 18 25 27.69(17 20 24 45.102
1 36 30.39 4 9004
12 21 18 26 29.8137 21) 25 10.550
1 34 33.66 4 9004
12 21 18 27 28. 6334 20 25 34.863
1 33 20.26 4 9004
12 21 18 28 .6333 20 25 47. 552
1 31 14.65 4 9004
12 21 18 29 4.6334 20 26 13.638
1 30 1.51 4 9004
12 21 18 29 36. 6332 20 26 26.750
1 23 26.50 4 9004
12 21 18 ;32 48. 6334 20 27 42.82(,}
20 27 49.015 1 22 54.26 4 (,t004
12 21 18 33 4.6331
1 21 19.53 4 9004
12 21 18 33 56. 3495 20 28 7.468
1 19 46.43 4 9004
18 34 44. 3500 20 28 26.002
12 21
1 18 12.40 4 9004
18 35 32. 35110 20 28 43. (.}53
12 21
1 16 33.71 4 9004
18 36 20.34(`}9 20 29 2. 222
12 21
1 15 3.56 4 9004
18 37 8.3500 20 29 20. 076
12 21
1 14 31.94 4 9004
18 37 24. 3501 20 29 26. 000
12 21
1 13 29.79 4 9004
1_, 37 56. 3499 20 29 37. 637
12 21
1 11 59.20 4 9004
12 21 18 38 44. 35114 20 29 55. 3313
1 ll 20.95 4 9004
12 21 18 39 3.3246 20 311 2.141
1 9 43.33 4 9004
18 39 55.0154 20 30 21.032
12 21
1 7 42.82 4 9004
12 21 18 40 59,0165 20 3() 44.240
l 1 28.08 4 9004
12 21 18 44 19.5(181.} 20 31 55.135
0 54 51.42 4 9004
18 47 59.2018 20 33 10.566
12 21
0 53 25.72 4 9004
18 48 47. 2021 20 33 26.739
12 21
0 52 55.67 4 9004
18 49 3. 2019 20 33 31.983
12 21
0 29 46.10 4 9004
19 2 43.4107 20 37 52.541
12 21
0 25 37.19 4 90O4
12 21 1,(1 5 1:t.5787 20 38 38. 885
0 7 46.69 4 9004
12 21 19 17 2.4813 20 41 57.844
0 6 8.19 4 9004
19 18 4.8367 20 42 15.566
12 2l
0 3 44.71 4 9004
19 19 48.42611 20 42 42.679
12 21
0 2 47.54 4 9004
12 21 19 20 27.6848 2(} 42 52.920
Panel A
Panel B
Elements accompanied by errors of two signifi- of the node as determined by the DOI to right
cant figures have been deternfined by the DOI ascension of the node referred to the mean equinox
program. The values of the motions of the argu- of date
ment of perigee and the right ascension of the
node are theoretical, being those given in the _ = _(I)OI)3.508 ° × 10-5(MJD--33 281)
revision to the Apollo 8 Spacecraft Operational where i2 is the right ascension of the node in
Trajectory (Vol. l, "Mission Profile for Dec. 21
degrees and MJD is the modified Julian day.
Launch"). Densitometer scans were made in two directions
In the SAO computer program, the inclination across the image of the cloud on approximately
and the argument of perigee are referred to the
12 frames of the Spanish films. The density profiles
true equator of date; the right :tscension of the
identified the approximate position of the point
ascending node, however, is reckoned from the
of greatest density in each image. They also per-
mean equinox of 1950.0 along the corresponding mitted a reasonably accurate determination of
mean equator to the intersection with the moving the extent of the (,loud in two arbitrary directions,
true equator of date, and then along the true approximately parallel and perpendicular to the
equator of date. To transform from right ascension direction of apparent motion. Table 3-IX gives
101
ASTRONOMICAL AND EARTH OBSERVATIONS
REFERENCES
R.Program
Allenby, Scientist
NASA Hq /
I
Program Scientist
interface with
Apollo 8 operations
J. Sasser, MSC
I
Lunar Apollo 8 Science
Advisory Team ILASAD
Chairmar{, J. Sasser, MSC
J. Sevier, MSC
F. Roach, NBS (ret'dl
H. Masursky, USGS
J. Dietrich, MSC
H. Schmitt, MSC
I
r-
I I I I
Lunar Science 1 l Working
Astronomy
Group [ I Lunar
Working
Operations
Group
I Working
Earth Orbital
Group Working Group
I I I I
Chairman, H. Masursky, USGS Chairman, J. Sevier, MSC
Chairman, F. Roach, NBS !ret'di
J. O'Keefe, GSFC J. Burke, JPL
Cnairman, J. Dornbach,MSC] E. Ney, U. Minn
P. Lowman, CSFC F. EI-Baz, Bellcomm G. Newkirk, EAO J. Sasser, g_SC
A. Goetz, Bellcomm D. Lloyd, Bellcomm
E. h_orris, USGS
H. Schmitt, MSC L. Kosofsky, Hq
L. Frederick, U. Va
R. Bryson, Hq O. Vaughan, hISFC
L. Dunkelman, GSFC
J. Dietrich, MSC G. Swann, USGS
T. Page, MSC
G. Tyler, Stanford U. R. Stromm, U. Ariz
J. Gill, Hq
E. _.Nhitaker, U. Ariz H. Trask, USGS
M. Dubin, Hq
W. N'fichall, LRC
D. Wilhelms, USGS
103
104 ANALYSIS OF APOLLO 8 PHOTOGRAPHY AND VISUAL OBSERVATIONS
Accomplished
Proposed
photography of various astronomical phenomena increase that would be caused by this level of
(gegenschein, zodiacal light, stars, and solar radiation. The head and tail t)ortions of the re-
corona), the lunar surface in earthshine, an(l other turned flight fihn were developed "_t t h(_ NASA
low-light-level subjects. An emulsion with as high Manned Spacecraft Center by using the proce-
a speed as possible compatible with the pre(licted dures established t)rior to flight; namely, I)-19
radiation dosage, 0.5 rad, was required. The developer "_t 75 ° F for 12 minutes in a small tank.
Kodak 2485 film was selected primarily bec'_use The Hurter-Driffield curves of the flight and con-
of its high speed. Also, it w'_s availat)le on 4-rail trol film have been compared. The measure(l r't(li-
base (which proved to be comp._tible with the ation of approximately 0.2 rad simply raised the
Hasselblad thin-base fihn magazine), .tnd it ap- flight fihn calibration curve by 0.18 density. There
peared to be compatible with the radiation ex- was no appreciable effect oat the detectat)le thresh-
pected on Apolh) 8. old of the faintest calibration exposures.
TABLE 4-II.--P/anar f/2.8, 80-ram Lens Figure 4 3 shows the relative illumination
Aperture Tolerances curve for this lens. The curve for f/11 resembles
the cosine 4 degeneration curve, but it is generally
f-slop I':quiwtlent (.ir(.ular diameler, mm slightly higher. The curve shown for f/2.8 shouhl
be the composite curve of cosine * degeneration
and vignetting effects. Information for the curves
2.8 ........ 21.20 (=t=5 percent)
4 ..........
at the other relative apertures w_s not supplied
14.99 ( +12.25 per(.e,I, - 10.56 percent)
5.6 ......... by the nmnufacturer. If there is no vignetting,
10.60 ( + 12.25 t)erce,t, -- 10.56 percent)
7.5[) ( + 12.25 per('erll, -- 10.56 pereenl) 100
11 ........ 5.30 ( + 12.25 percent, -- 10.56 percenl)
16 .......... :{.75 ( + 12.25 t)ercelit, -- 10.56 percent)
oo
2.65 ( ÷ 14.90 l)er'('eiH, -- 12.83 per(.em )
5o
TABLE 4-III.--P/anar f/2.8, 80-mm Lens Shutter E
i--
Nominal exposure _ime, Effective expo.sure time,
I 1 J
sec nlsec a
300 4O0 5O0 60O 700
Wavelength, nan0meters
1/51)() 2.15
l;[_;uaE -1--2. -Spectral transmittancc curve for Planar lens,
1 I251} 4.11
SIN 4289861.
l/125 8.01
1/60 15.83
1 t30 31.50
1 t]5 62.70
125.2
_4 250.2
V2 500.2
1 1001). 2
=t=10 percent.
Ol; , , I
the between-the-lens shutter are given in table o lo 2o 3o 4o
4-III. Image displacement, mm
see
ITl,_e C a 62 65 64
2.31
I /5(}0
4.1g
1/25O
l /125
g. 02
15.66
l/60
28.96
1/:_0
57.gl
130.4
.14
250.9
14 A O
496.9
181Y' B
C
l_' B
30 3W
.... 50/" _ 57
/" ,,,
" < '/ " " "I "'II "ii ::i
' / , ,gq ',
! r [ 6fi 1
, I 62/ "_ 67 ,,' ,' ,
,,' ,,,'
,,, '\ M_ 6....
A 0
O"
F{(_URE 4-7.---Sine wave MTF at 20 cyeies/nm_ for tan-
FIGURE 4-5.--Distortion _( relative to PPA for f, 2.8, view
gential inmge elements, percent, for Plan'tr lens, S N
from rear, positive direction away from center, for
4489000.
Planar lens, S'N 4489000.
110
ANALYSIS (}F AI'OLLO 8 PIIOTOGRAPHY AND VI,_,UAL ()BSEItVATIONS
1/60
7.95
.... C
15.41
I/30 28.04
1/15 55.48
'-200 -196" ....... 122.4
V, 250.8
A I D 505.4
0_ 1 928.0
C 180'
I C 180' B
\ ,o /'
\ /
\ 31 30 29 //
E
60 57 60
[, 5/_5 7'_31 ,,]
/ N
/ N
/ N
/ N
A
/ , \
0 O
., 55 mm .6
.5
g
j_ r*_f Z 45 ,nci@_c:_nd
.4
Lr,
E I]31 21 field angle
I
A C B
.3
.2
J
!
I
I
I
I' I I I
(b) -,---26 mm--.-,..-.,,-I7mm-,,. 300 400 500 600 ?00
Waveleng|h, nanometers
FIGURE 4-11.--Relationship of bracket-installed Hassel-
blad camera to spacecraft window. (a) Configuration, Fz(_utt_: ,t-12.--Transmission versus wavelength for
(b) resulting image formation. lens window combination (80-mm focal lengt h, f,11 ).
l 12 ANALYSIS OF APOLLO 8 PHOTOGRAPttY AND VISUAL ()BSERVATIONS
produces -tn image at point B, at 12 ° field tingle. metric strip is to reconstruct the density (D)
The on-axis image point C is fornm(t by light at versus exposure (E) relationship (D log E or
an 18 ° angle of inci¢teuce on the window. Hurter-Driffieht--H and D--curve) which per-
For all the points just discussed, the window tains to the specific l)rocessing chemistry, temper-
incidence angle and the lens fiehl angle are both ature, and processing time for the flight fihn and
in the same plane. The plane also contains the subsequent duplication printing. Contingencies
c'tmera ot)tical axis and is mutually perpendicular alh)wing for lunar photography, Earth photogra-
to the window "rod t,o the fihn phme. phy, anti lunar photography with the red (29) and
For t)()inls to either side of line A B in fgure blue (47B) filters were considere(t in establishing
4 11(b), ea('h of the two angles is in a different sensitometric requirements for Apollo 8 fihn
t)hme; and the solution for the locus of l)oints in types 3400, 2485, SO-121, and S0-368.
the film phme which satisfies the same conditions The spectral distribution of light reflected
as, for examl)le, point B, is "t complex problenl from the Moon was approximated by addition
in geomct W. F()r points in the corners of the of filters nos. 80A and 82 to the 2850 ° K sensi-
fornmt near point B, the window incidence angle tometer illuminant to convert to an approximately
approaches 45 ° . 4750 ° K source. Daylight sensitometry was
('omnmn points which satisfy given conditions provided by application of a Corning 5900
occur in pairs, symmetrical about line A B. A filter to the sensitometer illuminant: to convert
correction matrix couht be fornte(l for one-half to a color temperature of approximately 5600 ° K.
of the image format, which is valid for the other Sensitoinetric strips with red and blue filters
half if nlirrore(|. However, each point in the utilized the 4750 ° K source. No provision w_Ls
matrix is unique, requiring the solution of a made for the spectral transmission of the camera
different complex geometrical problem, involving lens and spacecraft window. However, all sensito-
compound "ingles, for each point. To obtain a metric exposures used a Wratten 2B filter to
suitable density of points in the correction matrix simulate the cutoff of the spacecraft window.
wouht require a large number of computations. Sensitometry was performed through a carbon
step wedge of 21 steps. Values for the steps
FILM SENSITOMETRIC
T_,BLE 4-VI.--Density of Carbon Step Wedge
CALIBRATION
arc listed ill tM)le 4-VI. Actual sensitomctry m-tgazines (', D, and E have been supplied by
the Photogr'q)hic Technology l.aboratory. Some
applied to the fihns was as indicate<l in table 4-
comparative results (D log E curves) are shown
VII.
Provision was made for head-versus-tail, pre- in figures 4-13, 4 14, and 4-15.
The differences observed between sensitometric
mission-versus-postnfission, and stored-versus-
strips "m(l control strips in figure 4-14 are
flight-fihn comparisons of sensitometry at 4750 °
K. 8ensitometrie (t'tta (m original negatives for larger than wouhl be expected. However, all
2.6 2.6
2.4 5ensitometric strip 4 (head) ..... ._f
2.4 PostmJssionexposed(strip II ,,,/
2.2 Sensilometric strip 6 (tai I) -.__ _/""
22 Premission exposed,he Id // "
2.0
2.0- at MSC, processed with [light film ,,_/_ _ Process control strip Ileader) --//
1.8- 1.8
Process control // /
1 6 /" Premissbn 1.6
' _ /// exposed(strip 4} 1.4
/1 co 1.2
1.0
u-1. 0
strip (t_
-ii 6 .4
.2 2 Absolute log E
,4_1 I 1[ I I I I I I J
0 .6 .8 1.2 1.6 2.0 2.4 2.8 3.2
Relative log E
Relative Log E
FIGURE 4-14.--D log E curves for Apollo 8 magazine D
FIGURE 4-13.--D log E curves for Apollo 8 magazine E original negative, comparing sensitometric strips and
original negative. process control strips.
114
ANALYSIS OF APOLLO 8 PHOTOGRAPIIY AND VISUAL OBSERVATIONS
2.6
camera-pointing orientations: vertical, east and
west oblique on groundtrack, and north and
2.2 south oblique off track.
2.0
2.4 / Computing the exposures (f-stops) involved
Sensitometricstrip no. 4 two operations:
1.8 Moonlioh! simulation //
>_1.6 Filters _OA,82, 2B., // 1. Prediction of the average value and range
/
of the film-plane illumination (exposure) for
each condition of solar illumination/viewing
geometry and surface albedo to be encountered.
_-1.0 2. Evaluation of the sensitivity of each film
.8 // "'-Sensitometri¢strip no. 5 type to the predicted illumination and subse-
.6 // Daylightsimulation quent selection of the appropriate camera set-
.4 //. CS_Ofilter +2B ting required to achieve the optimum exposure
at the film plane.
.2 _ .- 2.82absolutelogE A matrix of exposure values was generated
...,_ I t : rl I J , I I I J j
0 .-8 1.2 1.6 2.0 2.4 2.8 3.2 that accounted for all possible combinations of
RelaliveIo9E camera/scene conditions. These conditions were
treated as E=STtpch/4p, where E is the ex-
FI(;URE 4-15.--D log E curves for Apollo 8 magazine D posure in meter-candle-seconds (m-cd-s), S is
original negative.
the average solar illumination at the surface
in meter-candles (m-cd), T is the percent
transnfittance of the lens and spacecraft window,
results have not yet been received, and analyses t is the shutter speed in seconds, p is the surface
are continuing. The use of the premission ex-
albe(lo, _ is the lunar photometric function, and
posures with 80A, 82, and 2B filtem are cur-
f is the relative aperture. Values used for Apollo
rently recommended for photometric reductions.
8 were 14X104 na-cd for S, 0.747 for T, and
0.004 second for t. The relative aperture was
CAMERA EXPOSURE
varNble, with full stops from .1"/2.8 to f/16. The
CALCULATIONS
percent of albedo p varied from 0.05 to 0.25,
GEORGE R. BLACKMAN
and _ varied from 0 to 1.0.
For each scheduled photographic target, the
The relative aperture settings were determined
solar illumination/viewing geometry was com-
preflight for use with the 70-ram fihn types
puted for entry into the lunar photometric func-
and were applicable for tile 80-ram lens, and tion (fig. 4-16), and the albedo noted from
for the 250-nun lens up to and including the existing data. Since albedo data were not
.1"/5.6 aperture, which is the largest that can be
available for the lunar back side, those
used. These data were printed on the photo- values were derived through the correla-
graphic Target of Opportunity Chart with the
tion of brightness measurements from front-
f-stop changes indicated as a function of seleno-
and far-side Lunar Orbiter photography and
graphic longitude. Although underexposures were
controlled to the existing albedo data applicable
expected near the terminators, it wa._ decided
to the front side. By referring to the locations
that the shutter rate should remain fixed at
of these two values in the matrix (photometric
1/250 second. At slower shutter speeds, loss of
function and albedo), the predicted film planc
image resolution could be expecte(t because of
exposure could be determined for each of the
image smear. With the wide latitude inherent
c.Lmera stops (f/2.8 to f/16). The next step was
in the film types selected, adequate exposure to decide which of these f-stops silould be used
control could be m'tintained with aperture regu-
for each particular scene as dictated by the
lation only.
s(msitivity of the specified fihn type.
Three sets of f-stop changes were recom-
The fihn response (sensitivity) to the incident
mended to correspond t() ea<.h of the general
exposure was derived through analysis of plots
BACKGROUND 115
1.0F g =0 5
i .6 30
.4 60
°
•2 I0_
120
I
lOO
0 80 60 40 _0 0 20 40 60
{a) Luminance longitude, , deg
/a=O
• 10
0 i I I
-180 -160 -140 -120 100 -80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60 80 1OO
(b) Phaseangle, g, deg
FI(:UI_E -1-16. l'l_otomet 'ie flmetion. (a) _ versu._ a (JPI,), (b) 4_ versus g (JPI,).
.8 / /,Optimum exposure
The
exposure
sele('te(l
values
f-stops
nearest
were
to those
those that
of the
represented
midscene
°r ! I ,"; : Midpoints
values derived for the specified fihn type.
films or by 11/_ stops on the S() 368 film and still 2.4
3.2 --
.8
Optimum exposure,
Albedo
ll
O8
0.06
-- 34O0
-- -- SO-t21,
S0-368
2.8
L._ J
.4 .5 .6
0
Photometric function
The stops for the targets of opportunity were existed where, oil one revolution, a target close
calculated in essentially the same manner. Un- to the groundtrack required an .(/8 exposure;
fortunately, it is not possible to compile one set and, on a later revolution, a target some distance
of exposure-change points that would apply off track, but at approximately the same longi-
to all targets north and south of the ground- tude, would require an f/2.8 exposure. For cases
track. Extreme differences in scene brightness of this nature, an intermediate stop was chosen
occur when the camera pointing angles are in biased toward the more important of the two
any plane other than one that is approximately targets. Dependence was made on the wide
latitude of the film to salvage the greater part
parallel to the plane containing the solar illu-
mination vector and the subsolar point. This is of each of the two images.
especially critical within the region bounded by The capability was established for providing
+ 35 ° of longitude from the subsolar point. Some f-stop values in real time by translating the
compromise had to be made. Many instances exposure matrix into a graph (fig. 4-20) and
t 1_ ANALYSIN _)l," APOLL() ,_ PfIC.TOGIiAPIIY ANI) VISUAl, OI]SF, I{VAT|ONS
instituting techniques f.r _[etermining the scene s('amfiug each |'rame I with a McBeth TD 102
geometry from 1:5 00(I 000-scale m-q)s. The f- densitometer for minimum, maximum (exclusive
stop change locations were superilnpose<l on the of shadow), and average visual diffuse densities.
graph; and, consequently, the appropriate selec- The :tver:lg(, was taken of six points (listribute(l
tion could be determined directly as a function _v('r lhe frame. The maximum was generally
of the photometric functi,m 'rod "dbedo that llC"tl" ()IIC' ()f _][1(' fralllo (!oFIlers where lens trailS-
applied to any given target. Procedurt,s were mission was h'ast. All densities are correlated for
established and simuhttcd for revising the entire rehdive exposure against the preexposed sensito-
SC'¢ of exposure l'('COlllllliql_[a(,iOllS _htfff were on
metric strip, approxim,_ting a 4750 ° K source
the flight chart if "m .ff-nomin:d situation should with :t Wratten 2B filter. ('.orrelation against the
[)CC/II'.
original negative was l)erformed 1)y reference
EXPOSURE EVALUATIONS _<) sen._iiometric curves supplied t)y the Photo-
JAMES L. DRAGG AND HAROLD L. PRIOR gral)hic Technol,_gy l;tboratory.
2.50
16
15
14
2. O0 13
Sensitometric
steps
,\;axh,_um density 12
_=2.0
I. 50 0. t5 Io9 E steps
11
g
Ave
E
density --
lO
1. O0
""Minimum
density
.5O
6
5
0 I i I 1
2651 I
2675 2700 2725 27.50
2825
Frame number
FI(;t:RE -t-21. I)ensity versus frttiile number for Apollo 8 m,'tgttzine C master positive.
ItACK(_ROL'NI) t 19
2.50
alhnv for the deviatiml fl'om phume, l multiph'
aperttlrt' set, tings and provide maximtnn t)I'.ba-
bility
Te('hnld()gy
for ilnag_'
I,al)oratory
rev(w(,rs',
(hwialed
the
front
Phol()p;raphic
the phttme(t 2.00 i
\ P, aHor l)os tb. e
to a density of aboul 2.1 on the original, (_r a total of about FII_UI¢.I'; i 22 l)ensilv versus steps for Apollo 8
10 stops.
magazine C
3. O0
2. O0
/ _ 9 i0
c 1.50
¢,
E
A_,eraq_/_
1.O0
/ Y_ 1.75
•5O
4 0.]5 log steo',
7 2
o__,, I
l;'zt;t:ttE 1 2:/. l)ensily versus frame numbm' fro' .._,p, dlo g magazine 1) master tmsilive.
120 ANALYSIS ()F APOIJA) _ PIIt)T()t;IIAPIIY ANI) VISUAL ()IiSEI{VATI()NS
response portion of tile curve "tt the maximum locati()ns sl)ecifie(I for the reconmlende(t forward-
exposure end. It is noted th'tt all of tile imagery h)oking c()lor fihn (S()-368) pass as opposed to
fell into a relative log E range ()f 1.65, ()r 'd)out the rec(mmlende([ vertical 3400 tress, which was
5.5 stops, and also that 75 percent of the imagery exercised. The excelltion was in the change from
fell within a relative log E rang(, of ().8, or about f/l 1 1()f/S, which occurred a._ recommended. The
2.7 stops. Therefore, it is conclude(t that this rccomzuemte(I ('hange from f/8 to f/5.6 occurred
magazine couhl have be(,n exposed at either at the ,_:tme location for both and was apparently
f/4 or f/2.8 and have m'dntain(,d linear response exercised a._ rc('()mnmnde(l. It is also apparent
at the maximum exposure end. This, (hen, might thai half-_top apertures were used. The "q)er-
have t)roduced a beneficial effect (m the near- tures s]mwn in figure 4-23 are the apparent ones
terminator t)hotogr'q)hy. use(l, although absolute exposure uncertainty
migh( _hift all apparent st()t)s potentially as
Magazine l)
'l unit t)y up t,) one ,_top. Assuming the apparent
Magazine D includes the vcrtic'd stereoscopic al)ertllres ;t.re correct, an a(ljustnmnt has been
strip pass and wa_ ])rocesse(l at high gamma "it- •q)t)li(,d '_ for each frame to place it at the
cording to premission t)lanifing. The high-gamma i)l'mne(t exposure level._, as shown in figure 4-24.
processing was t)rincipally t)lanncd to accom- Note thai the exposllres are llOW Illore uIliform,
mo(tate the planned re(l-t)lue tilter photographs with lhu I)rimary exception being the .1"/11 se-
where very ._mall expo._ure (tifferen(:e._ were to quence. A dclit)erate t>ias was planned for this
be measure(I and correl'm'(I. The ])h)t (fig. 4- sequence, which in(dudes zero-l)hase photography,
23) of the densities of magazine I) reveals several to insure t)r,)t)(,r (,xposuro of zero t)hase (in view
interesting factor_. Correl'ttion of verified at)er-
lure changes to the missi()n re'q) gives cle,lr evi-
3 No v,,rr(,(.lion has been applied resulling from changes
dence that aperture changes were mad(, at in l(,n_ Irau_mi,-_ion_ al different apertures.
Planned apertures
8 11 8 5.6
2.50 2.8 _1, '_ *t, 5.6 .b H. .I,
11
,,,_ _ximumdensity
2. O0
10
9
itometric
1.50
E
7_
1.00
.... f_,i'_
i FIi I_1LIrtl density
•5O
0 -N,, I L I 1 L J
2025" 2050 2075 2100 2125 2150 2175 2200
Frame number
FIGUIiE 4-24. Apolh) 8 magazine D nmster t)ositiv(, (,xt),)sures c()rr(,e((,(I to reflect phtnned ap(,rtures.
BACKGROUND 121
magazine D.
sufficient film latitude was available to expose
3.00
2.50
Ii
I0
7.00
imum density
1.50
E
I. O0
• 5C
0 I I I I I 1 i
2025-IN12050 2075 2100 2125 2150 2175 2200
Frame number
FI(IUttE 4-26• --Predicted densities of Apollo 8 magazine l) exposed at (onstant f5,(1 aperture.
122
ANALYSIS OF APOLLO 8 PHOTOGRAPHY AND VISUAL OBSERVATIONS
/ J ! _ MagazineD /
Magazine E
adjusted to 1/60 second at frame 2300. exposed at constant f/5.6 aperture and extrapolation
to magazine C processing.
I /
llt;_ J __ "9"9_Sensil°melric
_l_OF 8 steps
V/,V
5
"°f
%0 ,,'_ ,2'_ 22',o,,_o 2;,o ,;_ 2;_o
Frame number
Iq'IQURE 4-28.--Density versus frame nmnber for Apollo 8 magazine E master positive.
BACKGROUND 123
APOLLO CAMERA RESOLUTION TESTS Focal-length tests were also made by placing
a microscope near the image plane of the camera.
A. F. H. GOETZ Assuming a nominal focal length without a
Film from three different magazines exposed filter, the 80-ram lens focuses at 80.02 mm in
the blue an(1 at 79.82 mm in the red. The 250-mm
during the Apollo 8 red-blue color experiment
showed all red frames to be severely out. of focus. lens focuses at 250.22 mm in the blue and 249.62
mnl in the red. The red focus was difficult to
This phenomenon had not. been anticipated.
However, all frames were taken after transearth locate and was nowhere sharp. This fact was
borne out in the resolution tests.
injection (TEI) with the 250-ram lens instead
of the 80-ram lens as planned. Lens resolution T,tble 4-VIII lists the results of the resolu-
measurements to clarify the focus problem were tion tests. Because a nunaber of frames were
performed on the Apollo 8 flight hardware at overexposed, some values will appear low. Over-
the Manned Spacecraft Center by this author. exposure is denoted by a plus sign after the value.
Measurements were made in the Flight Crew Where both red and blue values were overexposed,
Support Division camera facility at MSC. A the same exposures were used in each case.
Gaertner L360n optical bench and collimator The source of the red, out-of-focus images is
and an Air Force resolution target were used. now quite apparent. The 250-mm lens used on
Using a collimator allows resolution tests to be board Apollo 8 is obviously "t poor achromat,
made at the infinity (_) camera focus setting, showing a resolution of only 5 to possibly
which was the setting used during flight.. 15 lines/ram at 6600 /_. However, the 80-mm
Tests were conducted using camera back and lens appears to be well suited for lunar color
80-mm lens no. 1020, 250-mm lens no. 11, maga- measurements, exhibiting, at f/4, 57 lines/ram
zine G no. 123, and type 3400 fihn. The twin- resolution in both red and blue wavelength
filter slide holder no. 1001, carrying the standard regions.
47B (blue) and 29+0.6ND (red) filters, was used.
80-mm lens
250-mm lens
o0 .................................................
5.6 13+ 5+ 40+
5.6 8+ 23+
distance between 50 ft, and :¢ ......................
5.6 9+ 8+
200 ft ..............................................
150 ft ............................................... 5.6 Completely out Completely out
of focus. of focus.
124 ANALYSIS OF APOLLO 8 PHOTOGRAPHY AND VISUAL OBSERVATIONS
PROCESSING OF APOLLO 8 and the results are excellent for the fihn/chenfis-
ONBOARD FILM try conlbination.
ier, the film magazines are downloaded. Post- 1st developer, ................ 100 2:30
1st stop ................... 100 1:13
flight sensitometry is applied where and when Wash ....................... 95 1:15
appropriate, and the fihns are then carefully Color developer. .............. 11(} 2: 30
processed to predetermined stan(lards. 2d stop ..................... 110 1:15
The SO-368 and S0-168 fihns were processed Wash ....................... 95 1:15
Bleach ...................... 110 1:15
in the MSC General Photography Laboratory,
Fixer. ....................... 110 l:15
and the S0-121, 3400, and 2485 films were Wash ...................... 95 2:30
processed in the MSC Precision Laboratory. 1)ry. ...................... 125 2:30
SO-368 PROCESSING
The SO-368 fihn was processed by using Ko- The fihn was processed at a rate of 3.2 ft/nfin.
dak ME-2A chemistry at 75 ° F. The 70-ram The origin.d flight film was spliced with other
film was processed at 31/_ ft/min "rod the 16-ram films and le:_ders to insure proper trtmsit of the
at 34 ft/min. No problems were encountered, nmchine, as fClows:
BACKGROUND 125
A._ _liscussed provi,,usly, ,m_' ),l_olh_ S l)hO|o- (lU_l]ily alt([ :tl)lt(,:trs t_ h:tw, good t'orw:trd ]ttl)
graphir _d,j_,cliv(, _vas t,, ol,lai. _wo stril)s of in :tl[ ar_'as. The' _'Xll'_t _,Xl)()sur(, was lriR_,_,r(,_[ :Is
st_'r('os('opi(, l_h,_togratdO, t'r_n t_*rmin_lor t¢_ l)]:tnr_'(t ('v_q'y 5 z_til_lzt_'s.
l(q'lltill:ttor. I"_)r o])_'r:ttiol_:t] IN'_L_()II_, Ibis r_,(tuir(,- "rhe i)].tzlr|(,(I ('onv('rg(,rlt slrip on Ill(' l_illth
n_¢,nt was ]'('dur(,,t to o_,(, lmrlia] strip using z'('v<dttth_]_ wzts d<'h't('d from th(, flight t)htn I)e-
},ht¢'k-and-while film ¢l'ronx t('r'min:ttor 1o ("tllS(' ()f th(, lt_(,(,_[ f()l' ('row rest. Tit(, ('()llllll'tlld(_l"
:lhout 6() ° t'roll_ lh(',)])[)_'_it,' l_q'_ltit_:tlor) Ctlld ()11(, (('I)l{) ,li(t t)rark(q-nlount Ill(' 70-ram e_tm(,ra
.-.trip using color _qnul-.io,L wlti('h was curtaih,d and t,._k idl<_t,)_r:tl)le_ in :t zl('ar-v('z'ti(':ll orion-
to 'dlow for t_'h'vision tr:tnsnfi._si,,n on the ninth t:tti(m ,,tt th(, (,ighlh r('v(,lution, using a fixe(I
r('volulion. By taking a. *'xposur(, _,v('ry 20 ("m_(,ra _'xp_,sur_, ,,ff/5.G and 1/250 s(,('on(i. This
s('conds, usin_ th_ intorvah>nt_,l¢,r, ¢"t('h l)hotogral_h I)ro('('(lur(, r,'sult(,(I in _o_(t-(lu'tlity t)hot(_grql)hy
ov,'r'lal)s th,' l)r(,vious 1)hoio_,r,tld_ t)y al)l)roxi- :tft('z' _l)(,rial pro('(,ssin_ by th(' Photogr.H)hie
m:tt¢,ly 60 l)(,r(,(,nt. Tiffs "tlh)ws vi_'wing of ('at'h T('(dmolo_ 3" L:tbi)r,:ttory, :.tlld this photography
1,oinl on tho sttrfar(, fr'lmt :tl h,ast two t)hotogr.tl)hi(. t)z'ovid('s :l(Iditi,,tml ,,,l(,r_,o_(,ol)ic ('(_x'_,r:t¢_, :tlonR tim
_z'(_un(ll r:t(,k.
t)ositions s('l)_tr:tt(,d t)y :tl)l_r()xim:tl_,ly :_0 kz_t :thing
th(' or|fit...kt :tn orl)ita] :dtilu(t{, of I10 kin, lhis With the' two, sl(,r(,o._(.Olfie strips, it is fossil)h,
nt(qho(l i_r,_du(._.s :t I):ts('-t,_-heilgh tr'ati,) (B/I]) of to t)o_ili,_n f:tr-si_[o t'(':tlllres with r(,sp(,ct to the
L×pOSL, re i
'\ //
_,,, /,'
look mostly southward. This, (,ombine(l with lens e(mfiguration and desired type of fihn. With
the loss of photographic opportunities during few exceptions, the exposures used were good.
the ninth orbit, resulted ill the snml[ numt)er of
and the data content of the photography is
targets photographed to the north of the track. completely s'_tisfactory.
The two most unfortunate losses to the north
Discussions (luring the crew photographic
of the track are the loss of T/() 59 using the red- debriefil_g in(licated that the preplanned exposure
blue filters and the loss of T/O 67, a t)rime data worked well, an(t that targets, when time
photographic area to sut)plenlent Lunar Orbiter wm_ available, could be photographed at a higher
photography. This latter area was photogr'tphed rate than was planned. Most of the targets of
by the LMP as Apollo 8 left lunar orbit. Most opportunity were photographed in the first few
targets were photographed with the requested revolutions of the Moon.
APPENDIX A
Data Availability
T/O location
T/O no. Description
Latitude Longitude
T/O location
T/O no. ])eseription
Latitude I,ongitude
66 ........... E Mare Crisium rim, fill*in for pool" I,O IV photos ............... 015.0 ° N 068.9° E
67 ........... S Mare Crisium rim, fill-in for poor LO IV photos ............... 004.6 ° N 057.7 ° E
photos.
75 ........... Messier double crater, elongate S rays ............................ 001.8 ° S 047.4 ° E
T/O location
T/() no. l)escril)tion
I xttitude Longitude
10(I .......... (_ensoril,us J, paired craler_, with mare fill ...................... (101.5" ,'4 032.4 ° E
101 ........... Maskel3me B, d'u'k halo ..................................... (t(13.3 ° N 029.7 ° E
102 ........... .\Iaskelylm K, dark hah) ..................................... 002.1° N 029.0 ° t;2
103 ........... Ti)rricelli B, dark craler. ................................ 0(12.3 ° S (129.1 ° t']
104 ........... Crater Miidler. ......................................... (110.9 ° S (129.9 ° 1"2
1(15 ........... Crater TorricelIi ............................................ 004.6 ° S 028.4 ° E
106 .......... ()raler Jansen ............................................... 013.7 ° N 028.7 ° E
107 .......... Jansen, ,niscelhmemls v(dcanic (}t)je('Is ........................ ()15.2 ° N 028.7 ° E
108 .......... Litlrow, l'mding site ......................................... ; 021.9 ° N 028.9 ° F
108a ......... Posid(mius, raised rio<.'. ................................... 031.7 ° N 030.1 ° E
1(}8t) ........ ])awes, single frame (m L() IV p|).ol()gral)hy. .................. 017.2 o N 026.4 ° E
If)9 .......... The,)philus, rim ........................................ O09.0 ° S 027.7 ° E
1l0 .......... The,_phihis, plains ol, rilll .................................... i 0()_.9 ° S 026.4 ° E
111 .......... Theophilus, flo, w. ....................................... 011.3 ° S 026.3 ° E
112 ......... Moltke, dark craler. ........................................ 000.5 ° S 024.2 o E
112a ....... l::mding sile 2, redesignale .................................... 000.6 ° S 024.9 ° E
l12b ......... Landillg sile 2, prime ......................................... 000.7 o N 023.5 ° E
113 .......... S [)f Mollke, irregular depressions ............................... 001. s ° S 023.9 ° E
114 .......... Surveyor V ................................................ 002.6 ° N 023.0 ° E
115 .......... ltypatia, irregular craler. ..................................... 003.9 ° S 022.5 ° E
116 ......... Transienl SW of Plinius .................................... 011.q ° N 021.6 ° E
117 .......... Alfraganus A, S complex of depressions and domes ................. 003.7 ° S 020.4 ° F
llg .......... Alfraganus A, N complex of depressi<ms and domes ................ @2.2 ° S 020.2 ° E
119 .......... E of Alfragmms ............................................... 005.3 ° S 020.2 ° E
120 .......... Dionysius W .................................................. 002.9 o N 017.2 ° E
121 .......... l)escarles, hill), and furrowed malerial ......................... ()09.3 ° S 016.1 ° E
122 .......... Julius Caesar, inle,'ior del)osils ................................. 008.2 ° N 015.6 ° E
123 .......... Ariadaeus, rille-cu(ling hills .................................... 006.1 ° N 014.4 ° E
005.1° S 014.0 ° E
124 .......... Taylor B, hills and furrows ....................................
125 .......... Abulfeda, single frame <m L() V l)h<)l,_graphy ................... 014.2 ° S 014.1 ° E
0O9.3 ° N 011.1 ° E
126 .......... Bosc<)vich, fi'esh volcanics ..................................
007.5 ° N 010.5 ° E
127 .......... Ariadaeus, intersecti(m of faults ................................
001.8 ° N 0111.0 o E
128 .......... C,odin and nearby hills .....................................
001.0 o N 009.2" E
129 .......... W of (lodin, domes ..........................................
002.1 ° N 008.2 ° E
130 .......... Big pla(eau SE of I)embowski .................................
O05.2 ° N 007.6 ° E
131 .......... Brighl hills W of Agrippa S ...................................
NOTE.- N is lellel' designalion (>f crater sec,mdary Io Agrippa, n(>l
soulh.
132 .......... Mouuds and grooves N of Picketing ............................ 001.3 ° S 007.6 ° E
133 .......... tlyginus N, irregular crater. ..................................... 010.5 ° N 007.4 ° E
134 .......... Manilius 1), dark craler. ...................................... 013.2 ° N 006.8 ° E
135 .......... Airy, dark inleri()r. ........................................ 018.0 ° S 005.7 ° E
136 .......... Triesnecker. ................................................. 004.2 ° N 003.5 ° E
137 .......... NE of Miiller, lerra domes ................................... 006.9 ° S 002.9 ° E
138 ........... M0.11er. .................................................... 007.9° S 001.3 ¢ E
139 ........... Ukerl ...................................................... 1107.7 ° N 001.5 ° E
140 ........... lt'adley Rille ................................................. 025.2 ° N 002.8 ° E
141 ........... Murehison, interior volcanies .................................. 004.4 ° N 000.3 ° W
142 ........... Landing nile 3, prime ......................................... 000.4 ° N 001.5 ° W
143 ........... S0.rveyor VI ............................................... 000.5 ° N 001.9 ° W
l[erschel .................................................... 005.g° S 002.0 ° W
144 ...........
013.7 o S 002.5 ° W
145 ........... Alphonsus t ransienl, cu(.l ing faulls ..............................
1_]4 _NAI.'_NI,_ ()F :\I'()IAA)N PI|(YI'()(;RAPIIY ANI) VI_,UAL (HL_I£1CVATIf)NN
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2325
2197 2327
2197
'232>_
57 ................................
58 ........................... 218(.I, 22(}I, 219(}, 21(.13 2262 i(} 226,5
59 ...................... 2202 io 22(}5, 2207 2;_;11, 2332
63 .......................................... 218(), 21% 2268, '2'26,_}
64 ...................................................
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i:
MAGAZINE
A
AS8-16-2581 to 2658
173
MAGAZINE A
AS8-16-2582
AS8-16-2581
AS8-16-2583 AS8-16-2584
A $8-16-2586
AS8-16-2585
( Available in color. )
174 ANALYSIS OF APOLLO 8 PHOTOGRAPHy AND VISUAL OBSERVATIONS
AS8-16-2587
AS8-16-2588
AS8-16-2589
AS8-16-2590
AS8-16-2591
AS8-16-2592
I .lz'r;_ln5_ in c_J_r.
175
MAGAZINE A
AS8-16--2594
AS8-16-2593
AS8-16-2596
AS8-16-2595
AS8---16-2598
AS8-16-2597
( A_ailable in color.)
176 ANALYSIS OF APOLLO 8 PHOTOGRAPHY AND VISUAL OBSERVATIONS
AS8-16-2599
AS8-16-2600
AS8-16-?.601
AS8-16---260 2
AS8-16-2603
AS8-16-2604
(Available in color.)
MAGAZINE A 177
AS8-16-2605 AS8-16-2606
AS8-16-2610
AS8-16-2609
(Available in color.)
178
ANALYSIS OF APOLLO 8 PHOTOGRAPHY AND VISUAL OBSERVATIONS
L_
AS8-16-2613 AS8-16-2614
AS8-16-2615 AS8-16-2616
(Available in color.)
179
MAGAZINE A
BLANK
BLANK
AS8-16-2618
AS8-16-2617
AS8-16-2620
AS8-16--2619
AS8-16--2622
AS8-16-2621
(A_ailable in color.)
180 ANALYSIS ()F APOLLo 8 PHOTOGRAPHY AND VISUAL OBSERVATIONS
AS8-16-2623
AS8-16-2624
AS8-16--2625
AS8-16-2626
AS8-16-26 27
AS8-16--2628
(.|=_a:lablr ir_col_r.)
MAGAZINE A 181
AS8-16-2630
AS8-16-2629
AS8-16-2632
AS8-16-2631
AS8-16-2634
AS8-16-2633
AS8-16-26 35
AS8-16-2636
AS8-16-2637 AS8-16-2638
AS8-16-2639 AS8-16-2640
AS8-16-2641 AS8-16-2642
AS8-16-2644
AS8-16-2643
AS8-16-2646
AS8-16-2645
AS8-16-2647 AS8-16-2648
AS8-16--2649 AS8-16--2650
AS8-16-2651 AS8-16-2652
(Available in color.)
MAGAZlNE A 185
AS8-16-2654
AS8-16-2653
AS8-16-2656
AS8-16-2655
AS8-16-2658
A $8-16--,?-657
AS8-14-2383 to 2534
MAGAZINE n 189
AS8-14-2383 AS8-14-2384
AS8-14-2385 AS8-14-2386
AS8-14-2387 AS8-14-2388
( Avatblh/e m col, T. I
190 ANALYSIS ()F APOLLO 8 PHOTOGRAPHY AND VISUAL ()BSERVATIONS
AS8-14-2391 AS8-14-2392
(.t_thtble m odor. i
MX_AZlNE n 191
AS8-14- 2395
AS8-14-2396
A $8-14-2397 AS8-14-2398
AS8-14-2399 AS8-14-2400
(A _ailable in color.)
192 ANALYSIS OF APOLLO 8 PHOTOGRAPHY AND VISUAL OBSERVATIONS
t
AS8-14-2401 AS8-14-2402
AS8-14-2403 AS 8-14-2404
AS8-14-2405 AS8-14-2406
(Available in color,)
MAGAZINE B
193
t
AS8-14-2407 AS8-14-2408
AS8-14-2409
AS8-14-2410
AS8-14-2411 AS8-14-2412
(Available ir_ color.)
194 ANALYSIS OF APOLLO 8 PHOTOGRAPHY AND VISUAL OBSERVATIONS
t
AS8-14-2413 AS8-14-2414
AS8-14-2415 AS8-14-2416
AS8-14-2417 AS8-14_2418
(Available in corot.)
MAGAZINE B 195
t
AS8-14-2419 AS8-14--2420
AS8-14-2421 AS8-14-2422
AS8-14-2423 AS8-14-2424
(A_ailable in color.)
196 ANALYSIS OF APOLLO 8 PHOTOGRAPHY AND VISUAL OBSERVATIONS
t
AS8-14-2425
AS8-14-2426
AS8-14-2427 AS8-14-2428
A $8-14-24 29 AS8-14-2430
(At,ailable in color.)
MAGAZINE B 197
1
AS8-14-2431 AS8-14-2432
AS8-14-2433 AS8-14.2434
AS8-14-2435 AS8-14-2436
( A _ailable in color.)
198 ANALYSIS ()F AP()LLO 8 PHOTOGRAPHY AND VIf4UAL ()BSERVATIONS
t
AS8-14-2437 AS8-14-2438
AS8-14-2439 AS8-14-2440
AS8-14-2441 AS8-14-2442
(. t raila_le in rolor.)
199
MAGAZINE B
t
AS8-14-2444
AS8-14-2443
AS8-14- 2446
AS8-14-2445
AS8-14- 2448
AS8-14-2447
(.4vailabl,_ in color.)
200
ANAI, YSIS ()F AP()LLO 8 PHOTOGRAPHY AND VISUAL OBSERVATIONS
/
AS8-14-2449
AS8-14-2450
AS8-14-2451
AS8-14-2452
(Available ia color.)
201
MAGAZINE B
AS8-14-2456
AS8-14-2455
AS8-14-2458
AS8-14-2457
AS8-14-2460
AS8-14-2459
(Available i_ color.)
2O2
ANALYSIS OF APOLLo 8 PHOTOGRAPHY AND VISUAL OBSERVATIONS
AS8-14-2461
AS8-14-2462
AS8-14-2463
AS8-14-2464
AS8-14-2465
AS8-14-2466
AS8-14-2468
AS8-14- 2467
AS8-14-2470
AS8-14-2469
_,71 -
k
AS8-14-2471
(Avoil_bte i_ color.)
2O4
ANALYSIS OF APOLLo 8 PHOTOGRAPHY AND VISUAL OBSERVATIONs
t
AS8-14-2473
AS8-14-2474
AS8-14-2475
AS8-14-2476
AS8-14-2477
AS8-14-2478
AS8-14- 2480
AS8-14-2479
AS8-14-2482
AS8-14-2481
/
AS8-14-2 484
AS8-14-2483
(Awailable in color.)
206
/
AS8-14-2485
AS8-14-2486
AS8-14-2487
AS8-14-2488
AS8-14-2 489
AS8-14-2490
(A vailable in color.)
207
MAGAZINE B
AS8-14-2492
AS8-14-2491
AS8-14- 2494
AS8-14-2493
AS8-14-2496
AS8-14-2495
AS8-14-2497
AS8-14-2498
AS8-14-2499
AS8-14-2500
AS8-14--2501
A $8-14--2502
(Available in color.)
209
MAGAZINE B
AS8-14-2504
AS8-14-,?.503
i
AS8-14-2506
AS8-14-2505
AS8-14-2508
AS8-14-2507
(Available in color.)
210
ANALYSIS OF APOLLo 8 PHOTOGRAPHy AND VISUAL OBSERVATIONS
AS8-14-2509
AS8-14--2510
AS8-14-2511
AS8-14-2512
AS8-14-2513
AS8-14--2514
(Available in color.)
211
MAGAZINE B
AS8-14-2516
AS8-14-2515
AS8-14-2518
AS8-14-2517
AS8-14-252 0
AS8-14-2519
212
ANALY,%IS ()F APOLLf) 8 PHOTOGRAPHY AND VISUAL OBSERVATIONs
AS8-14.-2521
AS8-14-2522
AS8-14-2523
AS8-14--2524
AS8-14-,?.525
AS8-14-2526
213
MAGAZINE B
AS8-14-2528
AS8-14-,?. 527
AS8-14-,?-530
AS8-14-2529
AS8-14-2532
AS8-14-2531
(Available i_ color.)
214 ANALYSIS OF APOLLO 8 PHOTOGRAPHY ANI) VISUAL OBSERVATIONS
AS8-14-2533
AS8-14-2534
Clrailable in rolor.)
MAGAZINE
AS8-17-2659 to 2827
217
MAGAZINE C
AS8-17-2660
AS8-17-2659
AS8-17-2662
AS8-17-2661
AS8-17-2663 AS8-17-2664
218
ANALYSIS OF APOLLO 8 PHOTOGRAPHY AND VISUAL OBSERVATIONS
AS8-17-2665
AS8-17-2666
AS8-17-2667
AS8-17-2668
AS8-17-2669 AS8-17-2670
MAGAZINE C 219
+ Z
AS8-17-2671 AS8-17-2672
AS8-17-2673 AS8-17-2674
AS8-17-2675 AS8-17-2676
22O ANALYSIS OF APOLLO 8 PHOTOGRAPHY AND VISUAL OBSERVATIONS
tr_
AS8-17--2677 AS8-17-2678
AS8-17--2679 AS8-17-2680
AS8-17-2681 AS8-17-2682
221
MAGAZINE C
AS8-17-2684
AS8-17-2683
AS8-17-2686
AS8-17-2685
AS8-17--2688
A $8-17-,?.687
222
ANALYSIS OF APOLLO 8 PHOTOGRAPHY AND VISUAL OBSERVATIONS
AS8-17--2689
AS8-17-.2690
AS8-17--2691
AS8-17--2692
AS8-17.--2693
AS8-17--.2694
223
MAGAZINE C
AS8-17-2696
AS8-17-2695
AS8-17-2698
AS8-17--2697
AS8-17--2699 AS8-17-2700
224
ANALYSIS OF APOLLO 8 PHOTOGRAPHY AND VISUAL OBSERVATIONS
AS8-17-2701
AS8-17-2702
AS8-17--2703
AS8-17-2704
AS8-17-2705
AS8-17-2706
MAGAZINE C 225
AS8-17-2707 AS8-17-2.708
AS8-17-2709 AS8-17-2710
AS8-17-2711 AS8-17-2712
226 ANALYSIS OF APOLLO 8 PHOTOGRAPHY AND VISUAL OBSERVATIONS
A $8-17-?.713 AS8-17-2714
AS8-17-2715 AS8-17-2716
AS8-17-2717 AS8-17-2718
227
MAGAZINE C
AS8-17-2720
AS8-17-2719
AS8-17--2722
AS8-17-2721
AS8-17-2724
A58-17-2723
228
ANALYSIS OF APOLLo 8 PHOTOGRAPHy AND VISUAL OBSERVATIONS
AS8-17-2725
AS8-17.-2726
AS8-17-2727
AS8-17-2728
AS8-17-2729
AS8-17--2730
229
MAGAZINE C
AS8-17--2732
AS8-17-2731
AS8-17--2734
AS8-17-2733
AS8-17-2736
AS8-17--2735
23O
ANALYSIS OF APOLLO 8 PHOTOGRAPtiy AND VISUAL OBSERVATIONS
AS8-17.-2737
AS8-17-2738
Ii
AS8-17-2739
AS8-17-2740
AS8-17-2741 AS8-17--2742
231
MAGAZINE C
AS8-17--2744
AS8-17-2743
AS8-17-2746
AS8-17-2745
AS8-17.-2747 AS8-17-2748
f
232
ANALYSIS OF APOLLO 8 PHOTOGRAPHY AND VISUAL OBSERVATIONS
AS8-17-2749 AS8-17--2750
AS8-17-2751 AS8-17--2752
AS8-17-2753 AS8-17-2754
233
MAGAZINE C
AS8-17-2756
AS8-17-2755
AS8-17-2758
AS8-17-2757
AS8-17-2759 AS8-17-2760
234 ANALYSIS OF APOLLO 8 PHOTOGRAPHY AND VISUAL OBSERVATIONS
AS8-17-2761 AS8-17-2762
AS8-17-2763 AS8-17-2764
AS8-17-2765 AS8-17-2766
235
MAGAZINE C
t
1
AS8-17-2768
AS8-17-2767
AS8-17-2770
AS8-17--2769
AS8-17--2771 AS8-17--2772
236
ANALYSIS ()F APOLLO 8 PHOTOGRAPHy AND VISUAL OBSERVATIONS
AS8-17-2773
AS8-17-2774
AS8-17--2775
AS8-17-2776
AS8-17-2777 AS8-17-2778
237
MAGAZINE C
AS8-17-2780
AS8-17-2779
AS8-17-2782
AS8-17-2781
AS8-17-2784
AS8-17-2783
238
AS8-17--2785
AS8-17-2786
AS8-17-2787
A $8-17.-.-2788
AS8-17-2789
AS8-17-2790
MAGAZINE C
239
AS8-17-2791 AS8-17-2792
AS8-17-2793 AS8-17-2794
AS8-17-2795 AS8-17-2796
240 ANALYSIS OF APOLLO 8 PHOTOGRAPHY AND VISUAL OBSERVATIONS
AS8-17-2797 AS8-17-2798
AS8-17-2799 AS8-17-2800
AS8-17--2801 AS8-17.--2802
241
MAGAZINE C
AS8-17-2804
AS8-17..-2803
AS8-17-2806
AS8-17--2805
AS8-17-2808
AS8-17-2807
242
ANALYSIS OF APOLLO 8 PHOTOGRAPHy AND VISUAL OBSERVATIONS
AS8-17-2809
AS8-17--2810
AS8-17.-2811
AS8-17--2812
AS8-17-2813
AS8-17--2814
243
MAGAZINE C
AS8-17-2816
AS8-17-2815
AS8-17-2818
AS8-17-.2817
lb.
AS8-17-2819 AS8-17--2820
244
ANALYSIS OF APOLLO 8 PHOTOGRAPHY AND VISUAL OBSERVATIONS
AS8-17-2821
AS8-17-2822
AS8-17-2823
AS8-17--2824
AS8-17-2825 AS8-17-2826
MAGAZINE C 245
/
AS8-17-2827
MAGAZINE
AS8-12-2044 to 2214
249
MAGAZINE D
AS8-12-2045
AS8-12-2044
AS8-12-2047
AS8-12-2046
AS8-12-2048 AS8-12-2049
250 ANALYSIS OF APOLLO 8 PHOTOGRAPHy AND VISUAL OBSERVATIONS
AS8-12-2050
AS8-12-2051
AS8-12-2052
AS8-12-2053
AS8-12-2054 AS8-12-2055
251
MAGAZINE D
AS8-12-2057
AS8-12-2056
AS8-12-2059
AS8-12-2058
AS8-12-2060 AS8-12-2061
252
ANALYSIS OF APOLLO 8 PHOTOGRAPHy AND VISUAL OBSERVATIONS
AS8-12-2062
AS8-12-2063
AS8-12-2064
AS8-12-2065
AS8-12-2066
AS8-12-2067
253
MAGAZINE D
-- _
AS8-12-2069
AS8-12-2068
AS8-12-2071
AS8-12-2070
AS8-12-2072 AS8-12-2073
254
ANALYSIS OF APOLLO 8 PHOTOGRAPHY AND VISUAL OBSERVATIONS
- 9
AS8-12-2074
AS8-12-2075
AS8-12-2076
AS8-12-2077
AS8-12-2078
255
MAGAZINE D
AS8-12-2081
AS8-12-2080
AS8-12-2083
AS8-12-2082
AS8-12-2085
AS8-12.2084
256 ANALYSIS OF APOLLO 8 PHOTOGRAPHY AND VISUAL OBSERVATIONS
AS8-12-2086
AS8-12-2087
AS8-12-2088
A88-12-2089
AS8-12-2093
AS8-12- 2092
AS8-12-2095
AS8-12-2094
AS8-12-2097
AS8-12-2096
258 ANALYSIS OF APOLLO 8 PHOTOGRAPHy AND VISUAL OBSERVATIONS
AS8-12-2098
AS8-12-2099
AS8-12-2100
AS8-12-2101
AS8-12-2102 AS8-12-2103
259
MAGAZINE D
AS8-12-2105
AS8-12-2104
AS8-12-2107
AS8-12-2106
AS8-12-2109
AS8-12-2108
26O
ANALYSIS OF APOLLO 8 PHOTOGRAPHY AND VISUAL OBSERVATIONS
AS8-12-2110
AS8-12-2111
AS8-12-2112
AS8-12-2113
AS8-12-2114
AS8-12-2115
261
MAGAZINE D
AS8-12-2117
AS8-12-2116
AS8-12-2119
AS8-12-2118
AS8-12-2121
AS8-12-2120
262
ANALYSIS OF APOLLO 8 PHOTOGRAPHY AND VISUAL OBSERVATIONS
AS8-12-2122
AS8-12-2123
AS8-12-2124
AS8-12-2125
AS8-12-2126 AS8-12-2127
263
MAGAZINE 1)
AS8-12-2129
AS8-12-2128
AS8-12-2131
AS8-12-2130
AS8-12-2134 AS8-12-2135
AS8-12-2136
AS8-12-2137
/
AS8-12-2138 AS8-12-2139
265
MAGAZINE D
AS8-12-2141
AS8-12-2140
AS8-12-2143
AS8-12-2142
AS8-12-2144 AS8-12-2145
266 ANALYSIS OF APOLLO 8 PHOTOGRAPHy AND VISUAL OBSERVATIONS
AS8-12-2146
AS8-12-2147
AS8-12-2148
AS8-122149
AS8-12-2150 AS8-12-2151
267
MAGAZINE D
AS8-12-2153
AS8-12-2152
AS8-12-2155
AS8-12-2154
AS8-12-2157
AS8-12-2156
268
ANALYSIS OF APOLLO 8 PHOTOGRAPHy AND VISUAL OBSERVATIONS
AS8-12-2158
AS8-12-2159
AS8-12-2160
AS8-12-2161
AS8-12-2162 AS8-12-2163
269
MAGAZINE D
AS8-12-2165
AS8-12-2167
A58--12--2166
AS8-12-2168 AS8-12-2169
270
ANALYSIS OF APOLLO 8 PHOTOGRAPHY AND VISUAL OBSERVATIONS
AS8-12-2170
AS8-12-2171
AS8-12-2172
AS8-12-2173
AS8-12-2174 AS 8-12-2175
271
MAGAZINE D
AS8-12-2177
AS8-12-2176
AS8-12-2179
AS8-12-2178
AS8-12-2181
AS8-12-2180
272
ANALYSIS OF APOLLO 8 PHOTOGRAPHy AND VISUAL OBSERVATIONS
AS8-12-2182
AS8-12-2183
AS8-12-2184
AS8-12-2185
AS8-12-2186 AS8-12-2187
MAGAZINE D 273
/
AS8-12-2188 AS8-12-2189
AS8-12-2190 AS8-12-2191
AS8-12-2192 AS8-12-2193
274
ANALYSIS OF APOLLO 8 PHOTOGRAPHy AND VISUAL OBSERVATIONS
AS8-12-2194 AS8-12-2195
AS8-12-2196 AS8-12-2197
AS8-12-2198 AS8-12-2199
275
MAGAZINE D
AS8-12-2201
AS8-12-2200
AS8-12-2203
AS8-12-2202
AS8-12-2204 AS8-12-2205
276 ANALYSIS OF APOLLO 8 PHOTOGRAPHY AND VISUAL OBSERVATIONS
AS8-12-2206
AS8-12-2207
AS8-12-2208
AS8-12-2209
AS8-12-2210 AS8-12-2211
277
MAGAZINE D
AS8-12-2212 AS8-12-2213
AS8-12-2214
MAGAZINE
AS8-13-2215 to 2382
MAGAZINE E 281
,¢
t 1
I
AS8-13-2216
AS8-13-2215
AS8-13-2218
AS8-13-2217
A $8 - 13-2219 A S8-13-2220
282 ANALYSIS OF APOLLO 8 PHOTOGRAPHY AND VISUAL OBSERVATIONS
t
AS8-13-2221
AS8-13-2222
AS8-13-2223 AS8-13-2224
v il,-A..
AS8-13-2225 AS8-13-2226
283
MAGAZINE E
t
AS8-13-2228
AS8-13-2227
AS8-13-2230
AS8-13-2229
AS8-13-2231 AS8-13-2232
284
ANALYSIS OF APOLLO 8 PHOTOGRAPHY AND VISUAL OBSERVATIONS
AS8-13-2233 AS8-13-2234
AS8-13-2235 AS8-13-2236
/
AS8-13-2240
AS8-13-2239
AS8-13-2242
AS8-13-2241
AS8-13- 2244
AS8-13-2243
286
ANALYSIS OF APOLLO 8 PHOTOGRAPHY AND VISUAL OBSERVATIONS
AS8-13-2245
AS8-13- 2246
AS8-13- 2247
AS8-13-2248
AS8-13-2252
AS8-13-2251
AS8-13-2254
AS8-13-2253
AS8-13-2255 AS8-13-2256
288
ANALYSIS ()F APOLLO 8 PHOTOGRAPHY AND VISUAL OBSERVATIONS
t
AS8-13-2257
AS8-13-2 258
AS8-13-2259
AS8-13-2260
AS8-13-2261 AS8-13-2262
289
AS8-13-2263 AS8-13-2264
l _r ¸_/
AS8-13-2265 AS8-13-2266
AS8-13-2267 AS8-13-2268
290
ANALYSIS OF APOLLO 8 PHOTOGRAPHy AND VISUAL OBSERVATIONS
J;
k,
AS8-13-2269
AS8-13-2270
AS8-13-2271
AS8-13-2 272
AS8-13-2 273
". AS8-13-2274
291
MAGAZINE E
AS8-13-2275 AS8-13-2276
AS 8-13-2278
AS8-13-2277
AS8-13-2281 AS8-13-2282
AS8-13-2283 AS8-13-2284
AS8-13-2285 AS8-13-2286
293
MAGAZINE E
AS8-13-2289 AS8-13-2290
AS8-13-2291 AS8-13-2292
294
ANALYSIS OF APOLLO 8 PHOTOGRAPHY AND VISUAL OBSERVATIONS
AS8-13-2293 AS8-13-2294
AS8-13-2295 AS8-13-2296
AS8-13-2300
AS8-13--2299
AS8-13-2302
AS8-13-2301
AS8-13-2304
AS8-13-2303
296
ANALYSIS OF APOLLO 8 PHOTOGRAPHY AND VISUAL OBSERVATIONS
AS8-13-2305
A $8-13-2306
AS8-13-2307
AS8-13-2308
AS8-13-2309 AS8-13-2310
297
MAGAZINE E
t
AS8-13-2312
AS8-13-2311
AS8-13--2314
AS8-13-2313
AS8-13-2315 AS8-13-2316
298
ANALYSIS OF APOLLO 8 PHOTOGRAPHY AND VISUAL OBSERVATIONS
\
k .L
°
¥I_ /.
i
AS 8-13-2317
AS8-13-2318
AS8-13--2320
AS8-13-2321 AS8-13-2322
MAGAZINE E 299
AS8-13-2324
AS8-13-2323
AS8-13-2326
AS8-13-2325
AS8-13-2327 AS8-13--2328
3OO
ANALYSIS OF APOLLO 8 PHOTOGRAPHy AND VISUAL OBSERVATIONS
AS8-13-2329
AS8-13---2330
AS8-13-2331
AS8-13-2332
AS8-13-2333 AS8-13-2334
301
MAGAZINE E
AS8-13-2336
AS8-13-2335
AS8-13-2338
AS8-13-2337
AS8-13-2339 AS8-13-2340
302
ANALYSIS OF APOLLO 8 PHOTOGRAPIIy AND VISUAL OBSERVATIONS
AS8-13-2341
A $8-13-2342
A58-13-2343
AS8-13-2344
AS8-13-2345 AS8-13-2346
303
MAGAZINE E
AS8-13-2348
AS8-13-2347
AS8-13-2349 AS8-13-2350
AS8-13-2353 AS8-13-2354
AS8-13-2355 AS8-13-2356
AS8-13-2357 AS8-13-2358
305
MAGAZINE E
AS8-13-2360
AS8-13-,?- 359
AS 8-13--2362
AS8-13-2361
AS8-13-2363 AS8-13-2364
306 ANALYSIS OF APOLLO 8 PHOTOGRAPHY AND VISUAL OBSERVATIONS
AS8-13-2365
AS8-13-2366
AS8-13--2367
AS8-13--2368
AS8-13-2369 AS8-13--2370
MAGAZINE E 307
AS8-13-2372
AS8-13--2371
AS8-13--2374
AS8-13---237 3
AS8-13-2376
AS8-13-2375
308 ANALYSIS OF APOLLO 8 PHOTOGRAPHY AND VISUAL OBSERVATIONS
AS8-13--2377
A$8-13--2 378
AS8-13-2379
AS8-13--2380
AS8-13-2381 AS8-13-2382
MAGAZINE
F
AS8-15-2535 to 2580
312 ANALYSIS OF APOLLO 8 PHOTOGRAPHY AND VISUAL OBSERVATIONS
AS8-15-2541 AS8-15-2542
AS8-15-2543 AS8-15-2544
AS8-15-2545 AS8-15-2546
MAGAZINE F 313
AS8-15-2547 AS8-15-2548
AS8-15-2549 AS8-15-2550
AS8-15-2553 AS8-15-2554
AS8-15-2557 AS8-15-2558
MAGAZINE F 315
AS8-15-2559 AS8-15-2560
AS8-15-2561 AS8-15-2562
AS8-15-2563 AS8-15-2564
316 ANALYSIS OF APOLLO 8 PHOTOGRAPHY AND VISUAL OBSERVATIONS
AS8-15-2567 AS8-15-2568
AS8-15-2569 A $8-15-2570
MAGAZINE F 317
AS8-15-2571 AS8-15-2572
AS8-15-2573 AS8-15-2574
AS8-15-2575 AS8-15-2576
318 ANALYSIS OF APOLLO 8 PHOTOGRAPHY AND VISUAL OBSERVATIONS
-,. ",,.
AS8-15-2577 AS8-15-2578
AS8-15-Z579 AS8-15-2580
MAGAZINE
AS8-18-2828 to 2908
MAGAZINE G
321
AS8-18--2829
AS8-18-2828
AS8-18-2830 AS8-18-2831
AS8-18--2832 AS8-18-2833
322
ANALYSIS OF APOLLO 8 PHOTOGRAPHY AND VISUAL OBSERVATIONS
AS8-18-2834 AS8-18-2835
AS8-18---2838 AS8-18-2839
(Available m color. )
MAGAZINE G 323
AS8-18-2841
AS8-18-2840
AS8-18-2843
A $8-18-2842
AS8-18-2845
AS8-18-2844
(Available iu color.)
324 ANALYSIS OF APOLLO 8 PHOTOGRAPHY AND VISUAL OBSERVATIONS
AS8-18-2846 AS8-18.--2847
AS8-18-2848 AS8-18-2849
AS8-18-2850 AS8-18-2851
(ATailabte in color.)
MAGAZINE G 325
AS8-18-2852 AS8-18-2853
AS8-18-2854 AS8-18-2855
AS8-18-2856 AS8-18-2857
AS8-18-2858 AS8-18-2859
AS8-18-2860 AS8-18-2861
AS8-18-2862 AS8-18--2863
MAGAZINE G
327
AS8-18-2865
AS8-18-2864
AS8-18-2867
AS8-18--2866
AS8-18-2869
AS8-18---2868
AS8-18-2870 AS8-18-2871
AS8-18-2872 AS8-18-2873
AS8-18-2874 AS8-18-2875
(Available in color.)
MAGAZINE G 329
AS8-18-2876 AS8-18-2877
AS8-18-2878 AS8-18-2879
AS8-18-2881
AS8-18-2880
(Available in color.)
330 ANALYSIS OF APOLLO 8 PHOTOGRAPHY AND VISUAL OBSERVATIONS
AS8-18--2882 AS8-18-2883
AS8-18-2884 AS8-18-2885
AS8-18-2886 AS8-18-2887
( A _ailable in color.)
MAGAZINE G 331
AS8-18-2888 AS8-18-2889
AS8-18-2890 AS8-18-2891
AS8-18-2893
AS8-18-2892
(Available in color.)
332 ANALYSIS OF APOLLO 8 PHOTOGRAPHY AND VISUAL OBSERVATIONS
AS8-18-2894 AS8-18-2895
AS8-18-,?.896 AS8-18-2897
AS8-18-2898 AS8-18-2899
AS8-18-2900 AS8-18-2901
AS8-18-2902 AS8-18-2903
AS8-18-2904 AS8-18-2905
( A_ai_able in color.)
334 ANALYSIS OF APOLLO 8 PHOTOGRAPHY AND VISUAL OBSERVATIONS
AS8-18-2906 AS8-18-2907
AS8-18-2908
(Available in color.)
APPENDIX B
Glossary of Terms
aeutanee--Sharpness--a function of the density difference mare, pl maria--Large area on the lunar surface that
between two areas. is darker in color and of lower elevation and generally
albedo--The ratio of reflected to incident light. smoother than surrounding terra. The maria are gener-
background--The region immediately around a point ally circular in plan.
being viewed, usually 5 ° or less (see surround). mass wasting--The slow, downslope movement of debris
chit area--An area approximately 200 by 200 meters under the influence of gravity.
subjected to computer analysis to determine landing Moulton point or Lagrangian point--One of the five
suitability. stability points in the solution of the restricted three-
earthshine--Sunlight reflected from the Eat'th. Earth- body problem. Particles placed at these points with
shine on the Moon is usually much brighter than moon- zero velocity will remain indefinitely. In the Earth-
light on Earth. Moon system several Of these points possibly contain a
ejeeta--Material ejected from craters during their for- small cloud of particles.
mation. nimbus, pl nimbi--Patch of lighter material around a
gamma--The slope or gradient of the relatively straight- crater.
line region of the curve which is the plot of density oblique photography--Photography taken with the
(ordinate axis) versus the logarithm of exposure (ab- camera axis directed between the horizontal and the
scissa). vertical. Low-oblique photographs are those that do
gegenschein or eounterglow--A brightening of the zodi- not contain the horizon. Those photographs in which
acal light in the antisolar direction. It is presumably the horizon appears are called high obliques.
due to the backseattering of sunlight by the inter- orbit--The path of a spacecraft or other satellite around
planetary matter found in the plane of the solar system. a larger body.
graben--A linear depressed block bounded on both sides pass--A part of revolution when a particular operation is
by normal faults. being performed; i.e., a photo pass or landmark tracking
groundtraek--The vertical projection of the spacecraft pass.
trajectory on the lunar surface. phase angle--The angle at the point of intersection
halo--A bright ring around a feature on the Moon formed by the vectors from the source (Sun) and the
(nimbUs). A bright ring around the spacecraft shadow observer, or camera.
on the Moon (see heiligensehein). photoclinometry--The technique for extracting slope
heiligensehein--A bright area around the zero-phase information from an image brightness distribution.
(spaceertfft shadow) point. photometry--That science dealing with the measure of
image motion compensation--Movement of a camera, the intensity and direction of light.
or the film within the camera, to prevent blurred images photometric function--The relationship of the intensity
when photographing moving objects or from a moving of reflected light to the angular conditions of viewing
vehicle. and illumlnation.
intervalometer--A device to trip the camera shutter at ray, ray system, rayed craters--A deposit of high aibedo
regular intervals. material of unknown composition ejected from craters.
landmark--Any distinctive lunar feature used for on- The ejecta may either intensify cratering or smooth a
board navigational sightings. previously eratered surface. The albedo is believed to
llmb--The edge of the Moon as viewed from Earth. decrease with age. The ray system is a group of narrow,
lunar orbit insertion--The propulsive maneuver that linear, sometimes interrupted rays radiating from a
reduces the spacecraft velocity to lunar orbital velocity. crater. A rayed crater is the source of these linear rays.
Magellanic clouds--Two large cloudlike phenomena con- regolith--The layer of fragmental debris that overlies
taining star clusters visible in the Milky Way in the consolidated bedrock.
Southern Hemisphere. rev, revolution--360 ° of travel in an orbit.
335
336 ANALYSIS OF APOLLO 8 PHOTOGRAPHY AND VISUAL OBSERVATIONS
sensitometry, sensitometric strip senM_ometry: The terminator--The boundary between the illuminated and
science dealing with the measurement of the sensitivity unilluminated portion of the lunar surface. The Moon's
of the photographic emulsion to processing chemistry, terminator advances approximately 13 ° per 24 hours.
time, and temperature. terra--An area on the lunar surface which is relatively
sensitometric strip: An exposure of a series of cali- higher in elevation and lighter in color than the maria.
brated "gray" levels which allows the determination The terra is characterized by a rough texture formed
of the correlation of relative exposure from relative by intersecting or overlapping large craters.
density of the photographic transparency. transearth--The return portion of the mission between
sequence camera--A 16-mm camera that can be set to lunar orbit and reentry into the Earth's atmosphere.
expose 1, 4, 8, 12, or 24 frames per second. transearth injection--The spacecraft propulsive ma-
smear--Loss of resolution in a photograph caused by neuver that increases the velocity to allow return to
movement of the camera with respect to the object. Earth.
In the orbital case, smear is most likely to be caused transient event--A transitory change in the appearance
by the movement of the spacecraft along the velocity of a lunar feature.
vector while the shutter is open. tranMunar--The outbound portion of the lunar mission
solar corona--The outer atmosphere of the Sun. The between Earth orbit and lunar orbit.
temperature is 1 to 2 million degrees Kelvin. The light-- translunar injection--The propulsive maneuver that
having an intensity about one-half the full Moon--is increases spacecraft velocity to allow it to escape the
mainly due to sunlight scattered by free electrons. Earth's gravitational field.
spotmeter--An automatic reflectance light meter with a vertical photography--Photography taken with the opti-
1 ° angle of acceptance. cal axis alined, as nearly as possible, with the local
stereo, stereoscopic strip--Photography taken so that vertical.
sufficient forward overlap exists to permit stereoscopic vignetting--The progressive reduction of image illumio
(three-dimensional) viewing and reconstruction of the nance at increasing obliquity.
surface area photographed (see strip photography). washout--See heiligenschein.
strip photography--Photography taken in a systematic wasting--See mass wasting.
manner, with a constant amount of forward overlap, zero phase--The condition when the vectors from the
which covers a strip of surface below the spacecraft source (Sun) and the observer are colinear.
trajectory (see stereo strip). zero-phase photography--Photography which includes
Sun angle--See Sun elevation. the image of zero phase.
Sun elevation--The angle formed, in a vertical plane, zodiacal light--Sunlight scattered by interplanetary
between the incident Sun rays and the local horizontal. matter located in the plane of the solar system. It ap-
surround--All of the visual field that is outside the pears as a faint glow of light in the night sky near the
background of a point (see background). plane of the ecliptic.
APPENDIX C
Author Affiliation
337