ELASTIC LIMIT The elastic limit is the point at which a material no longer undergoes a change in strain linearly proportional

to the change in stress. At stress levels below the elastic limit the material is said to be elastic. Once the material exceeds this limit, it is said to have undergone plastic deformation (also known as permanent deformation). This implies that the material will no longer return to its original length. It will no longer obey Hooke's Law if further stressed. However, as stress is relieved, strain will decrease linearly, in accordance to Hooke's Law, i.e., the material has been work-hardened by the excess stress. FATIGUE In materials science, fatigue is the progressive, localised, and permanent structural damage that occurs when a material is subjected to cyclic or fluctuating strains at nominal stresses that have maximum values less than (often much less than) the static yield strength of the material. The resulting stress may be below the ultimate tensile stress, or even the yield stress of the material, yet still cause catastrophic failure. A practical example of low-cycle fatigue would be the bending of a paperclip. A metal paperclip can be bent past its yield point (i.e., bent so it will stay bent) without breaking, but repeated bending in the same section of wire will cause the material to fail.

Characteristics of fatigue failures

The following characteristics are common to fatigue in all materials:

The process starts with a microscopic crack, called the initiation site, which then widens with each subsequent movement, a phenomenon analysed in the topic of fracture mechanics. Failure is essentially probabilistic. The number of cycles required for failure varies between homogeneous material samples. Analysis demands the techniques of survival analysis. The greater the applied stress, the shorter the life. Damage is cumulative. Materials do not recover when rested. Fatigue life is influenced by a variety of factors, such as temperature and surface finish, in complicated ways. Some materials (e.g., some steel and titanium alloys) exhibit an endurance limit or fatigue limit, a limit below which repeated stress does not induce failure, theoretically, for an infinite number of cycles of load. Most other non-ferrous metals (e.g., aluminium and copper alloys) exhibit no such limit and even small stresses will eventually cause failure. As a means to gauge fatigue characteristics of non-ferrous and other alloys that do not exhibit an endurance limit, a fatigue strength is frequently determined, and

this is typically the stress level at which a component will survive 107 loading cycles. CREEP is the term used to describe the tendency of a material to move or to deform permanently to relieve stresses. Material deformation occurs as a result of long term exposure to levels of stress that are below the yield or ultimate strength of the material. Creep is more severe in materials that are subjected to heat for long periods and near melting point. The rate of this damage is a function of the material properties and the exposure time, exposure temperature and the applied load (stress). Depending on the magnitude of the applied stress and its duration, the deformation may become so large that a component can no longer perform its function - for example creep of a turbine blade will cause the blade to contact the casing, resulting in the failure of the blade. Creep is usually a concern to engineers and metallurgists when evaluating components that operate under high stresses and/or temperatures. Creep is not necessarily a failure mode, but is instead a damage mechanism. Moderate creep in concrete is sometimes welcomed because it relieves tensile stresses that may otherwise have led to cracking.

Power-law
The rate of dislocation creep tends to have a power law dependence on the stress in the material.

A is a parameter relating to the material being crept and the sub-mechanism controlling creep. Q is the activation energy for creep. is the universal gas constant. T is the absolute temperature EXTRUSION is a manufacturing process used to create long objects of a fixed cross-sectional profile. A material, often in the form of a billet, is pushed and/or drawn through a die of the desired profile shape. Hollow sections are usually extruded by placing a pin or mandrel inside of the die, and in some cases positive pressure is applied to the internal cavities through the pin. Extrusion may be continuous (producing indefinitely long material) or semi-continuous (repeatedly producing many shorter pieces). Some materials are hot drawn whilst others may be cold drawn.

Extrusion of a round blank through a die The feedstock may be forced through the die by various methods: by an auger, which can be single or twin screw, powered by an electric motor; by a ram, driven by hydraulic pressure (for steel alloys and titanium alloys for example), oil pressure (for aluminum) or in other specialized processes such as rollers inside a perforated drum for the production of many simultaneous streams of material. Extrusion simulation tools help to understand the extrusion process and to optimize development of tools and products. Commonly extruded materials include; Metals, Polymers, Ceramics, and Foodstuffs.

Stretch-Draw Forming

Stretch-draw forming is the process of cold forming sheet stock over a forming block by a mating die of the desired shape while the workpiece is held in tension. The workpiece material is extended just beyond the yield point to retain the desired shape. Bar, rolled, and extruded stock may also be used. Process Characteristics Uses flexible low cost tooling Produces large parts at a reduced weight Reduces material thickness by 5% to 7% Increases yield stress up to 10% Requires less forming pressure BACK

Information provided is from Manufacturing Processes Reference Guide by Robert H. Todd, Dell K. Allen, and Leo Alting.--1st ed. Published by Industrial Press Inc., 1994.

Drop Forging

Drop forging is a metal shaping process in which a heated workpiece is formed by rapid closing of a punch and die forcing the workpiece to conform to a die cavity. A workpiece may be forged by a series of punch and die operations (or by several cavities in the same die) to gradually change its shape. Drop forging is also called impression die or closed die forging, or rot forging. Process Characteristics Gradually forms heated metal by singular or repeated blows in a sequence of individual or multistage die cavities Produces a parting line and flash on the workpiece; flash must be removed Typically requires machining to obtain dimensional tolerances and

good surface finish BACK

Information provided is from Manufacturing Processes Reference Guide by Robert H. Todd, Dell K. Allen, and Leo Alting.--1st ed. Published by Industrial Press Inc., 1994.

Impact Extrusion
Impact extrusion is a forming process that produces workpieces by striking a cold slug of metal contained in a die cavity. A metal slug is forced to flow around a punch by a single high speed blow. Process Characteristics Converts a metal slug to a final shape by a single blow Forms a workpiece by forcing metal to flow around the punch Wall thickness is controlled by clearance between punch and die Finished

workpieces have excellent surface finishes

BACK

Information provided is from Manufacturing Processes Reference Guide by Robert H. Todd, Dell K. Allen, and Leo Alting.--1st ed. Published by Industrial Press Inc., 1994.

Stress corrosion cracking

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(Redirected from Stress-corrosion cracking) Jump to: navigation, search Stress corrosion cracking (SCC) is the unexpected sudden failure of normally ductile metals subjected to a constant tensile stress in a corrosive environment, especially at elevated temperature. This type of corrosion often progresses rapidly. The stresses can be the result of the service loads, or can be caused by the type of assembly or residual stresses from fabrication (eg. cold working); the residual stresses can be relieved by annealing. Certain austenitic stainless steels and aluminium alloys crack in the presence of chlorides, mild steel cracks in the present of alkali (boiler cracking) and copper alloys crack in

ammoniacal solutions (season cracking). This limits the usefulness of stainless steel for containing water with higher than few ppm content of chlorides at temperatures above 50 C. Worse still, high-tensile structural steels crack in an unexpectedly brittle manner in a whole variety of aqueous environments, especially chloride. With the possible exception of the latter, which is a special example of hydrogen cracking, all the others display the phenomenon of subcritical crack growth, i.e. small surface flaws propagate (usually smoothly) under conditions where fracture mechanics predicts that failure should not occur.

Corrosion inhibitor
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Jump to: navigation, search A corrosion inhibitor is a chemical compound that, when added in small concentration, stops or slows down corrosion of metals and alloys. A typical good corrosion inhibitor will give 95% inhibition at concentration of 80 ppm, and 90% at 40 ppm. Some of the mechanisms of its effect are formation of a passivation layer (a thin film on the surface of the material that stops access of the corrosive substance to the metal), inhibiting either the oxidation or reduction part of the redox corrosion system (anodic and cathodic inhibitors), or scavenging the dissolved oxygen. Some corrosion inhibitors are hexamine, phenylenediamine, dimethylethanolamine, sodium nitrite, cinnamaldehyde, condensation products of aldehydes and amines (imines), chromates, nitrites, phosphates, hydrazine, ascorbic acid, and others. The suitability of any given chemical for a task in hand depends on many factors, from the material of the system they have to act in, to the nature of the substances they are added into and their operating temperature. An example of an anodic inhibitor is chromate which forms a passivation layer on aluminium and steel surfaces which prevents the oxidation of the metal. Sadly chromate is carcinogenic in humans; the toxicity of chromates was featured eg. in the film Erin Brockovich. Like hydrazine, the use of chromate to protect metal surfaces has been limited, for instance it is banned from some products. Nitrite is another anodic inhibitor. If anodic inhibitors are used at too low concentration, they can actually aggravate pitting corrosion, as they form a nonuniform layer with local anodes. An example of a cathodic inhibitor is zinc oxide, which retards the corrosion by inhibiting the reduction of water to hydrogen gas. As every oxidation requires a reduction to occur at the same time it slows the oxidation of the metal. As an alternative to the reduction of water to form hydrogen, oxygen or nitrate can be reduced. If oxidants such as oxygen are excluded, the rate of the corrosion can be controlled by the rate of water reduction; this is the case in a closed recirculating domestic central heating system, where

the water in the radiators soon becomes anaerobic. This is a very different situation to the corrosion in a car door where the water is aerobic. For instance, cars suffer from the fact that water can enter the cavity inside the door and become trapped there. The fact that the oxygen concentration is not uniform within the layer of water in the door then creates a differental aeration cell leading to corrosion. A cathodic inhibitor would be of little use in such a situation as even after inhibiting the reduction of water, the reduction of dioxygen would still be able to occur. A better method of preventing corrosion in the car door would be to improve the design to prevent water being trapped in the door and to consider using an anodic inhibitor such as phosphate. One very good example of a cathodic inhibitor is a volatile amine present in steam; these are used in the boilers used to drive turbines to protect the pipework in which the condensed water passes. Here the amine is moved by the steam in a steam distillation to the remote pipework. The amine increases the pH so making proton reduction less favorable. It is also possible that with the correct choice of an amine the amine forms a protective film on the steel surface and so acts at the same time as an anodic inhibitor. An inhibitor which acts both as a cathodic and anodic manner is a mixed inhibitor. Hydrazine and vitamin C both help reduce the rate of corrosion in boilers by removing the dissolved oxygen from the water. Sadly hydrazine is very toxic and is a carcinogen, therefore its use is being discouraged. Antiseptics are used to counter microbial corrosion. Benzalkonium chloride is commonly used in oil field industry. Corrosion inhibitors are commonly added to coolants, fuels, hydraulic fluids, boiler water and many other fluids used in industry. For fuels, various corrosion inhibitors can be used: [1]

DCI-4A, widely used in commercial and military jet fuels, acts also as a lubricity additive. Can be also used for gasolines and other distillate fuels. DCI-6A, for motor gasoline and distillate fuels, and for US military fuels (JP-4, JP-5, JP-8) DCI-11, for alcohols and gasolines containing oxygenates DCI-28, for very low-pH alcohols and gasolines containing oxygenates DCI-30, for gasoline and distillate fuels, excellent for pipeline transfers and storage, caustic-resistant DMA-4 (solution of alkylaminophosphate in kerosene), for petroleum distillates

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corrosion_inhibitor"

Permissible stress design

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(Redirected from Allowable Stress Design)

Jump to: navigation, search Permissible stress design (in American construction more commonly called allowable stress design) is a design philosophy used by civil engineers. The designer ensures that the stresses developed in a structure due to service loads do not exceed the elastic limit. This limit is usually determined by ensuring that stresses remain within the limits through the use of factors of safety. The permissable stress desing approach has generally been replaced by limit state design (also known as ultimate stress design) as far as structural engineering is considered, except for some isolated cases. In American construction allowable stress design has not yet been superseded by Limit state design except in the case of concrete, which changed from allowable stress to limit state design in the 1960s. Wood, Steel, and other materials are still frequently designed using allowable stress design, although Load and Resistance Factor Design does exist for these materials and is probably more commonly taught in the American University system.

Factor of safety
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Jump to: navigation, search Factor of safety (FoS), also known as safety factor, is a multiplier applied to the calculated maximum load (force, torque, bending moment or a combination) to which a component or assembly will be subjected. Thus, by "overengineering" the design by strengthening components or including redundant systems, a Factor of Safety accounts for imperfections in materials, flaws in assembly, material degradation, and uncertainty in load estimates. An alternative way to use the safety factor is to derate the strength of the material to get a "design" strength. Sdesign = Syield / FoS Sdesign = Sproof / FoS An appropriate factor of safety is chosen by using several considerations. Prime considerations are the accuracy of load and wear estimates, the consequences of failure, and the cost of overengineering the component to achieve that factor of safety. For example, components whose failure could result in substantial financial loss, serious injury or death usually use a safety factor of four or higher (often ten). Non-critical components generally have a safety factor of two. An interesting exception is in the field of aerospace engineering, where safety factors are kept low (about 1.15 - 1.25) because the costs associated with structural weight are so high. This low safety factor is why aerospace parts and materials are subject to more stringent quality control.

A factor of safety of 1 implies no "overengineering" at all. Hence some engineers prefer to use a related term, Margin of Safety (MoS) to describe the design parameters. The relation between MoS and FoS is MoS = FoS 1. Margin of Safety is often described in percentage, i.e. a 50% Margin of Safety is equivalent to a factor of safety of 1.5.