Fatigue & Creep Fractures

and Mechanical Tests

Asst - Prof ,Manipandi.A.S
PEC - Mechanical Dept
 Fatigue Fracture
The fatigue fracture is defined as the fracture which
takes place under repeatedly applied fatigue
stresses.
● A fatigue fracture is a material failure that occurs as
a result of excessive cyclic loading.
● Prior to final fatigue fracture, many different micro
fractures are created and eventually the repeated
dynamic loading propagates the cracks.
● When a fatigue fracture occurs depends largely on
the type and shape of the material.
● Fatigue fracture is the result of repetitive cyclic short-time stress or tensile stress, or deformation
well below the tensile or flexural strength of the material .

● For example, Aluminum has less fatigue resistance than a material such as steel.

● Fatigue must be considered in machine components subjected to continuously cyclic loading such
as motor shafts, bolts, springs, gear teeth, valves, turbine blades, airplanes, automobile and gas-
engine parts, suspension bridges, wire ropes and many others.

● Therefore the study of fatigue failure is very important, because 80 to 90% of the total failures of
high-speed machine parts is due to fatigue.

● Three main features that distinguishes the fatigue fracture are :

(i) Loss of strength;

(ii) Loss of ductility; and
(iii) Increased uncertainty in strength and service life.
Stress Cycle - Types
 Stages & it's Mechanism
● Fatigue failure occurs in three stages –
1) crack initiation/ nucleation;
2) slow, stable crack growth;
3) and rapid fracture.

1. Fatigue fracture begins at irregularities on the surface imperfections such as

machine marking and slip steps. The nucleation of microcrack is due to the
slip movements. The slip movements starts within few cycles of loading. The
microcracks act as the points of stress concentration.
● As the cycles of loading continue, the microcrack propagate and grows in its size,
which becomes a threat to structural integrity.
In brittle materials, the crack grows to a critical size very fastly.
But in ductile materials, the crack keeps growing until the remaining areacannot
support the load. So the fatigue fracture in ductile materials occur suddenly.

The high temperature increases the mobility of atoms,facilitating slip and hence
the fatigue fracture.

● The final failure event (i.e. catastrophic fracture) can be ductile or brittle,
depending on the material, thickness, temperature and the applied stress.
Fatigue failures typically occur suddenly. The fatigue-induced fracture surfaces of
a broken component are typically smooth and show no evidence of plastic
deformation.
 S-N Diagram
S-N diagram can be obtained by plotting the number of cycles of stress
reversals (N) required to cause fracture against the applied stress level (S).

● Fatigue strength and fatigue life are two parameters used to describe fatigue
behavior.

● Tests that show the relationship between stress (S) and number of cycles to
failure (N) can be performed on a component. The data is represented on
what is known as the S-N curve.

● The S-N curve exhibits two distinct behaviors for materials:

(i) a curve showing a fatigue limit as shown in Figure 1, and
(ii) a curve that does not show a fatigue limit as shown in Figure 2.
 S- N Curve
Curve showing a fatigue limit (Ti & Fe alloys) Curve that does not show a fatigue limit
(Non Fe aloys)
 Fatigue Related terms
● Fatigue stress (or fatigue strength): The stress at which a metal fails by fatigue is termed as fatigue
strength.

● Fatigue limit (or endurance limit) : It is defined as the value of stress below which the material will
not fail even when it is loaded for infinite number of cycles.

● Fatigue life: It is the total number of cycles required to bring about final fracture under a given
condition of use.

● Several factors that influence fatigue strength, including:

a. The range of stress
b. The geometry of the component
c. Material properties
d. Environmental factors (e.g. thermal and corrosive conditions)
● Fatigue properties can also be improved by increasing the thickness of the component. However,
increased thickness can result in the final failure being brittle rather than ductile.
 Forms of Fatigue
Generally classified in one of two categories:
1) Mechanical fatigue - Fatigue damage develops as a result exposure to of
cyclic stresses for an extended period of time.
● Vibration Fatigue - type of mechanical fatigue caused by vibration of
equipment or piping during operation. Amplitude and frequency of vibration are
critical factors for failures.
● Corrosion Fatigue - occurs from the simultaneous actions of chemical attack
and reactions. Corrosive environments are known for deteriorating metal.

2) Thermal fatigue - a specific type of fatigue failure mechanism that is induced

by cyclic stresses from repetitive fluctuations in the temperature of equipment.
The degree of damage is affected by the magnitude and frequency of the
temperature swings.
This mechanism is most often encountered in the tube assemblies of fired
 Prevention of Fatigue Failure
I. Use of good design to avoid stress concentration by eliminating
sharp recesses and severe stress raisers.

2. Control of the surface finish by avoiding damage to surface

machining, punching, stamping, shearing, etc.

3. Reduction of corrosion environmental effects by surface heat

treatments like polishings, coatings, carburizing, nitriding, etc.

4. The material should have fine grain structure and also it should
be free from residual stresses and dislocations.
 Creep Fracture
● Creep is defined as time dependent deformation when material is under
constant loading genarally it occur due to variation in grain structure of the
material.
● The creep is defined as the permanent deformation of a material under a
steady load as a function of time, usually at higher temperatures.
● Some materials(soft metals) such as zinc, lead and tin creep, more at room
temperature.
Ex:lead coverings on telephone cables and white metal bearings.
● Some other materials such as iron, nickel, and copper creep more at
elevated temperatures only.
● Ex: furnace parts,turbine blades, pressure vessel parts, rocket and
missiles,supersonic jets, etc.
Creep Curve & it's stages
Three stages:
1) Primary creep, or Stage I
● Creep occurs due to dislocation movement.
● Creep rate decreases with time logarithmically.
● Creep is mostly transiently, not at a steady rate.
● During this stage, the recovery effect is less than
the work-hardening effect.

2) Secondary creep, or Stage II

● The rates of work-hardening and recovery effect
are equal, so the material creeps at uniform
steady rate.
● Steady-state creep may be viscous or plastic in
character,depending upon the state level and
temperature .
● Is the important part of the curve which is used to
estimate the service life of the alloy.
3.Tertiary creep or Stage III
● has an accelerated creep rate and terminates when the material breaks or ruptures.
● is associated with both necking of the specimen and formation of grain boundary voids/sliding.

Creep Related Properties

1. Creep strength: is the constant nominal stress that will cause a specified creep extension in a given
time at a constant temperature.
2. Creep limit: is defined as the maximum static stress that will result in creep at a rate lower than some
assigned rate at a given temperature.
3. Creep life: It is the time required for occurrence of creep fracture under a given static load.
4. Creep resistance: It is the resistance offered by the material for its continuous deformation under
steady load.
Factors Affecting Creep
● Grain size - coarse-grained materials exhibit better creep resistance than fine-grained ones.
● Thermal stability of the micro-structure - Material with greater thermal stabilities possess greater
creep resistance than the material with poor thermal stability.
● Chemical reactions - Reactions on the materials seriously affect the creep rate.
● Prior strain: Prior cold working or work-hardening has also a strong effect on creep. It increases the
creep resistance.
Mechanism of Creep Fracture
Dislocation climb: At high temperatures, atomic
movements permit the dislocation to climb. Because of
this dislocation climb, the diffusion rate of vacancies may
produce a motion in response to the applied stress.

Vacancy diffusion: In this mechanism,the diffusion of

vacancies controls the creep rate but does not invoive
the climb of edge dislocations. Vacancies move in
response to the applied stress in the directions shown in
figure. This movement finally will result in creep fracture.

Grain boundary sliding: At lower temperatures, the

creep fracture takes place due to sliding of grain
boundaries, as shown in figure.
 Prevention of Creep Fracture
1. Use of coarse grained materials will avoid creep fracture.

2. Strain hardening can be done to avoid creep fracture.

3. The material should be free from any residual stresses and dislocations.

4. Precipitation-hardened alloys can be used to avoid creep fracture.

5. Heat treatment reduces the occurrence of creep fracture.

 Mechanical Tests
I.Destructive tests,and II. Non-destructive tests.
1.Tensile Test
2.Compression Test
3.Shear Test
4.Torsion Test
5.Hardness Test
i) Brinell Test ii) Vickers Test iii) Rockwell Test
6.Impact Test
i) Izod Test and ii) Charpy Test
7.Fatigue Test
 Tensile Test Testing Procedure :-
Universal Testing Machine 1. The load pointer is set at zero by adjusting the initial setting knob.

2. The dial gauge is fixed and the specimen for measuring

elongation of small amounts.

3. Measuring the diameter of the test piece by vernier caliper at least

at three places and determine the mean value also mark the gauge
length.

4. Now the specimen is gripped between upper and middle cross

head jaws of the m/c.

5. Set the automatic graph recording system.

6. Start the m/c and take the reading.

7. The specimen is loaded gradually and the elongation is noted until

the specimen breaks.
Tensile Test
Tensile test of a material is performed on ductile
materials to determine tensile properties usually in
the UTM such as :

(i) Limit of proportionality,

(ii) Yield point or yield strength,

(iii) Maximum tensile strength,

(iv) Breaking strength,

(v) Percentage elongation,

(vi) Percentage reduction in area, and

(vii) Modulus of elasticity.

 Tension related Problem
A steel specimen is tested in a standardtension test
to evaluate several mechanical properties. The
dimensions of the specimen and observations made
during the test are given below:
Diameter of the specimen = 12.5 mm
Gauge length = 62.5 mm
Load at yield point = 41 kN
Maximum load = 72.5 kN
Fracture load = 51.25 kN .
Gauge length atfracture = 80.5 mm
Diameter offracture section = 9.5 mm
Strain at a load of 20 kN = 7.764 x I 0- 4 mm/mm
Determine:
(a) The yield strength, (b) The ultimate tensile strength,
(c) The % elongation, (d) Modulus of elasticity,
(e) % reduction in area, (f) fracture test and
(g) Modulus of toughness.
© Solution: The original area of cross-section,
Ao = 4 (12.5)2= 122.72 rnrn2
 UTM Tests
Compression Testing Procedure
1. For compression tests, specimens are made
of cubical or cylindrical shape to avoid
eccentric loading.
2. The specimen to be tested is fitted in between
compression plates of the universal testing
machine.
3. Now the compression load is gradually applied
on the specimen and the corresponding
reduction in lengths of the specimen are
recorded.
4. Using the recorded values of loads and their
corresponding values of change in length, one
can find the various compressive properties in
the same manner as that of the tensile test.
https://youtu.be/WFOf4WwBH60
Shear Testing Methods
Two main types of test which may be used for the
determination of the properties of a material in shear. They
are:
1. Test performed using a pure shear force, and
2. Test performed using the application of a torque to a
cylindrical specimen i.e., torsion test.
Three main systems used for shear tests are :
(i) Double shear system for round bar test-pieces
using a fork and eye device;
(ii) Double knife shear system for specimens with a
rectangular section; and
(iii) The shearing of a disc from sheet materials using
a punch and die.
The test equipment generally takes the form of
attachments which can be used in conjunction with a UTM.
https://youtu.be/nmZBCOzjT-I
 Torsion Test
Torsion is a variation of pure shear,
wherein a structural a member is twisted
in the manner.
Torsional forces produce a rotational motion
about the longitudinal axis of one end of the
member relative to the other end.
To determine the shear strength,the following
general torsion equation can be applied
within the elastic range:
t, Shearing stress in MPa
r, Radius of the shaft in mm.
T, Twisting moment ; θ, Angle of twist.
J, Polar moment of inertia.
G, Modulus of rigidity.
L, Length of the specimen / Shaft
Procedure of test:
1.Note the dimensions and draw the shape of the
specimen.(Note effective length, total length, dia meter etc)
2.Fix specimen into 10 Ton Buckton UTM.
3.Use twist control method (other one is torsional strain control
method)
4.To apply the twist to the sample, rotate the handle counter
clock wise for required degree of twist. Machine’s one
complete cycle will give 4° of twist.
5.Balance arm of the machine will get disturbed again. Try to
balance it with the help of concerned handle and note down
the value of balancing load.
6.Repeat the same procedure with increasing value of twist
until the member fails.
Lever arm = 50.8mm;Torque = lever arm x load 16T
7.Examine the failure pattern of the specimen and draw sketch
after failure.(same for cast iron )
 Torsion Testing Machine
Digital Torsion Testing Machine Vertical Universal Torsion Machine Torsion Test Machine
 Hardness Test
Hardness test is performed on a material to Selected hardness Indenter Applied load
know its resistance against indentation and scales
abrasion. i) Rockwell – B scale 1/16” diameter ball 100kg

The main hardness tests and their most ii) Rockwell – C scale 120° diamond cone with
common applications include: 0.2mm radius spherical tip 150kg

1. Mohs, for minerals iii) Rockwell – 15T scale 1/16” diameter ball 15kg

2. Shore, for polymers

iv) Rockwell – 30T scale 1/16” diameter ball 30kg
3. Brinell, for metals
4. Rockwell, for metals v) Vickers Square-based pyramid diamond typically
indenter with a 136º included angle 10g to1,000g
5. Vickers, for thin materials
microhardness’ test v) Brinell Spherical indenter, with a diameter 500 kg to
6. Knoop, for thin materials typically ranging from 1mm to 10mm 3000kg
 Hardness Test
Brinell Test Machine Brinell Rockwell Vickers Hardness Tester
 Rockwell
Hardness Testing
● Probably the most frequently used
hardness test both within
laboratories and on production sites
using a portable hardness tester.
● Rockwell hardness testing is
relatively quick and allows you to
see where a metal lies on one of a
number of Rockwell hardness
scales.
● Each scale uses different loads or
indenters and allows us to test
harder or softer materials.
● For example, the HRB scale is used
for aluminium, brass, and soft steels,
while HRC is used on harder steels.
Brinell Hardness
Testing
● Often used for rough or uneven
materials where one of the
other methods wouldn’t work
well.
● It generally uses a larger load
than other tests, in the range of
500 kg to 3,000 kg.
● It also uses a larger indenter
such as a 5 or 10 mm tungsten
carbide ball.
● This test makes a relatively
deep, wide indentation in the
material, which means it tests
the average hardness over a
larger area than some of the
other tests.
Vickers Hardness
Testing
● Where the other tests use a
ball-shaped indenter, the
Vickers hardness test uses one
shaped like a
pyramid.(Diamond pyramid
hardness)
● Like the other tests, the
indenter is placed under a load
and the permanent indentation
is measured.
● However, this test often uses
much lighter loads and can be
used on softer materials.
● This is a very precise test and is
often used for what’s known as
microhardness testing – with
very thin or small samples.
 Impact Test
Izod Test
Izod Impact Testing is a standard method of
measuring the impact resistance of a material.
In this, a striker or hammer attached to a
pendulum is released from a height; which
swings down and strikes at the upper tip and
breaks the notched specimen (placed vertically)
whose impact resistance is to be determined.
Charpy Test
Charpy Impact Testing is also a standard
method of measuring the resistance of a
material against sudden load or impact. In this, a
striker or hammer attached to a pendulum is
released from a height; which swings down and
strikes at the center and breaks the notched
specimen (placed horizontally) whose impact
resistance is to be determined.
 Impact Test
Difference between Izod and Charpy Tests
Notch Dimension 45 degree 2 mm depth
 Impact Test
Testing Procedure:
1. The specimen is placed in the vice of the 6.The energy absorbed by the specimen during

anvil. breaking is the weight of the pendulum times the

2. The pendulum hammer is raised to known difference in two heights of pendulum on either side

standard height depending on the type of of the machine.

specimen to be tested. 7. Now the energy i.e., the notched impact strength,

3. When the pendulum is released, its potential in foot-pounds or metre-kg, is measured from the

energy is converted into kinetic energy just scale of the impact testing machine.

before it strikes the specimen. Factors Affecting Impact Strength:

4. Now the pendulum strikes the specimen. It 1. Angle of notch,

may be noted that the Izod specimen is hit 2. Shape of notch,

above the V-notch and the Charpy specimen will 3. Impact velocity,

be hit behind the V-notch. 4. Temperature of the specimen, and

5. The pendulum, after rupturing the specimen, 5. Dimensions of notch specimen.

rises on the other side of the machine.

 Calculation of Energy Relations
W = Weight of the pendulum,
π= Angle through which the pendulum falls,
∆ = Angle through which the pendulum rises,
R = Distance between the centre of gravity of the pendulum and the axis of
rotation,
h1= Height of fall of centre of gravity of pendulum, and
h2= Height of rise of centre of gravity of pendulum after striking specimen.
Initial energy = W· h2
= Potential energy
= Kinetic energy of striking specimen
∆ Remaining energy after K. E of the carrying
striking specimen = pendulum to lowest position
= W. h2
Energy delivered Impact value of energy in
to the specimen = fracturing specimen
= Wh1 - Wh2 = W(h1 - h2)

In terms of angles, the energy required to break away

the specimen = WR (cos∆ - cos π)
Fatigue Test
Testing Procedure:
(i) The test specimen is placed on the machine.
(ii) Now the specimen is rotated using an electric motor.
(iii) When the specimen is rotating, it can be noted that the
upper surface of the specimen is subjected to tension and
its lower surface experiences compression, as shown in fig
(iv) As the specimen rotates, there is sinusoidal variation of
stress between a state of maximum tensile stress and a
state of maximum compressive stress.
(v) The cycles of stress are applied until the specimen
fractures. A reduction counter records this number of
stress cycles.
(vi) Now a number of specimen of the same material (at
least six specimens) ) are tested in the same manner
 Fatigue Test
(vi) under different stress levels and the results are
plotted on S-N graph.
(vii) The S-N graph is drawn on a semilogarithmic scale
with the number of cycles (N) required to cause failure
of the specimen on the X-axis and the stress (S) on the
Y-axis. The resulting curve in a S-N graph is called as
S-N curve.
(viii) The Figure shows the S-N curves obtained on
testing different materials.