Network Layer

Connectionless Services Routing Algorithms Congestion Control Fragmentation IP Protocol
Network Layer
Mahalingam Ramkumar Mississippi State University, MS
October 28, 2005
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Outline
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Network Layer
Services to Transport Layer - hide topology information from the TL Addressing Routing Congestion Control
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Connectionless Services
Datagram Subnet Virtual Circuit
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Datagram Routing
Packet Router Carrier's equipment D 1 H2 F Process P2
B H1 A
4
E
3
Process P1 C
2
LAN
A's table initially later A B C D E F B C B C C A B C D E F B C B B B
C's table A B C D E F A A D E E
E's table A B C D E F C D C D F
Dest. Line
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Virtual Circuit Subnet

H3 Process P3 B H1 A Router Carrier's equipment
D 1 H2 F Process P2
4 3
2
C LAN
Process P1
A's table H1 1 H3 1
In
C's table 1 2 A A 1 2 E E 1 2 C C
E's table 1 2 F F 1 2
C C
Out
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Datagram vs VC
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Basic Considerations
Session Routing vs Forwarding Adaptive vs non-adaptive Desired properties

Correctness Simplicity Robustness Stability Fairness Optimality
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Fairness vs Optimality Conict
A'
B'
C'
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Optimality Principle
If router B is on the optimal path to C from A, the path B A is also optimal Goal of every routing algorithm - to determine the sink tree for every destination
B A D F G H L K M (a) O K M (b) O I C J N L F A D G H I E J N B C
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Shortest Path Routing
What is the metric? Number of hops, geographic distance, delay (propagation, queue, processing), reliability? The idea is to reduce the metric (whatever is chosen) to get from one point to another Dijkstras algorithm
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B 2 A 6 G 2 1 E
7 2 4 (a) F 2 3
C 3 D 2 H A
B (2, A) E (, )
C (, ) F (, ) H (, ) D (, )
G (6, A)
(b)
B (2, A) E (4, B)
C (9, B) F (, ) H (, ) D (,)
B (2, A) E (4, B)
C (9, B) D (,1)
F (6, E) H (, )
G (6, A)
(c)
G (5, E) (d)
B (2, A) E (4, B)
C (9, B) D (,)
B (2, A) E (4, B)
C (9, B) D (,)
F (6, E)
F (6,E)
G (5, E)
(e)
H (9, G)
G (5, E)
(f)
H (8, F)
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Basic Approaches
Problem (from perspective of node A) - get to node B Approaches

Find the topology of the network and determine the shortest path Which of my neighbor should I forward it to (to get to B eciently)? Cooperatively build tables to determine that! Flooding
Which approach is better? Depends....
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Flooding
Every incoming packet is sent on every outgoing line (except the one it arrived on) Damping - stop ooding packets after a certain number of hops - hop counter decremented each time Sequence number for each request - if you have already sent out a packet with the same sequence number - do not send out duplicates. Selective ooding - for example using some directional information
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Distance Vector Routing
Bellman-Ford / Ford-Fulkerson First routing algorithm used in the Internet (then ARPANET) - also used in RIP in Internet. Each router has an entry for every router in the subnet Each entry has two components
Preferred neighbor Number of hops (or some other metric) to destination
Entire routing table exchanged between neighbors every once in a while
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DVR in a Subnet
A
A B C D A B C D A B C A B C C 0 1 1 0 1 1 2 A B C D A B C D A B C D
B
A B A B A A B A A 1 0 1 0 2 1 0 2 3 A B C D A B C D
C
A C D A A C D 1 0 1 1 2 0 1 A B C D A B C D A B C D
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D
C D C C D C C C D
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1 0 2 1 0 2 3 1 0
A C B
DVR in a Subnet
Router A B C D To A B C D E F G H I J K L A I 24 36 18 27 7 20 31 20 0 11 22 33 JI delay is 10 H 0 12 25 40 14 23 18 17 21 9 24 29 JA delay is 8 New estimated delay from J K Line 8 20 28 20 17 30 18 12 10 0 6 15 A A I H I I H H I K K
20 21 31 28 19 36 8 24 30 22 19 40 6 31 0 19 14 22 7 10 22 0 9 9 JH JK delay delay is is 12 6
New routing table for J
Vectors received from J's four neighbors (a)

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(b)
Count To Innity
B 1 3 3 5 5 7 7
C 2 2 4 4 6 6 8
D 3 3 3 5 5 7 7
E 4 4 4 4 6 6 8 Initially After 1 exchange After 2 exchanges After 3 exchanges After 4 exchanges After 5 exchanges After 6 exchanges
1 1 1 1

2 2 2

3 3
Initially After 1 exchange After 2 exchanges After 3 exchanges 4 After 4 exchanges
(a)
. . .
(b)
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Link State Routing
Every node obtains a complete view of the topology of the entire network Shortest path algorithm
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Link State Routing
Discover neighbors Measure delays or cost to reach each neighbor Construct a link-state packet Inform all routers (send link-state packet to all routers ooding) Compute shortest path to all routers.
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Modeling LANs
Router
B D A C E G F I B
E G C
F N (b)
LAN (a)
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Load or Delay (or both?)

West East G B A E D I J C F H
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Sequence Number and Age
B 4 A 5 E 1
C 3 6 D 7 F
A Seq. Age B 4 E 5
Link B Seq. Age A 4 C 2 F 6
State C Seq. Age B 2 D 3 E 1 (b) D Seq. Age C 3 F 7
Packets E Seq. Age A 5 C 1 F 8
F Seq. Age B 6 D 7 E 8
8 (a)
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Distributing Link State Packets
(Source, Sequence Number) for each LS packet Sequence number keeps a check on ooding Wrapping of sequence numbers? Age solves the problem Hold for a while before transmission Each packet is acknowledged
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Packet Buer
Send flags Source A F E C D Seq. 21 21 21 20 21 Age 60 60 59 60 59 A 0 1 0 1 1 C 1 1 1 0 0 F 1 0 0 1 0
ACK flags A 1 0 1 0 0 C 0 0 0 1 1 F 0 1 1 0 1 Data
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B 4 A 5 E 1
C 3 6 D 7 F
A Seq. Age B 4 E 5
Link B Seq. Age A 4 C 2 F 6
State C Seq. Age B 2 D 3 E 1 (b) D Seq. Age C 3 F 7
Packets E Seq. Age A 5 C 1 F 8
F Seq. Age B 6 D 7 E 8
8 (a)
Send flags Source A F E C D Seq. 21 21 21 20 21 Age 60 60 59 60 59 A 0 1 0 1 1 C 1 1 1 0 0 F 1 0 0 1 0
ACK flags A 1 0 1 0 0 C 0 0 0 1 1 F 0 1 1 0 1 Data
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Computing Routes
Each link is represented twice Dijkstras algorithm for computing shortest paths Could be tricky for large networks Practical uses - OSPF, ISIS OSPF - Open Shortest Path First (used widely in the Internet) IS-IS - Intermediate System - Intermediate System (used by some Internet backbones)
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Congestion
Perfect Maximum carrying capacity of subnet Desirable Congested
Packets delivered
Packets sent
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Congestion Control
Reasons for congestion

Sudden increase in trac to a location Slow processors (longer queues)
Increasing memory (buer) may not be the answer! Congestion control vs Flow Control
Congestion control deals with trac in the subnet Flow control deals with controlling point-to-point trac
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General Principles of CC
Three principles
Monitor to system to detect congestion Pass this information to places where corrective action could be taken Adjust system operation Closed loop control system
Open loop control

Rules for deciding when to accept packets for onward transmission No explicit feedback - except that the sender may not get a feedback (ACK) from the nal destination. Make sure that congestion can never occur in the rst place!
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Congestion Prevention Policies
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Congestion Control in Datagram Subnets

Monitor utilization of each line For each line unew = auold + (1 a)f u - utilization, f - current trac rate, a - forget history factor 0 a 1. Large a - give more weight to past trac u is the warning. Depending on u decide on an appropriate course of action
Warning bit Choke packets Hop-by-hop choke packets
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Warning Bit
Router sets a warning bit in the packet forwarded Destination sends the warning back to the source (when it sends ACK - transport layer) Source slows down Any router on the way could set the warning bit If a series of ACKs do not have warning bit set, source increases rate
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Choke Packets
Router sends a choke packet to source (IP layer) Original packet is tagged with a special bit before forwarding (to indicate to other routers on the way that a choke has already been sent) Source reduces output to that destination by a fraction Source may receive many choke packets from the same router (too much of a task for the router to maintain a history that it has sent a choke packet to a source) Source ignores other choke packets. If for some time there are no choke packets, source increases output to the destination Several variations of the algorithm - mild warning, stern warning, ultimatum Router can also use queue length instead of u as the trigger for choke packets Ramkumar NL
Hop-by-Hop Choke Packets

Choke packets not eective for long distances under high trac Signicant delay before the hosts reaction improves the situation! Send choke packet to previous hop - the router that sent the packet Previous router expected to reduce the trac it throws into the line Might need more buer to hold trac If the previous hop cannot handle the situation it may send multiple choke packets to routers in it dierent incoming line Provides quick relief at the point of congestion.
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Extreme Measure - Load Shedding
Drop some packets Which packets to drop? Will be useful if the router knows the type of application For FTP trac makes sense to drop newer packets Wine policy - older is better! For multimedia trac makes better sense to drop older packet Milk policy - newer is better!
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RED - Random Early Detection
Main idea - react well before congestion starts Discard random packets say when 75% of the capacity is reached Transport layer should slow down when it realizes that packets are being lost
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Fragmentation
Why does it happen?

Hardware limitations OS limitations Protocol specication Standards Error rate Fair channel use
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Fragmentation
IP packets may need to be broken into smaller fragments Lot of overhead - both computational and bandwidth (each fragment needs a header) Who does the reassembly?
Transparent fragmentation (used within ATM gateways in the Internet) Non-transparent fragmentation (used in IP)
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Transparent vs Non-transparent Fragmentation

Network 1 Packet G1 G1 fragments a large packet G2 G2 reassembles the fragments (a) Packet G1 G1 fragments a large packet G2 G3 G4 G3 G3 fragments again G4 G4 reassembles again Network 2
The fragments are not reassembled until the final destination (a host) is reached (b)
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Numbering Fragments
Hierarchical numbering
Packet 0 split into 0.0, 0.1, 0.2 and 0.3 0.0 split into 0.0.0, 0.0.1 What happens if 0.1 does not reach destination? 0 is retransmitted. Say 0 was split into 0.0 and 0.1 this time Destination gets 0.1 - but how does it know it is not the old 0.1?
We need a at numbering scheme
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Flat numbering
Number of the first elementary fragment in this packet Packet number 27 0 End of packet bit 1 A B C D E F G 1 byte H I J
Header
(a) C D E F G H 27 8 1 I J
27
Header (b) 27 0 0 A B C D E 27 5 0 F G H
Header
27
Header
Header (c)
Header
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The Internet
Leased lines to Asia A U.S. backbone Leased transatlantic line A European backbone
Regional network
C SNA network Tunnel
IP router National network
D A 1 IP Ethernet LAN
Host 2
IP token ring LAN
IP Ethernet LAN
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IP Header
32 Bits
Version
IHL
Type of service D M F F Protocol Source address Destination address Options (0 or more words)
Total length Fragment offset Header checksum
Identification Time to live
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IP Header Fields
Version IHL - 4 bits - header length in 32-bit words (4 bytes) - up to 15 4 = 60 bytes Type of service - 6 bits - rarely used in practice Total length - 16 bits - maximum length of datagram in bytes (including header) - max length 65,536 bytes Identication (16 bits) - packet number, one unused bit, DF, MF, Oset (13 bits) Oset is a multiple of 8 (bytes) DF - dont fragment, MF - more fragments MF is zero for last fragment (or unfragmented IP packets)
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IP Header Fields
TTL - Time-to-live - actually number of hops - decremented by each router en-route - if zero, packet is dropped Protocol (8 bits) - Species upper layer protocol employing IP (or protocol of enclosed data) - eg TCP, UDP Check http://www.iana.org/assignments/protocol-numbers Header checksum - ones complement addition of all header elds Recomputed at each hop - (TTL is changed at every hop) Source and Destination addresses Options - up to 40 bytes - padded to be a multiple of 4 bytes
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IP Options
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IP Addresses - Classful Addressing

32 Bits Range of host addresses 0 10 110 1110 1111 Network Network Network Multicast address Reserved for future use Host Host Host 1.0.0.0 to 127.255.255.255 128.0.0.0 to 191.255.255.255 192.0.0.0 to 223.255.255.255 224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.255 240.0.0.0 to 255.255.255.255
Class A B C D E
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Special IP Addresses
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
This host A host on this network Broadcast on the local network Broadcast on a distant network Loopback
...
0 0
Host
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Network 127 1111 (Anything)
...
1111
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Subnets
Router Art
To ISP
PC CS
English
EE
French
Main router
Math
Music Ethernet
Physics
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Subnet vs Subnets
Subnet: Set of all routers and communication lines in a network Subnets: part of a network - like a campus network IP addresses - two parts
Network address Host number
With subnets, we have network address, subnet address, host address
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Subnet Masks
32 Bits
Subnet mask
10
Network
Subnet
Host
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Class B network (16 bit network address) Network + subnet + Host (16 + 6 + 10) Subnet mask - 22 ones - 255.255.252.0 or just /22
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Example Subnet Allocation
Starting addresses of dierent subnets S1 : 10000010 00110010 000001 00 00000001 - IP 130.50.4.1 S2 : 10000010 00110010 000010 00 00000001 - IP 130.50.8.1 S3 : 10000010 00110010 000011 00 00000001 - IP 130.50.12.1 Subnet mask - 22 ones - 255.255.252.0 or just /22 Mask provide an easy way to check if the address is inside the subnet or outside Forward or Ignore
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Classless Inter-Domain Routing
Extending the concept of subnets and masks to the WAN Example address allocation Basic idea - allocate in 2b chunks - indicated eciently using masks
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CIDR - Example
Millions of addresses available for Universities in England Starting with 194.24.0.0
For MSU router - initially has 4 entries for dierent routers For all routers the next hop is some router in New York Aggregation 194.24.0.0 /19 - three entries replaced by one Aggregation keeps the sizes of routing tables from growing without bound
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Network Address Translation

We started running out of IP addresses in the early nineties! CIDR helped a lot in more ecient re-allocation and postponed the problem Still was not good enough Private IP addresses - like telephone extensions Many machines (in dierent subnets / networks) may have the same IP address! How do we unambiguously address them? How do routers outside know where to send the packet? There is no provision for extension addresses in the IP protocol. Enter NAT - Network Address Translation Reserved IP address ranges - 10.x.x.x, 172.16.x.x to 172.31.255.255, and 192.168.x.x
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NAT
An organization has thousands of employees and thousands of computers which need Internet connectivity They have just two public IP addresses 198.60.42.12 and 198.60.42.13 Each machine inside the company is assigned a unique IP address in the private IP range All outbound packets are sent thorough a NAT box NAT box modies the IP header - changes the IP to its own public IP All responses from the outside world are received by the NAT box - which forwards the response back to the private IP addresses
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NAT
Company LAN 1 2 3 4 Company router 5 6 7 Server PC NAT box/firewall Leased line ISP's router
10.0.0.1
Packet before translation Packet after translation

198.60.42.12
Boundary of company premises
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NAT Tables
How does the NAT know to which machine to forward the response to? Remember, with packet based routing each packet is independent. Change port number ! Each packet coming into the NAT (from inside) has three unique identiers - IP, port number, protocol The IP is xed, each process is assigned a port number (or picks one) NAT replaces the port number Makes an entry in NAT Table
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NAT Table
Source IP 10.1.1.2 10.1.1.2 10.1.1.3 10.1.1.4
Source Port 1234 1234 1435 1234
Protocol TCP UDP TCP TCP
New Port Assignment 12000 12000 12001 12002
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NAT
Solves the IP explosion problem Your service provider can give you a private IP Service provider has a NAT box Still usually service providers generally do not do that Every home connection is still provided a public IP NAT used for sharing Internet connection with multiple computers at home But NAT is widely used within organizations
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NAT Problems
1 2
Violates architectural model of IP Changes a connectionless network to connection oriented network - NAT has to keep track of connections Violates protocol layering rules - port number is a transport layer address - NAT changes that! NAT needs to know the protocol - what if some one decides to use a new protocol over IP? Breaks some applications - like FTP and H.263 Limited port numbers - only 65536 - with 4096 reserved for special uses
5 6
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NAT - A Firewall
How do you access a private IP address from outside? Can you run a server with a private IP address? Port forwarding. Impractical with ISPs
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ICMP - Internet Control Message Protocol
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ARP - Address Resolution Protocol
How is an IP packet sent from one machine to another? Using lower layers For Ethernet, each interface has a MAC address If 10.2.3.1 needs to send a packet to 10.2.3.4 (same LAN) it needs to know the MAC address of the destination What if it needs to send the packet to 194.2.3.67? It needs the MAC address of the router / NAT How do machine determine each others MAC addresses?
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ARP
Use broadcast address in MAC layer. Send a query - who owns IP 10.2.3.4? The owner responds with its MAC address Make a not of it in the cache - next time do not broadcast Listen to all requests made by other machines and the responses Add them in the cache too - eliminates duplicate broadcasts The protocol used for the query and response is ARP Each machine can also broadcast its MAC / IP address when it boots What happens if an Ethernet card in a machine is changed?
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RARP, BOOTP, DHCP
Used during booting up My MAC address is 14.04.06.15.02.24 - what is my IP? A server is expected to respond. Uses broadcast IP addresses and MAC addresses for the query Useful for storage-less work stations Some machines may even boot up over the Ethernet card! RARP - Reverse Address Resolution Protocol
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BOOTP
RARP requests are not forwarded by servers Each LAN needs a RARP server BOOTP is a higher level protocol - runs over UDP! Can be forwarded over the network BOOTP needs manual conguration of MAC / IP mappings in the BOOTP server.
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DHCP
Dynamic Host Conguration Protocol Allows both manual and automatic address allocation DHCP servers, DHCP relay agents Relay agents just need to know the IP address of the DHCP server DHCP DISCOVER packet broadcast by hosts when they boot up How long are the assigned IP addresses valid? IP addresses-es are leased. Have to be renewed periodically.
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Internet Multicasting
Class D addresses Supports over 250 million groups 224.x.x.x to 239.x.x.x Permanent and temporary multicast groups Temporary groups created before they can be used Hosts subscribe to groups Usually special multicast routers are used Have to inform all upstream routers on the way (to the source of multicast) about existence of subscribers for the group downstream. IGMP - Internet Group Management Protocol Spanning tree, tunneling
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IPv6
Driving forces
Practically unrestricted number of hosts Yet reduce size of routing tables Simplify protocol - faster processing by routers Security! Redene type of service Make multicasting simpler Allow for modication of protocols Coexist with IPv4
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IPv6 Header
32 Bits
Version
Traffic class Payload length
Flow label Next header Hop limit
Source address (16 bytes)
Destination address (16 bytes)

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Optional IPv6 Headers
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Connectionless Services Routing Algorithms Congestion Control Fragmentation IP Protocol

October 28, 2005

Connectionless Services Routing Algorithms Congestion Control Fragmentation IP Protocol

Connectionless Services Routing Algorithms Congestion Control Fragmentation IP Protocol

Connectionless Services Routing Algorithms Congestion Control Fragmentation IP Protocol

Connectionless Services Routing Algorithms Congestion Control Fragmentation IP Protocol

Datagram Subnet Virtual Circuit

Connectionless Services Routing Algorithms Congestion Control Fragmentation IP Protocol

A's table initially later A B C D E F B C B C C A B C D E F B C B B B

Connectionless Services Routing Algorithms Congestion Control Fragmentation IP Protocol

Virtual Circuit Subnet

Connectionless Services Routing Algorithms Congestion Control Fragmentation IP Protocol

Connectionless Services Routing Algorithms Congestion Control Fragmentation IP Protocol

Session Routing vs Forwarding Adaptive vs non-adaptive Desired properties

Connectionless Services Routing Algorithms Congestion Control Fragmentation IP Protocol

Fairness vs Optimality Conict

Connectionless Services Routing Algorithms Congestion Control Fragmentation IP Protocol

Connectionless Services Routing Algorithms Congestion Control Fragmentation IP Protocol

Shortest Path Routing

Connectionless Services Routing Algorithms Congestion Control Fragmentation IP Protocol

Connectionless Services Routing Algorithms Congestion Control Fragmentation IP Protocol

Problem (from perspective of node A) - get to node B Approaches

Which approach is better? Depends....

Connectionless Services Routing Algorithms Congestion Control Fragmentation IP Protocol

Connectionless Services Routing Algorithms Congestion Control Fragmentation IP Protocol

Distance Vector Routing

Entire routing table exchanged between neighbors every once in a while

Connectionless Services Routing Algorithms Congestion Control Fragmentation IP Protocol

Connectionless Services Routing Algorithms Congestion Control Fragmentation IP Protocol

New routing table for J

Vectors received from J's four neighbors (a)

Connectionless Services Routing Algorithms Congestion Control Fragmentation IP Protocol

Initially After 1 exchange After 2 exchanges After 3 exchanges 4 After 4 exchanges

Connectionless Services Routing Algorithms Congestion Control Fragmentation IP Protocol

Link State Routing

Connectionless Services Routing Algorithms Congestion Control Fragmentation IP Protocol

Link State Routing

Connectionless Services Routing Algorithms Congestion Control Fragmentation IP Protocol

Connectionless Services Routing Algorithms Congestion Control Fragmentation IP Protocol

Load or Delay (or both?)

Connectionless Services Routing Algorithms Congestion Control Fragmentation IP Protocol

Sequence Number and Age

Link B Seq. Age A 4 C 2 F 6

State C Seq. Age B 2 D 3 E 1 (b) D Seq. Age C 3 F 7

Packets E Seq. Age A 5 C 1 F 8

Connectionless Services Routing Algorithms Congestion Control Fragmentation IP Protocol

Distributing Link State Packets

Connectionless Services Routing Algorithms Congestion Control Fragmentation IP Protocol

Send flags Source A F E C D Seq. 21 21 21 20 21 Age 60 60 59 60 59 A 0 1 0 1 1 C 1 1 1 0 0 F 1 0 0 1 0

ACK flags A 1 0 1 0 0 C 0 0 0 1 1 F 0 1 1 0 1 Data

Connectionless Services Routing Algorithms Congestion Control Fragmentation IP Protocol

Link B Seq. Age A 4 C 2 F 6

State C Seq. Age B 2 D 3 E 1 (b) D Seq. Age C 3 F 7

Packets E Seq. Age A 5 C 1 F 8

Send flags Source A F E C D Seq. 21 21 21 20 21 Age 60 60 59 60 59 A 0 1 0 1 1 C 1 1 1 0 0 F 1 0 0 1 0

ACK flags A 1 0 1 0 0 C 0 0 0 1 1 F 0 1 1 0 1 Data

Connectionless Services Routing Algorithms Congestion Control Fragmentation IP Protocol

Connectionless Services Routing Algorithms Congestion Control Fragmentation IP Protocol

Connectionless Services Routing Algorithms Congestion Control Fragmentation IP Protocol

Reasons for congestion

Connectionless Services Routing Algorithms Congestion Control Fragmentation IP Protocol

Open loop control

Connectionless Services Routing Algorithms Congestion Control Fragmentation IP Protocol