EQf

5. EQf
#
j
TL
Enzhia
tFF bfhL
tjh. mt xU
E eGt, kW
xU btW eGtij
e g f l
fhjh.

E eGtij TL
Enzh
itjh.
j
egfis
cW
nehf brjh

cdf ms ntWgL
fhzgLdwd. xU Fl
msyhd
df
ekJ
ffSF
bjtiy.
J
nghw cdfis TL E
nzh cjl
kLnk
ghf Ko. tif cdfis
EQf vW miHnwh.

TL Enzh

# : EeGt
bjwjh?

mtiw ikuh kW
ikuh
Ma
myFfsh
msfyh.

vLJfhL itu, ghOah,

ghf, irf, nuhnlhnrhth
rhj
Mgh,
VjhtJ bjhFfis
shnkhoa

y : M, E eGt mgh
bjwJ.
# : W EQf Fj
jftfis oUnj iza
js _y mJ bfhsyh.
mtf UtU izajs
EQ f ga tufis
nrff bjhld.

5.1. itu
itu
vw thij y
bkhUJ vLfglJ. mj
bghU eR vgjhF. ituf
fa, vikahd EQ
MF. itufis Fj ma
ituhy
vwiHfgLwJ.
ituf,
cUsit
kW
cuw itf
gfis

ca

EQf

ghOah

itu

itu ca
tYef V?

irf

ghf

nuhnlhnrhth

itui[ KjKj uZahit

rhj jhtua mP Itndh
1892 M ML fLojh.
Itndh
60

bfhLsd. Mfnt, mit cuw,

cUst
viy
nfhL
vdgL. ituf vj cia
jh mjD jid bgU
bfhwnjh mJ Unjh br
vwiHfgLwJ.
Unjh
brF btna mit cUs
gfis btgLJtiy.

bra 5.1
cf mkh gh js jiu
CWthf myth? mLj eh
bkhj ghY juhf khUF.
fhuz TWf

ghOah xU bryh Md xU
EQ MF. mit EQ
Unjh
mogil bjhFia rhjJ. ghOahit
ma
ghOahy
itufis IJ tifahf tif Fj
vwiHfgLwJ.
ghOahit
gLjyh.
1675M ML lR ma
ghOah
mPuhd Ml th YthA&
vgt TL Enzh
ghOnahng{
_ykhf fljh. mj wF
ghoa, uhg nfh kW
ignlhng{
ignfhng{
yh l ghOafis g
(jhtu ituf)
(gh ituf)
thf fljd.
itu
Nng{

iknfhng{

(yF ituf)

(ir ituf)

Ml th thfh

ifiy bkhir itu qarh itu

ghOah
cl
mikig
vyuh Enzh _y mJ
bfhsyh.
ghOah
br
nuhnfnaho br MF. jF
iwghd brRt cL. brRtuh
dJ ghOahF ghJfh kW
mondh itu
T4 ghOnahng{
iyahd totij bfhLwJ.
brRtUF
cs
cUs
yhnlh ghy vw ghOah bghU nuhnlhshr vwiHf
ghiy juhf khWwJ. nghJ gLwJ.
nuhnlhshrkhdJ
eh ghOahit FJ ghl brr, a bghUf
gongh.
kW irnlhshr vW f
61

myF

EQf

EQf

firiHf
ig
brRt
irnlhshr
brr
th
a bghUf

ghOah br

gLwJ. wrila br gF
bghUfshd
nfhif
cWf
iknlhfhoah, vnlhsh
tiyd, iynrhnrh nghwit
fhzgLt
iy.
ghOnah
Fnshnuh
wf
irnlhshr fhzgLwd.
a bghU f tltoyhd
o.v.V MF. J cfU ciwah
NHgliy. nghw Jiz
cWfshd
firiHf
fhzgLwd.
it
lbgaF cjwd. f
bkajhf,
Konghw
mik
bfhljhf UF mikfSF
igyf vW bga. it iz
cWghf bragLwd.

ghOahfis ikuh
myfh msfyh.
1 ikuh = 1/1000 l

ghOah totij itJ

mtiw
ehF
tiffshf
fyh.
1. fhf (cUis tot)
2. n
gy (F tot)
3. igy (RU tot)
4. nah (fh tot)
firiHf
vif,
mogil
mik
Kiw
ghOafis tUkhW tif
gLjyh.

ca

1 fhf(cUis tot)
2 ngy(F tot)

3 igy
(RUtot)

vw

4 nah
( fh tot)

62

1. xiw firiH tif: xU

Kid xnu xU firiH kL
bfhl ghOa
2. UKid firiH tif: U
KidfY
firiHfis
bfhl ghOa
3. Mf: firiHfswit
4. x U f i w f i r i H t i f :
fiwahd
firiHf
xU
Kid kL fhzgL
5. bgiuf firiH tif: it
briy
R
firiHf
bfhl ghOaf MF.
ghf
firiH
nk Kid
brRt
irnlhshr

nkgF
xU
n#ho
firiHf fhzgLwd. mit
l bgaF gagLwd.
firiHF nH xU btl F
fhzgLwJ. ghit fJf
thFnth
nkw
xU
Kid fhzgLwd. ghf
mt fhz gL tzwf
mogil
ehF
tiffshf
tifgLjgLsd. ghfis
Fj ma igfhy vW
miHfgLwJ. ij FJ
Kija ghl goUf.
irf
rfiufiur,
MfAhyhf
khwkilJ fhg ilMiril
btLwJ. fF beh
j vW bga. behjYF
rfiu fiur xUj thrid

bra 5.2

a
gira

xU fzho FLitia vLJ

bfhs. m Kfh gF
Cw. m uL njfuo
rfiuianghl. js
< gliulr nrJbfhs.
miwbtgiy 4 Kj 5 k neu
itf. mj fiuriy KfJ
ghf.

shnlhnkhdh

shnlhnkhdh vgd va
xU bryh Md gir w ghf
MF. it cUis tonyh, Kil
tonyh
fhzgL.
nuhnlh
shrij R brYnyh[hyhd
brRt fhzgLwJ. brRt
bgo ciwfsh NHgLsJ.
bga z toyhd gira
fhz
gLwJ.
giraD
igdhL kW lh Mait
fhzgLwd. shnlh nkhdh

isnfh#
iknlhfhoah
bfhG tiyf
brRt
thFnth
a
irnlhshr

< br

VgLwJ. x kW fUg
rhUJ jahfgL MfAh
nghwit behj Kiw <
vD
ir
idah
jahfgLwJ.
63

myF

EQf

EQf

xU buho Jil <ukhd l

itf. xU ehf vd
wkhw fwJ. fhuz vd?
bghuha
bghuha fh
ntf

buho nk fWghf, iH
nghw xU gly fhzgL. mjF
iAghf vW bga. buho
fhsh clyij ika vW
miHnwh.
buho
fhsh
tstnj buho w khwF
fhuzkhF.

nuhnlhnrhth
nuhnlhnrhthf xU br
ir
c MF. c braf midij
br cSWf brwd.
buho JL
it uL tifahd thif
Kiwia bgWsd. mit jJ
buho fhsh
thgit kW xLahf th
< xU bryhyhd rhW git. jJ thG cdf
tif ir MF. j e kW c thwd.
a thFnth xU _iy
xLahf thgit. mf
fhzgL.
irnlh
shr
vnlhsh tiy d, iungh x L a h f n t h m y J w
nrhf, iknlh fhoahf xLahfnth thwd. mit
nghw
EcWf
fhz nehfis bfhLwd.
gLwd.
5.2. kUJt, trha,

ca

irf
gira
fhz
gLtiy. Mfnt, mit jhkhfnt
czit jahf ayhJ. irf
Fj ma ikfhy vW
miHfgLwJ. Mfnt, mit
rhWfshfnth, xLfsh
fnth jf thifia elJwd.
vlgh lhofh -mah

ujng
shnkhoa itth
knyah
shnkhoa -ghnghu
odnrhnkh nfa - Mfh

cwf neh

bjhrhiy kW mwhl
th EQf
gtif gaf

cf cl xU btLfha Vglh
kUJtl mQ, fhaF kUL
f myth? mt cf cl btg
iyia gnrhJ FJ bfhth
myth? cfSF fhr Ujh
kUJt y v kUJfis bfhLgh
myth?

a
brr

1928 M ML l ehil
rhj
mby[hl
bs
kUJt cyif af brj mra
kUjhd bgid fLojh.

irnlh
shr

vlgh lhofh

64

bjhrhiyf v c
bghU f, fg, buho, uhir
ur, kW gy bghUf
jahgjF EQf gagL
wd. mit ktsij mf
f gagLwd.
vcf vwh vd?
EQfis jh mF
vcf EQflUnj
bjLfgLwd.
mit
vcf vwiHfgLwd.
ghOah
kW
irf
vcf
kW
nehjL
kUJf jahf gagLwd.
EQf bga

gh
Oah

blnuhik
nua,
ngy
ro

cf
RW
w
wj
jhtuf, yFfis ftU
fsh? mt cl VnjD
khwf fwjh? Jthrid
btLwdth? V?

ntshik
ntshik vgJ cz g
rhFgo ga ma MF.
ntshik ktsij bghWjJ.
EQfshd ghOah, ir
f, Mfhf ktsij nk
gLJwd. ieu# Kakhd
jhtu Cl bghU MF.

vkUJ

blnuh
ik
ghuh

bga behnll

bga
behnll
irf
bg
bg
iunrhd

ghOahf wj jhtu kW
yFf cl cs fyhd
ujfis mnkhah, ienuLf
kW ieiuLfssf khWwd.
ghOahf fhg, M#,
ieu#, rg nghw jkf
RHf Ka gF twJ.
ghOahf ca Juths
fshf bragLwd. mit fk
nrkfis M#ndw br
nghJ fhg _yTWf, fay
ththf khw miltjh Jehw
VgLwJ.
fhQ ghOahf k
tsij bgUFt bgUgF
twd.

bg

isy
65

myF

EQf

EQf

mnkhahit
ghOahf
unkh[

iyWJ
bunlhfhf yho yho
v.fh. ghy my ghOah ghiy juhf
khWwJ. mrnlhghl mbro
ghOah
behj
ieig ghOah - v.fh. vw
brayh f jahf gLwJ.
ienuhghl, ienuhnrhnkhdh.
ieu#id iyWJ ghOah
v.fh mrnlhghl, shooa,
iunrha (ntKL ghOah)
ygir ghfshd Mynlhah,
mddh kW ehlh nghwit
thklyYs
ieu#id
k iyW ktsij
bgUFwd.
nt

Mrh my, mbgy

ief vw ir behj
brayh jahfgLwJ. <,
itl B
bjhF kW
iunghns Mat wj
_yfshf bragLwJ. fhsh
f czthf ga gLwd. v.fh
mfhf, nkhbryh

KL

ntKL

bjhrhiy kW mwhl th
EQf gF

Fnshbuyh kW igdh
Mait wj xUbr uj Cl
bghUfshf bragLwd.

eh gUF fh kW njUF
vthW Rit ilwJ vgij
bjJbfh.

ca

il MfAh, ij
MfAh Mad behj _y
rfiu ghUJ shooa
mrnlh
of
vw
ghOah cjah bgUks
jahfgLwJ. m my,
u MfhUJ ilwJ.

njiy,
ifiy,
fh
bfhilf
kW
nfhnfh
Matiw behj _y ghy
bkfha ghOah eWkzij
bfhLwJ. jF gjgLJj
vW bga.
f xU cz gjgLahF.
CWfh bfL nghfhUf f
cjwJ. f vthW ilwJ.

jfhy,
EQf
bjhrhiy Jiw bgUgfh
wJ. vLJfhlhf yho my
ghOah.
66

iga

MDy
il
ntf
cz jFj fhsh

5.3 F isF
EQf
EQf
jhtufis
cz tiffis jhFwd.
EQf czbghUfis
bfLnghf
brtjh
cz
erhj VgLwJ. jhtuf kW
yFfis EQf jhF
tjh mj rij iy FiwwJ.
ghOah,
irf
kW
itufsh
VgL
Ffis
tU mltiz fhngh.

t.
EQf
v
1

ghOah

zz gHf, fhff, f,
iw,
gh
nghwit
ukhf
bfLnghF
czfshF.
zz nfhJik, m, nrhs, gW
tiff, rfiu nghwit
lfhy bflhUgnj?
bfLnghd
czit
rhl Kotiy. mjfhd
fhuzf ahit?

F bga

neh

rhnjhnkhdh

u nff

Nnlhnkhdh
brhyudhahu

neh - cUisHF
ghOa is -be

rhnjhnkhdh xiunr
2

irf

brnfhnghuh bgrndlh

ofh neh -ntfliy

brnfhnghuh muhonfhyh ghOah btneh- be

igFnyhah xiurh
3

itu

cbfhJ itu

thiH cbfhJ neh

ifiy gy tz itu

ifiy gy tz neh

bts gy tz itu

bts gy tzneh

jhtu nehf

u nff

bt neh- be

67

bts -g tz neh

myF

EQf

EQf

EQf kjfis jh gyjkhd nehf Vgl fhuzkhf Uwd.

kjeyF rthyhf Uwd. nehaw thnt Fiwtw brt. Mdh
eh W, v fhr vd gyjkhd nehfis FJ nf gLnwh.
eh vgo nehah jhfgLnwh?

ituf, ghOahf, irf

nuhnlhnrhthf
kW
y
Gf, cdfSF gyjkhd
nehfis njhWwd.

kbwhUtl gu cfis
nehguf vW miHnwh.
y Ff neuoahf njh
_ykhf guwd. vLJfhlhf
ir nghf _ykhf njk,
gil nghw nehf VgLwd.
ghOahthdJ
njh
cs
fhaf _ykhf FJ fij
VgLJwJ.

neh
jhFtjF
Kj
Ff clD brwd.
neh jhF Ff njh _
ykhfnth, _ thyhf Rthr
kly _ykhfnth th
gy EQf eh _ykh
tahfnth, cz klynyh
fnth th _ykhfnth brW
brW nehfis clhFwd.
Rthrklyij ghgila br
kj cl neh gu Ff wd. itufsh VgL r
nehia clhF j gythW kW Sbarh nghwit
csd. nehid xUtlUJ jF vLJfhLfshF.

bjhW nehf midJ F isgit. it xU kjlUJ

kbwhUtUF
neuoahfnth, kiwKfkhfnth bjh bfhwd.
fl mltizUJ Ffsh kjDF VgL nehfis
ghnghkh?
F

ca

itu

nehf

gu _yf

rhjhuz r,
nghnah(sis
thj), kr fhkhiy,
Sbarh,
v

fhW, kW neuo bjhl

fhyuh, ilghL
blld
vfhr

mRjkhd
fhaf
yFf W Fghf (m, v)

irf

bjhGneh
ghj jo neh

neuo bjhl(fl)
nghf y kW j _y

xU br cf

knyah

nehgu v.fh.bfhRf

ghOah

68

gha bjhl

myF

EQf

bra 5.3
kjfSF itufsh VgL nehfshd ir nehf, ghOah
nehf kW xU br c nehf ga glfis nrff.

nkhah

vYU

fhyuh

jng

oah

F isF EQf

F isF EQf
l czbghUf kW ut
cz ghdf _y cz
FHhia brwilJ gy ikfis
brwd. czthdJ gy tf
bfLnghwJ. rahd Kiw
czit nrJ ghJfhfiy
bawh, ghOahf czit
jhFwd. mit fhyuh, ilghL
nghwnehfVglfhuzkhwd.
nuhnlhnrhthf jngia V
gLJwd. it ghJfhfglhj
cz kW dh kjDF
nehfis VgLJwd.

nehia clhF EQf

ntidah jisghu
itfgl nkhuhdJ bfLL.
lh cs rfiuia behf
_y miw btgiy ida
brtjh czthdJ bfLngh
LwJ.

5.4. czit gjgLJt

EQf gF

czit gjgLJj vgJ

v mGF jiks cz
bghUfis mt cs Cl
rJf Fiwahk l fhy
ghJfhghd
iy
Uf
F isF EQf
brjny MF. mthW brah
eh , gh kW gybghUfis lh cz ju, czl
kW cQ jik FiwwJ.
Frhjdbgo itgnj?
69

EQf

EQf czit v jh
L mgha Riy csJ.
lghfLj, ghgjLj, F
%Lj, iu btnaWj, gjgL
fis gagLJj, btggLJj,
bfhfitj, cyJj ngh
wit EQfis fLgLJ
t Kiwf MF.
oLj kW lghfLj
rahd lghfis nj brJ
mt cs Ufis Rj
bra ntL. cz gjgL
fshd, f, nrhoa bgnrhna,
vbz, my nghwtiw
myJ nghwt VnjD xU
gjgLa czl nrJ fhW
fh tz milJ Kiu
lntL.

gh gjLj vgJ ghiy

ghJfhF Kiwf xwhF.
ghiy 72 bronuL btgiy
30
lfSF
btggLl
cldoahf
120
bronuLF
Ff ntL. mthW br
nghJ EQf mfgL,
beigf milfgLwJ.
j braKiw
gh Rit
kW ju nghwtiw l neu
ghJfhf ttFwJ.
, iw kW fhffis
cL
Na
x
fha
itgnj?
mfWj: fLgLjgl NH
, iw kW fhff
cL Na x fhaitjh
<ujik mfwgL EQf
tstJ jfgLwJ.

5.5. kjDF
EQfSF
ilnas bjhl

ca

rkiy, rkiyik kW gaf

cy cs midJ bghUfS
grjfsh Mdit. mit y,
, beU, fhW kW Mfha.

Mgh
ghbfLf
milJ itfgl nghY
bfLnghtiy. V?
ghiy
gjgLJtjh
gh
bflhk ghJfhghf csJ. gh
gjgLJj vwh vd?

kj th ma ts
xU nru ts milJ bfhnl
tUwJ.
Kija
fhyf
kj bga FGf thjJ
mf
gaDsjhf
UjJ.
vflUJ jik jfhJ
bfhs, izJ bragl
bjhla kj Fy W gy
uidfis
vnehsJ.
m Kjyhtjhf nehf, kf
bjhif bgUf kW Niy
khRgLj Mad mlF.
70

iwa NH eh gy nehjL
kW kUJt nritfis bgU
jhY fhy flJ lJ. Vbdwh,
Kdjhfnt eh gy nehfSl
thJ bfhLnsh. mjdh
ghJfh Kiwf, wj kUJt
nritf kW r_f ca
nfhghLf mta khwd.
r_f ca

wid
bgwjh
Fnsh
thfdkhf bragL ku bghU
_ykhf kUJt ga
gLwJ. njitahd R ,
nghwtiw bgWtjF
ghOfa Unjhfshd .nfh
ngy, ro kW bunlh
ik nghwit mKfgLj
gLsd.

ituf
ca
M
r_f ca vgJ kj
fUahf
gagLwJ.
Vbd
vthW jhtuf, yFf, kw
kjfnshL vgo thh, mj va clyik kW cldo
it
xbthiw
vthW dbgUfKkhF.
ghJfhwh
vgij
g
ghOahf uil s
mtjhF.
Kiw j dij bgU
kj EQfis ga bfhwd. cz bghUfis
mit JbfhS w gh mila brtnjhL kL
fis mf tsJ bfhljh kyhJ, ghiy juhFtY
trhaJiw, kts, kUJt gagLwd.
Jiw, bjhJiw kW ku
iz
Kiw
tskhd
bgha gadilJsh.
fhuia bfhL tH br
ca fLghoF EQ shLf iz Kiw _y
f gagLwJ. vthW?
uoghj eilbgWwJ. irf
ngy J nghw y
ngy
tif
ghOahf
tzJ kW mijrhj
df Git mwd.
UD
ghOah
kw
jhtufisnah
yFfisnah
jhfhk,
gfis
jhF
fis
fLgLJwd.
jifa fLgLJ KiwF
ca fLghL vW bga.
ku bgha EQf gF
ituf, jhtufSF F
br dfis mwJ.
neh jL kUJf cUthfY
ituf gagLwd.
y ituf gaDsit Tl.
mit ku jftiy xU brUJ
kbwhU brYF vLJ brY
71

uils

myF

EQf

EQf

bra 5.4

ms
FiwwJ.
jdh

Niy cdf KGtJkhf

mfgLwd.
fF
nuhnfr vW bga.

uL fzho FLitia
vLJbfhL A kW B
vd FJbfhs. fhf
f kW cz ffis
FLitA- nghL _ol.
sho JLf kW cnyhf
JLfis FLit B- nghL
_o l. vd fwJ vd
ftdKl cWnehF.
nghf _ykhf j dij
bgU
bfhwd.
nkY,
iz KiwY y irf
dbgUf brwd.
rhW ghOahf kW
irf wj jhtu yF
clyfis ijwd. mit
thf kW cfis t
klyY
kY
bt
Lwd. Mfnt, ghOah kW
irfis aif Juthsf
vW miHnwh. ghOahfshd
iunrha, mrnlhngl, sho
oa Mad thklyYs
ieu#id
ienulhf
iy
gLJwd.
jF
ieu#
iygLJj vW bga.

gtsghiwf
wJLtjh
iHF ghOahf cUth
wd.
kUJtkid mWit
ir muff
Rjkhd
Niy yho iHF
ghOahf
bgUfkilwd.
mWit ir ff, kUJt
kid ff kiHnrflkhd
iyf, V, Fs kW
MWgLiff bfhlgLtjh
bjhWneh
cf
bgUf
fhuzkhwJ.
neha vgJ jhtu, yFf
kW kjfl EQfsh
VgL nehfis mj fhuz
fis g m ma
MF.

ca

EQfnshL
izJ
kj j kahd, wghd
thF trhaY bjh
rhiyY Mnuhakhd khwij
bfhL tuntL. eh aif
nahL eg fshf Ujh vfhy
thW EQf fhg, xka khdjhf mik vgJ
ieu# kW fk RHF z.
gfhWwd.
cnfhs fhzgL nt
bghUf RH mjhtJ cd
fSF RW NHYF ilna
eilbgW RHna c- RH
vdgL.
Mfh ky
y
Niyf
ky
VgLwJ. Mfhf mlahf
tsU iy ky vdgL.
t tsah M#
72

Mfh ky

jisghu
nkhiu
itjh bfLL. V?
xU
ehSF
nk
lh
mfKs cz bghUfis
miw
btgiy itjh
bfLL. V?

kjf njitia
bra
Toa
msF
midJ
tsfS
csd.
Mdh kj nguhiria
bra my.
kfhkh fh

bjhl bra
xU FLgfhf fhiy czF uL buhof thfgld, thal
xiw Frhjdbgo itJL kbwh ghia rhLL
ghia Frhjdbgo itjd. mtf gJ ehf bt brWL
Uad. Frhjdbgo cs buhofis ghj nghJ x
irf tsUgij kbwh tsuhk Ugij fld. vj
buho yhk UUF? V? fhuzfis Muhf.

kL
1.

rahd ilia njbjLJ vGJf.

m) kyah Niy bjhF KGtJkhf mfgLwJ.

fF ----- vdgL. (nuhnfr / gh gjLj)
M)

fl EQf vit jngia cUthF ------ (vlgh

lhofh / shnkhoa itth / shnkhoa ghnghu)

ghiy 72O bronuL btgiy 30 lfSF btggL

cldoahf 12O bronuLF Ff ntL. mthW brnghJ
EQf mfgLwJ, ghJfhfgLwJ. j Kiw bga
vd?

( btnaWj / gh gjLj )

<)

ntKL ghoah ieu#id k iyeho ktsij

bgUFwJ. j bga vd?
(mrnlhghl / iunrha / shoa)

2.

cdf cUt gjik bgWsd. xU Fl

msyhd df ekJ ffSF bjtiy. mtiw
TL Enzh _ynk ghfKo. y cdfis TL
Enzh _ynk ghfKotjh mtiw vtifahd mydh
msf?

3.

irf gira fhzgLtiy. mjdh xnrif

bra ayhJ. vdnt, mit cUs kW cuw bghUfisna
rhJsd. irf Utif czlij bgaLf.

73

myF

EQf

EQf

4.

bjhWnehf midJ F isgit. it xU kjlUJ

kbwhUtUF neuoahfnth / kiwKfkhfnth
bjh bfhwd. fhzgL nehf
gu fhuzkh _yfis vGJf.

5.
6.

m) fhyuh, ilghL

M) knyah

glYs
ghOah
dbgUf
vtifia rhjJ.
rfiu
fiur,
MfAh
kW
fhgilMirlhf khw milwJ. fF behj vW
bga. vtifahd EQ jifa fF fhuz.

7. m) fhQ EQ mikid ghJ mj bgaiu vGj.

ca

M. ghOah gl tiuJ fl ghffis Ff.

m) fir iH
M) igyf
) brRt

<) irnlhshr

v) wr

8.

iwa cy gy bjhrhiyf EQf braghLfis

rhJsd. vLJfhlhf Mrh my. mbgy ief
vw ir behj brayh jahfgLwJ. ijngh
ghOahit gagL jahF bghUf uoid TWf.
mtiw jahf cj ghOah bgaid FLf.

9.

trhf isyf kW njhlfis ghOah, irf

kW ituf bgUks jh iHgjh gfSF nehf
VgLwd VnjD xU ghOah, ir kW itu nehfis
vGJf.

nkY ma
f 
Biology Oxford A modern introduction,


B.S. Beckett -Oxford university press second Edition.

Biology- Wallace, Sanders and Ferl
Harper collins college publishers.
izajs
www. en.wikipedia.org/wiki/micro organism.
74

cdf gjik

6. cdf gjik

ca

eik R fhzgL jhtu

fis, yFfis ghFnghJ
mitf xnu khahd tot
id, msid bgWsdth?
iy. mitf msthY totjh
Y mikghY khWgLsd.

va
br
fzho
eGtid Enzh _y
cW neh, MuhJ mf.

e cyfkhdJ gntWjkhd
cdfsh usJ. yF
f fa xU bryhyhd mgh
Kj bga fy tiu msthY,
mikghY khWgLsd. mit
f
clyhdJ
thGlF
kj thF Rt brf
VwthW cthHToa jftik
fis bgWsd.
msthY totjhY ntWgLsd.
y brf L mt U
6.1. br-cdf
KidfS Tikahf fhzgL.
mogil myF
br vgJ cdf bra y brf iHf tot
kW mik mogil myfhF. csd. eu bryhdJ (uh)
briy 1665-M ML uhg isfis bgW fhzgLwJ.
tU
mltiz
_y
A] fljh.
gntWgl
totfisila
1838M ML n#f l
brfis g fhzyh.
kW nahl th Mnah
v.fh.
izJ br bfhif xiw cU
thdhf.
mfUJf
brf
tot
tUkhW :
eu br
eru
1. midJ cdfS br
Rl br
FH
fsh cUthfglit.
Ru br
fdrJu
2. midJ brfS Kija
brf Unj cUthwd.
jL va
gnfhz

6.1.1. gF Vw kj br
tiff

va

cUis

ml br

Kil

bghJthf brf tlkhfnth,

nfhs
totkhfnth
myJ
skhfnth fhzgL. mogil
kj brf mt gnfg

uj brf

tl

76

jir brf, eh br tot

gnfg kjbrf gy
tiff fhzgLwd. y kj
brfS, mt gfis nH
bfhLfgLs
mltiz
fhngh.
mil
gntW
brf
gl tiuJ ghffis FJ,
tFgiw bjhfL.
brf
jL va
jir brf

gf
tot kW
ghJfh
RU j

bfhG
brf
eu brf

bfhGfis
nrf
eu liy
flj

vY brf

cW kW
cliy jhf
ghit kW
wij czu
x miyfis
cztjF

T kW
F brf
br cs
eijTL
brf
Ru br

Ruj

vY br
uj
brf
tHtHghd
jir br

eu br

jQ
bfhG
br
Kil
kj cl cs ntWgl brf

6.2. br EQWf mik

kW braghLf
br irnlhshr gu
fhzgL cUs bghUfSF
brEQWf vW bga.
it
cl
ts
kW
njitF Vg, br j _y
bgUfkilwd.

6.2.1. br EQWfS
mitf gfS
1. vnlhsh tiyd
(mfshr tiyd)
2. iunghnrh
3. nfhif cWf
4. iynrhnrh
5. iknlhfhah
6. bronahf
1. vnlhsh tiyd
br irnlhshr fhz
gL tiyd kW ilbt
nahL Toa F mik F vnlh
sh tiyd vW bga.
1945- nghl jkJ dQ
Enzhdh briy Muh
nghJ jid fljh. jF
nghl 1952- vnlh sh
tiyd vW bgalh. J
cfU rUJ njhWtjhf
fUjgLwJ.
uL
tif
vnlhsh tiy fla
gLsJ.
mfshr
tiy
iunghnrhf xoUjh mJ
brhubrhughd
mfshrtiy
vW, iunghnrhf xlglhk
Ujh mJ tHtHghd mfshr
tiy vW miHfgLwJ.
77

6
myF

cdf gjik

cdf gjik

iunghnrh

tHtHghd vnlhsh
brhubrhughdvnlhsh
tiyd vnlhsh tiyd tiyd

gf

ca

bjh nghW fhzgL. itf

vbfyh fhzgLwnjh mbf
1. vnlhsh tiyd
yh uj nrif eilbgWwJ.
yhdJ brfSF xU rlf
nghW mikJ cUtid
bfhLwJ.
2009- ML _W ma
2. tHtHghd tiyaik bfhG mPf iunghnrh nta
id cg bra, is mikid
MuhJ
2009-
nfh#id cilf gagL Mo ntaYfhd nehg
wJ.
gid bgwd. Fghf
3. J brjnghJ kiwJ b t f u h k u h k U Z z
ngh xbthU cfU sF ah wj, mbkfh th
wF a cfU ciwia Ph Mth. kwtf, jhk
bl (mbkfh) kW mlha
njhWwJ.
(nu).
2. iunghnrh
vnlhsh tiyd
xoUF a nfhs tot
Jff nghw mik iunghnrh
MF.
nkY
Jnt
Jff
iwj
myJ
brhubrhughd
vnlhsh
tiydyhf
mikwJ. J irnlhshr
jahf fhzgL. itf
cfU kUJ njhWwd.
xbthU iunghnrhK a, bga
vw uL myFfis bgWsd.
a myfhdJ bga myF

3. nfhif cWf
vyuh Enzh briy
Muhif nfhif cWf
_W jkhd rtikfis
bfhoUjd. mitf

78

1. jL totkhd,
igf( lnd)
2. a EFHf
3. bga EFf

jilahd

gf

iknlhfhoah MF. it
1. behfis bfhl irnkh#, ujjh Md uil rth
Jf nghw RuF FHfis NHgLsd. bt rthdJ xU
ig nghW fhzgL. crthdJ
cUthF.
u nghw ia cwkhf
2. tsU CirLf y kr cUthFwJ. jF nl vW
fUit cUthFwd.
bga.
3. iu w br
fis cUthf cjwd.
nl

4. jQ cs mnuhnrhik
cUthf cjwd.
4. iynrhnrh
iynrhnrh br cs f
bghUfis btnaW xU tif
mikghF.
it
mlahd
bghUfis bfhl cUil
totkhdit.
iynrhnrhf,
nfhif cWUnjh myJ
neuoahf mfshr tiyUnjh
njhWwd.
gf
1. br cns tU ma
bghUfis br wj
gFfis ijJ bt
naw cjwJ.

btr

cr

ilpL
bghU

iknlhfhoah cmik

g
itf br Rthr bgU
gF tJ ria cUthF
ikafshf Ugjh, jF r
iyaf vW bga. it br
RthrnghJ Mwiy Vo
(mondhir iu ghng). vD
TLbghUshf
cUth,
nrJ tUwJ.

2. xU br ijtilnghJ
iynrh nrhf btoJ bt
tU. mt behf, ij
tilj br gFfis u
wJ. jh UF briy
jhnd
ugjh
iynrh
6. brnahf
nrhf jbfhiy igf
brnahfis g 1897M
vdgL.
ML bAif kW Yfbr
5. iknlhfhoah
vgtfsh sfglJ. it
bgUghyhd br irnlh yF brf cfUF mU
shr iH, tl myJ F Ea FH kW F to
tot bfhL fhzgL cW fhzgL.
79

6
myF

cdf gjik

cdf gjik

it br jnghJ fiH
ehfis Mu cWfis
cUth br jiy l
LwJ.

6.2.2. cfU

mLfgl iHfshd Fnuhkho

tiydf fhzgL.
J
br
jnghJ
jj
Fnuhnkhnrhfshhf
bjthf
bjwd.

cfU
shr
fhzgL
cfU br Ka Jiz
EQWghF. J tlkhfnth kbwhU ghf cfU kahF.
myJ tlkhfnth fhzgL. J br j nghJ bgjhf
kw
fhyf
ajhf
J ehF gFfis bfhlJ.
fhzgLwJ. cfUkia br
1. cfU gly
mikghs vW miHfgLwJ.
2. cfU shr
gf
3. Fnuhnko tiyd
1. J br eilbgW midJ
4. cfU k
tsij khwf kW
ghuga gfis fl
cfUid R btwkhf
fLgLJwJ.
fhzgL gly cfU gly
vdgL. gntW totkhd
E Jisf csd.

2.
cfU
glykhdJ
cfU
shrF irnlh shr
F ilna maf
gkhwF cjwJ.

cfU cns fhzgL

nuhnlhshr utF cfU
shr myJ cfUrhW
vW 6.3. Rf-cWfbga. ut xwJ xwhf
cW kly

gy br cf br j vD
fdh brf gklfhf
bgUfkilJ,
Fl
bra
brtjfhf khWghL milwd.
v.fh. jir brf RU j _y
mirkWafFcjwd.

ca

Fnuhnkho
tiyd

cfU
shr

6.3.1. Rf

cfU k
cfU gly

cfU Jis

cfU mik

njhw,
tot,
braf
xUF brf bjhF R
vdgL. yFf clyhdJ
gytif Rfsh MdJ. yF
Rf mt ntiy mo
80

yF R
va
R

flJ
R

iz
R

eu
R

jir R

uj
m. jL
M.
. fdrJu
<. FWiH
c. cz
C. Ru
v. dbgUf

bfhG
R

jhF R

m. FWbjY
M. vY
. tiy
izk R

m. t
jir
M. taw
jir
. ja
jir

gil gntW tifahf fhz cfU fhzgL. j Rf

fd cwK, clYF cs
gLwJ.
cWf glyY fhzgL.
j mogil IJ bga
tif fshf tifgLjgLsd.
ika cs jL
tot cfU

1. va R

J cWf wnjhY
cl
Ff
cwY
fhzgL.
R
brf
ilbt yhk f beUfkhf
mikUgJ Rnf ca
jil va R
gghF.
R
brf
RF nHs w Rfis
g
F glynjhL izJsd.
ghJfhj kW Eiupu cs
R
tot,
ntiy
fhW Eziwf thf
kW
mikUF
j
gkhwF cjwJ.
mogil tU 7 tiffshf
tifgLjgLsd.
M. va
m. jil va

R cs brf cau
J xU tir mikj khdJ cUis tot bfhlit.
jilahd brf bjhFghF. R brf mo Kil tot
brf k jL totkhd cfU csJ. WFl cw
81

6
myF

cdf gjik

cdf gjik

FWiH
cfU
cfU

va

FWiH va

Rt fhzgL R jF vLJ fhWFH myJ uah

fhlhF.
cw Rf csd.
g
g
t Rt behfis
ahf mirtj _y khR
Ruf, WFl brfgl Jff fgLwd.
czid cr gagLwJ.
c. cz va
. fdrJu va
R cs brf bjhL
JyF
tz
R brf fdrJuto czF
khWghL milJsd. J eh
FH cRt cs EfU
va brf fhzgLwJ.
2. flJ R
J
xU
ut
RthF.
fdrJu va
cz bghU, Rthr thf,
tkhdit. J Fl kW ehsyh fbghUf
nghwtiw
Ruf Rtf fhzgL R flJtjF Vw jftikid
jF vLJfhlhF.
bgWsJ. 55%
shkh,
45% uj brfS csd. uj
g
brf _W tifgL.
Ruj kW Wuf FHhf
kW cRj _y iu cr mitf
gagLwd.
1 uj
t mQf
(vnuhir)
<. FWiH va
2 uj
btis
mQf
J mik va
(nfhirLf)
brf nghW fhzgL. Mdh
3 uj jLf
cs brf
a nuhnlh shr fshd
(nuhnghirLf)
FWiHf
fhzgL.
J

ca

cfU

82

 i) uj t mQf (v
nuhir): J uj bgU
ks fhzgLwJ. xbthU
uj t mQf tl
totkhf Uw FJ
fhzgLwJ. jF cfU
iy. J nkhFnsh vw
Rthr wia bgWsJ. J
vY k{i# cUthwJ.
j Mfhy 100 Kj 120
ehfshF. J Eiupu UJ
M#id
cl
vyh
ghffSF vLJbrwJ.

ntWgl va R fzho
eGtid
Enzh
MuhJ mjDila Ka g
fis milahs fhz.
m. bfhG R : J bfhGig
nrgjF
jFj
khWghL
bfhLsJ. t bril
bghUf iy. it njhYF
moY, cSWfSF il
Y fhzgL.

ii)  uj
btis
mQf
M. jhF R : cl KGtij
(nfhir) : J wfswJ jhFtjF gagLwJ. R
xGfw tot bfhlJkhd
_W tifgL. mit
cfUit bfhlJ. J vY
1 FWbjY R
k{i#Y, z RufY
cUthwJ. j Mfhy
2 vY R
uL myJ _W thukhF.
3 tiy izk R
it clYF neh v
jikia jUwJ.
nkY J i) FWbjY R : R cs
cl fht gilahf UJ
brf mfykhd ilbt
clYF cns tU
neh
bfhlit. nkY
l
clhF. neh Ufis mJ
ilpL bghUf csd.
cliy neh fUJ fhwJ.
uj, rfiu csJ. R
iii)  uj jLf : it uj
UJthdJ, J _Lf, fhJ
brf f ait.
e
kl, _F, _RFH kW Fu
cl fhaf VgLnghJ
uj ciwjYF cjwJ.
tis Mat fhzgLwJ.
3. iz R
ii) vY R : J e cliy jh
Rf cs brf xG
cUtij bfhLf Toa R
fw iyY, ilbtlD,
MF. J fha kW ghgu
nk vw ilpL bghU
TLbghUfsh MdJ. xU
fis
bfhLsJ.
j
vY kw vYfSl jir
nk be jik bfhl
Tkut MF. J fod
ehfsh izfgLsJ.
jikia bgWsJ. J uL
jirehf
jikila
tifgL. mit
kW Fiwj ms ilpL
bghUfis bfhlitahF.
m). bfhG R M). jhF R
83

6
myF

cdf gjik

cdf gjik

iii) tiy izk R : J js

ahd iz RthF.
J
njhYF, jirfSF il
Y, uj FHhfY, euf
kW vY k{i#fY R
fhzgL. J cWf c
mikig jhf, ijj R
fis gGJ ghf gagLwJ.

totkhfnth,
tl
totkhfnth
fhzgL. j br clyhdJ
irlh vdgL. irlh cs
nuhnlh
shr
n[
vdgL fUik ahd Jffis
bfhLsJ.
irlh
gy
isfshd
blluh
fis
bfhLsJ. J nkY isJ
bliuLfis cUthF. nkY
4. eu Rf
irlhUJ M[h vw th
eu RthdJ eu br vdgL nghw gF csJ.
uhf
kW
euehfsh
MdJ. bjhL cz w, flJ 5. jir Rf
w bgWsjh R w
jir Rf l brfsh
Rf UJ KY ntWglJ. Mdit. vdnt, jid jir ehf
_is, jLtl, euf midJ vnwh. it eKila cl
eu Rfsh MdJ.
afF gagLwJ. it
RUF ujjh Mdit. jir
Rf _W tifgL.

cfU

ca

cfU

bliu

M[h

tjir

uh

eu brf : J eu kly
mogil myfhF. j eu
kly btntW gFfSF
Vg j tot khWgL. J Kil

m) tjirf : it vYfSl
izUgjh
it
vY
jirf vdgL. xbthU jir
iHfS
l
gfF
izahd,
cUis
tot
khdit. t FWF tf
fhzgLtjh it tjirf
vW miHfgLwd. t

84

brRt
Xu
vzw
cfUf csd. it rhnfhykh
vD glyjh NHgLsd.
it e irF Vg bragLtjh
jF
aF
jir
vW
miHfgLwJ.

fUik
kW
bta
fyj
tfis bfhlit. jirf e
theh KGtJ RU wd.
j aF jirf ja jirf
vdgL.

M) taw jirf

uL myJ mjF nkgl

Rf xW nrJ X cWig
cUthFwd.
itf
xU
Fl
ntiyia
kLnk
brwd. v.fh. f vD cW
va R, iz R, eu R
kW jir R Ma Rfsh
MdJ. nkY y v.fh. fhJ, Eiupu.

cfU

taw jir

Rf brf izJ
jir jfLnghW fhzgL.
tf iy. vdnt jF taw
jirf vdgL. J czFH,
Wufig kW w cSWf
Rtf fhzgL. it e
irF Vg braglhjit. vdnt
it aF jirf vdgL.
) ja jirf: mik it
tjir
ehfis,
taw
jir ehfis xJsd. it
ja kLnk fhzgL.

6.3.2. cWf

nghJ ghit cWghd fiz

g thf fhngh.
ff (x cz)
f ekJ cl Ka yDW
MF. U ffS kilnaho
f Ff mikJsd.
fnfhs
MdJ.

_W

mLFfsh

1. bt mLF-bt gly
(uh)
2. eL mLF-aofUgly
3. c mLF-iu (buodh)

ja jirehf gy cfU
fis
bfhlit.
cfUf 1. btmLF (uh)
wnj cs btglykhdJ
br ika fhzgLwd.
f
KgFia
ju
kw gFf btik wkhf
fhzgLwJ. gly
cfU
K gF xia CLUt Toa
btglykhf kh fhzgLwJ.

ja jir

2. eL mLF-ao fUgly
cs uj FHhf
cs ujkhdJ brf mlj
wfis
bfhlJ.
ao
85

6
myF

cdf gjik

cdf gjik

fUglykhdJ K gF iy ajirfSl jir

a cWid, I vD x ehfsh bghUjgLsJ.
byRF
FWF mikid by btglyF
ilna cs utF K
miw ut vW bga.
J
bjthd
j
utkhF.
iuF

byRF
ilna
miw ut
cs utF

miw ut vW bga.
by
J mlahd utkhF.
f
ut
g
ghit

mikgY,
nfhs
totij f bjhlJ
itJ
bfhstY
cjwJ.

6.3.3. cW kly

ca

f FWF btL njhw

cl gntW cWf
br cUthFwJ.
IF
xwhf nrJ
bghJthd xU
eL fghit vw thu csJ. ntiyia kLnk brwd. Jnt
cW kly vdgL. Wuf
3. c mLF - iu
kly braghLfis g
c mL iu csJ. thf fhngh.
iuahdJ f czs ff kly
gFahF. cUis kW T
tsij khwdh cUthF
to x Vila U tif brf fbghUfis
ujUJ
csd. cUis brf gy j J
btnaW
ntiyia
xfis ghf gagLwJ. Mdh kly
brwJ.
cl
itf wid cztiy. UJ ieu# f bghUfis
j
Ka
T brf gy wfis ghf btnaWtJ
cjwd. iu cs gahF. ghof f f
~nghah myJ kr jhd kly X iz Wuff,
gF T brf mfkhf Wuf FHhf kW Wuf ig
csd.
csd. gF TJ ghf
gagLwJ. v.fh. goFnghJ, Wuf
cl KJFw KJbfY
C

nfhFnghJ.
F
mU tWF gF
iy ( by) MdJ

KgF
csJ. gfJF xwhf U Wuff
fhzgLwd. cl tygf
J x CLUtToa Uw
fu Ugjh tygf Wuf
FJ jikilajhF. rW w fhzgL. Wuf
86

btw FJ, cw FJ Wuf ntiyf

Wuf xU f cW
fhzgL.
FJ
fhzgL
kL
uj
eL
cgFF iAby vdgL.
iyjikia guhkwJ.
uj pH msit iy
WJwJ.
Wuf
jk
cl nrUw mfgoahd
Wuf
iu
btna
xGF
iu
bg
gLJwJ.
uLf
Wuf
FHh

bkLyh
w

6.4. cl rkiy fhj

fhr

Wuf btLnjhw

Wuf btL njhw

fUt w bfhl bt gF
fhbl MF. bta cgF
bkLyh vdgL. bkLyh
l T tot uLf nghw
mikf
fhzgL.
U
uLfSF ilYs gF
bg vdgL. bgF
il fhzgL z nghw
ilbtF fhr vdgL.
beuhf
Wuf fhbl kW
bkLyh gF gyhufz
Wuf EFHfsh Md beuh
f fhzgLwd. J Wuf
mogil myfhF.

shkUy
nrik
RUl FH
bA
tis
nrfF FH
beuh mik

cl rkiygLj vgJ cl
c Niyia khwhk it
UgjhF. J FJ 1957- ML
uh eho csa mP
shbgdh vgtuh KjKj
fUJ
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midJ
ghofY cl btgiyia,
bt
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wd.
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87

6
myF

cdf gjik

cdf gjik

6.5. br Rthr

ij khw vW bga. tsij

uL
iyf
Rthj vgJ fk _y khwkhdJ
TWfis M#ndw brJ eilbgWwJ.
nt Mwiy bgWjyhF. j 1. ts khw
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brfgl
cz
_y
(mondhir - iughnglhf)ia bgwgL va bghUf UJ
cUthFwJ.
brf brl bghUfis
br
eilbgwToa
j cUthbfhSnghJ eilbgW
c nta f br Rthr braf bjhF ts khw
vdgL. J uL tifgL. vdgL. bra eilbgWnghJ
mit
M#id
gagL Mw btgLtiy.
v.fh.
eilbgW RthrF fhW Rthr
(aerobic respiration) vW, M#
FSnfh isnfh# kW
yhj
iy
eilbgW rfiu
RthrF
fhyh
Rthr
mndh my behf,
(anaerobic respiration) vdgL.
Ahnkhf, kW ujf
bfhG my bfhyuh
fhW Rthr
kW OuhLf
M# gagLjgL
2. ij khw
fk _ybghUf ijfgl
cz _y bgwgL va
fhg-il-Mi[L kW U
fk
bghUf
ijfgL
ilwd.
brf cl braa braYF
fhyh Rthr myJ behj
njitahd Mwiy mgjF
F Rthj M# ga eilbgW braf bjhFF
gLjgLtiy.
vdnt jF ij khw vdgL.

ca

fhyh Rthr vdgL. nkY

J behj vW miHfgL.

v.fh.

FSnfh fhg-il- Mi[L,

kW btg Mw
gntWgl Ef j
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ujf mndh my
jkhd EQf fhyh
bfhG ruh, bfhG my
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thW ts khwK ij
_yTWfis
cUthFwd.
khwK kh kh eilbgWbghGJ
v.fh. ghOah, <L.
jh clbraa rkiyia
6.6. tsij khw
bgWwJ.
nuf bkh bklgh vwh
tsij khwkhdJ af,
khw vW bghU. cdf
cl eilbgW Mw btpL, ts, R khwf, gGJ ghj
maf
rkiyia
Mwiy
gagLJj,
Mw kW
gkhw Matiw csla guhkj MatF Ka
c nta fF ts fhuzkhf mikwJ.
88

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khw
fthdJ cl tot s
cdf gntW cWf
J cl mikid rhjJ
eilbgWwJ.
my. gja Fiu aifahfnt
f mHfhf totikfgLsJ.
6.7. b
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j cl fnghW, XLnghJ
cdf clyik
fhW jilia FiwF tzK
mikJsJ.
kW vLJfhL
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fSF Vg bghUjkhd mikig
bgWsJ.
eKila fhf Mug iy
VWtJ
nghw
mikid
bgUjJ. Mdh kW jftik
_y U fhfsh elf, XL
tifY
mikJsd.
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nghy xU br cf Kj gy
br cdf tiu mt
gja Fiu
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f J nghJ Fiwj
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msnt jilia czU tif
cl mikig bgWsJ. vdnt
y yFf lbgaj
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f mHfhf csJ. vLJfhlhf
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fGF, XL Wij itf
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nuhF (bfil xUtif)

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khd
thd gwgjF,
gwitf, f kW yFf
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Mait aFwd.
89

6
myF

cdf gjik

cdf gjik

khdf U aufS
brayhwToa braiy yFf
cs
wiff
brwd.
wiff nk neh, neh
mirgj _ykhf mirfhk
j iyY gwitf, f,
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afkhdJ eilbgWwJ.

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jf
czthd
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myFf myJ l
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cjwd.
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ca

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l
myFehiuahdJ
bga
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cs
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bra 6.4
ghiytdf cs jhtuf
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mit mj thlF Vw
mikid vthW bgWsd
vgjid ntWgL vGJ.

l myF ehiu

90

kL
1. bghUJf
m. vnlhsh tiyd
M. Ru va R
. iu
<. Wuf
c. f

-
-
-
-
-

ait
ftot
nghl
T brf
beuh

2. rahd ilia njbjL

m. isf cs jirehf _________ (ja/vY) jir.
M. vY kW fhony{ Mait _________ (eu/iz) RthF
. FWiH va R _________ fhzgL (Rthrghij / czFH)
3. rahd ilia njbjL
m. fUJ: gkhdJ kr jhd GwJ.
M. fhuz: xahd miw utdh x yf milwJ.
m. r
M. jtW
M. r
m . jtW
M. vgJ
m.- sf
m. vgJ
M.- sf
4. rahd gfis vG mltizia bra.
Rf

1) va
2) Ru va
3) FWiH va
5. m) m kW M milahs fhf.
M) m kW M -F ilna cs ntWghoid vGJ.

m
91

6
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cdf gjik

6. fl mltidia cW nehf.
m

t.v

nl, nk,

1.

nghnrh
eu R, jir R ,

2.

nfhif cW

tltiz m- 3 fiy brhf uL xJ kbwhW

jjik bgW csJ. jjik bghWsij M-
vGJ. kw xj uo bghJgfis - vGJ.
7. kj f gl tiuJ, nH bfhLfgLs gFfis Ff.
m. x CLUtToa btgly.
M. Tbrf mfkhf cs iu gF.

nkY ma
f

Biology - P.S. Verma and V.K. Agarwal - S. Chand and Company Ltd,

ca

Cell Biology N. Arumugam - Saras Publication

izajsf
www.users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/biology pages
www.eye designbook.com/chb/ajech6-ahtml

92