Articles

When do I use the articles a or an, the and some and when do I leave them out? NO ARTICLE No article is normally needed when we use uncountable and plural nouns to talk about things generally: A: What are your hobbies? B: I like listening to music, playing tennis and collecting stamps. THE We use the when it is clear which thing or person we are talking about: We saw a tiger and an elephant at the zoo, but the tiger was my favourite. (the one I mentioned a second ago) A/AN We use a or an when we dont specify which things or people we are talking about: Should I use a pencil (not a particular one) or a pen (not a particular one) to fill in this form? SOME, ANY OR NO ARTICLE Some and any can be used with uncountable or plural nouns when we do not know (or say) how many /much: I cant understand why my bank balance is so low. Im sure I paid some money into the account last week. (I cant remember how much) It sometimes makes no difference if we use some or any or no article: Ive bought (some) tomatoes (some) apples and (some) cream but I couldn't find (any) peaches. However, because some and any usually suggest uncertain quantities, it would sound strange to say the following: Shes really beautiful. Shes got some long blond hair (=Im not sure how much), a lovely smile and some beautiful teeth. (=Im not sure how many)

CONDITIONALS
SECOND CONDITIONAL What is meant by the 'first', 'second' and 'third' conditionals? This refers to a grammar structure used to talk about an unreal or unlikely situation. The grammar structure is: FIRST CONDITIONAL This refers to a grammar structure used to talk about the likely result of something happening or not happening. The grammar structure is: if-clause: 'if' + present tense (eats) main clause: will or won't If he takes these antibiotics, hell get better quickly. If he doesnt, he wont. Note! Certain other modal verbs (for example, might, but not would), can be used in the main clause. THIRD CONDITIONAL This refers to a grammar structure used to imagine the impossible. It is impossible because something happened in the past and cant be changed. The grammar structure is: If-clause: 'if' + past tense (ate) Main clause: 'would' or 'wouldn't' If my shares went up 500% Id sell them instantly. (but its unlikely that they will go up 500%) Note! Could and might can also be used in the main clause.

If-clause: 'if' + past perfect (had eaten) Main clause: would have + past participle (eaten) You would have passed your exam if you had studied harder. (but you didnt study hard and you didn't pass your exam) Note! Could have and might have can also be used in the main clause.

and/or less important. The as or since-clause often comes at the beginning of the sentence and is separated from the main clause by a comma: As my family had finished dinner when I got home, I went to this really good burger bar. ( Im telling you about the burger bar. Its not so important why I went there). Since its your birthday, Ill make you breakfast in bed (Im going

_______________________________________ CONJUNCTIONS
What are the differences in use between because, as and since, and though, although and even though? BECAUSE, AS AND SINCE

to make you breakfast. (I know, and you know, its your birthday) Note! In conversation, so is often used instead of since and as. The so-clause comes after the main clause. My family had finished dinner when I got home, so I went to this really good burger bar. THOUGH, ALTHOUGH AND EVEN THOUGH Though, although and even though are used to show a contrast between two clauses: Our new neighbours are quite nice (this is good) though their two dogs bark all day long. (this isnt good)

Because, as and since are used to answer the question: Why?. They join two clauses in the same sentence: Joe resigned because he wanted to spend more time with his family.

AND because, as and since show the relationship between the ideas in two clauses:

We can use though or although with no difference in meaning. But, some differences are: Though is more common than although in conversation or

A: Why did you resign from such a well-paid job, Joe? B: Because I wanted to spend more time with my family. Because is more common than as and since when the reason is the most important thing. The because-clause usually comes after the main clause: I went to Cyprus for a holiday last October because I knew it would be warm and sunny every day I was there.

writing. Though (but not although) can come at the end of a sentence: My new bike is really fast. I dont like the colour, though. Though (but not although) can be used as an adverb: Im not good at maths but I can help you with your geography, though, if you want. The meaning of though is similar to however, but though is much more common than however in conversation.

As and since are used when the reason is already well-known

Even though can be used to make the contrast between two clauses stronger:

Dad got back from work really late, even though he had promised to take mum to the cinema. ____________________________________________________________________

We use few and a few with plural nouns, and little and a little with uncountable nouns. Little and few carry negative ideas. A little and a few carry much more positive ideas and are similar in meaning to some:

DETERMINERS
What are the differences in use between much, many, a lot of, little, a little, few and a few? MUCH AND MANY Much is used with uncountable nouns and many is used with plural nouns. They are used mainly in questions and negative sentences: In my Spanish exam, I didnt have much time left for the third question. I dont have very many DVD discs.

He showed little interest in socialising (he wasnt very sociable) and few people came to his twenty-first birthday party. (some people came, but not enough to make a good party) He had a little money in the bank (not a lot of money but enough to travel) and a few friends in the travel business and was able to go on holiday every year. (not many friends but enough to give him discounts on flights etc) ___________________________________________________

-ING OR TO
When do I use the '-ing form' of a verb (sleeping) and when do I use the 'to-infinitive' to sleep?

A LOT OF (LOTS OF, PLENTY OF AND LOADS OF) VERBS + 'ING-FORM' In conversation, a lot of, lots of, plenty of and loads of are more common with uncountable and plural nouns used in positive sentences: There is a lot of pollution in this city, isnt there? There are loads of tourists in town today. (informal spoken English) Note! In a more formal English style, much and many are preferred to a lot of, lots of, plenty of, loads of. VERBS + 'TO-INFINIIVE' Some verbs are always followed by the 'to-infinitive', for example: MUCH AND A LOT Much and a lot can be used as adverbs (used to say more about the verb) after certain verbs: I still read a lot but I dont write very much these days. 1)agree 2)appear 3)ask 4)attempt 5)want 6)decide 7)expect 8)hope 9)plan 10)refuse 11)pretend 12)promise 13)seem I've decided to buy a Rolex. I want to have a watch that won't break. Some verbs are always followed by the 'ing-form', for example: 1)can't help 6)mind 10)consider 2)dislike 7)practice 11)miss 3)enjoy 4)fancy 5)(can't) face 9)suggest

8)(can't) stand 12)avoid

I can't stand doing maths homework.

LITTLE AND A LITTLE, FEW AND A FEW

VERBS + 'ING-FORM' OR 'TO-INFINITIVE' Some verbs can be used by either the 'ing-form' or 'to-infinitive'. There is not much difference in meaning, for example: 1)begin 2)bother 3)continue 4)hate 5)like 6)love 7)prefer 8)stand He started to talk so fast that I couldn't understand a word. He started talking so fast that I couldn't understand a word. Note! Only the to-infinitive is used after would like, would prefer, would love etc.

SHOULD HAVE Should have and the past participle (should have phoned) expresses the idea that something was desirable or needed, but did not take place: I should have phoned my mum last night, but I forgot. (I needed to phone my Mum but I didn't phone her) Shouldnt have and the past participle (shouldn't have phoned) expresses the idea that something did take place but that it wasnt desirable or needed: You shouldnt have eaten so much chocolate, youll be sick. (you ate a lot of chocolate and it wasn't a good idea)

_____________________________________ MODALS
What are the differences in use between must have, cant have, should have and neednt have? MUST HAVE When we use must have and the past participle (must have phoned), we are making a deduction about something that has happened. We are saying, I feel sure that this is the case: If your keys arent in your pocket, you must have left them in the house.

NEEDN'T HAVE Neednt have and the past participle (needn't have phoned) is opposite in meaning to should have. It indicates that something was done, but that it was not necessary. That is, the person who did something thought it was necessary: A: You neednt have cooked a meal this evening. I had lunch at The Chinese Dragon with Tom. B: Well, why didnt you phone and let me know?

CAN'T HAVE We use cant have and the past participle (can't have phoned) when we are making a deduction about something that didnt happen in the past. That is, you believe, based on present evidence, that something didnt happen (or hasnt happened): Hes not looking. He cant have heard you. Shout again!

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PREPOSITIONS
When do I use common prepositions indicating place, time and movement?

IN, ON, AT - PLACE In is used to talk about position inside larger areas: Your new shirt is in the wardrobe. On is used to talk about somethings position on a line or flat surface: Its on the top shelf in the wardrobe. At is used to talk about a point rather than a space, and events where people gather: Write your phone number at the top of the page. I met him at the Spice Girls concert.

PRESENT PERFECT
When should I use the present perfect simple (I have eaten) and when should I use the present perfect continuous (I have been eating)? STRUCTURE Present perfect simple: has/have + past participle I have taken this English exam 3 times. Present perfect continuous:

IN, ON, AT - TIME At is used to specify a point in time: Ill meet you outside the cinema at 7.15. In is used to talk about a longer period of time (the morning, the summer, 1972 etc): During the holiday, I usually read in the morning and go to the beach in the afternoon. On is used to refer to particular days and dates: Its Michaels birthday on Saturday. In is used to say how much time will pass before something happens, and to talk about how long something takes: Hurry up, weve got Aerobics class in 20 minutes. I managed to get to Level 3 of Tomb Raider in about half an hour. With certain expressions with determiners (this, that, some, all, every) and before next and last, there is no preposition. How are you feeling this morning? You weren't very well last week, were you?

has/have + been + verb-ing I have been learning English since I was six. present perfect simple - uses To talk about a period of time up to the present: I have worked here for over 10 years now. To talk about something that happened in the (very) recent past: My Auntie has just had a baby. To talk about our experiences: Ive been to New York but Ive never been to LA. It is often used with already, just, yet, ever and since. present perfect continuous - uses To talk about something which is not yet completed and when we want to emphasise the continuing nature of the activity: A: You dance well. B: Yes Im taking Salsa Classes. A: Oh, how long have you been doing that (for)? B: Since June. To talk about or explain the present consequences of an activity:

TO, INTO, FROM, OUT OF - MOVEMENT How far is it from the guesthouse to the beach? If you climb into that hole youll never get out of it. ____________________________________________________________________

You have been eating garlic, havent you? (I can smell it on your breath) ____________________________________________________________________

RELATIVE CLAUSES
LEAVING OUT WHO, WHICH AND THAT When can I leave out who, which, and that in relative clauses? RELATIVE CLAUSES Sentences can be divided into parts called clauses. A relative clause is a part of a sentence that describes the person or thing we are talking about and is connected to other clauses in the sentence via a relative pronoun, who, which or that. Relative pronouns replace the subject or object of the verb: Where is the new boy? He was in class yesterday. Where is the new boy that was in class yesterday? Can I borrow the CD? You bought the CD. Can I borrow the CD that you bought? You can leave out who, which, that when: it replaces the object of the verb in the relative clause Can I borrow the CD (that) you bought? Note! In identifying relative clauses, where which thing or person talked about is clear without the relative clause, it is very common in spoken English to leave out who, which, that. ____________________________________________________________________

REPORTED SPEECH
How does reported speech work? WORD CHANGES When reporting someone elses speech, the time, the place and the speakers are often different, so tenses or modals (past/present tenses, will, can etc), words connected with time and place (today,

IDENTIFYING RELATIVE CLAUSES The girl that I sit next to in class, gave me her phone number. that I sit next to in class (the relative clause) identifies which girl (there could be many girls in the class).

here etc), and pronouns (I, you, he etc) often change: DIRECT: "Ill do my homework, here, at the library, tonight." (said on Monday 5th) REPORTED: She said she would do her homework, there, at the

NON-IDENTIFYING RELATIVE CLAUSES This is my friend, Thomas, who came on holiday with me last year. who came on holiday with me last year does not identify which friend (we know which friend - the friend is Thomas). Note! In written English, non-identifying relative clauses are separated by commas, and in speech, by pauses.

library, last night. (reported on Tuesday 6th) Verbs used in the original speech generally become more past (i.e. they often go back a tense) but some of them stay the same: present simple > past simple present progressive > past progressive past simple > past perfect (or remains as past simple) present perfect > past perfect

KEEPING WHO, WHICH AND THAT You cannot leave out who, which, that when: it is the subject of the verb in the relative clause Where is the new boy that was in class yesterday? it is part of a non-identifying relative clause The trees that at one time lined this road have all been cut down.

past progressive > past perfect progressive (or remains as past progressive) past perfect remains as past perfect can/may/shall/will > could/might/should/would would, could, should, ought to and might remain the same must > had to (or remains as must)

If the speech that we report talks about things that you think are still true then the tense doesnt need to change: DIRECT: "Sally has broken her leg." REPORTED: He said Sally has broken her leg. When we report requests, offers, advice, orders, and suggestions we often use a to-infinitive clause: DIRECT: "Can you pick me up from the station tonight?" REPORTED: I asked him to pick me up from the station. questions in reported speech The subject comes before the verb. The tense often changes (see above). Note also that question marks are not used in reported questions: DIRECT: "Whats the matter?" REPORTED: She asked me what the matter was. If the question is a yes/no question, we use if or whether to report the speech. The auxiliary verb do is not used: DIRECT: "Do you like Oasis?" REPORTED: He asked me if I liked Oasis. say and tell In reported speech, said followed by that is one of the most common constructions. We cannot say told that. If we want to use told, we have to mention the hearer by using an object (him, her, us, Bob etc): DIRECT: "I love you but I cant marry you!" REPORTED: He told me (that) he loved me but couldnt marry me. Note! That is often omitted, especially in speech. other reporting verbs We can use announce, answer, reply, promise, claim, warn etc instead of the more common say, tell and ask: DIRECT: "Ill call you tomorrow." REPORTED: He promised he would call me today.