Passive voice

Functions of the passive voice

The passive voice is used to show interest in the person or object that experiences an action
rather than the person or object that performs the action. In other words, the most important
thing or person becomes the subject of the sentence.

Examples

 The passive voice is used =>uses frequently. (= we are interested in the passive voice, not in
who uses it.)
 The house was built in 1654. (= we are interested in the house, not in who built it.)
 The road is being repaired. (= we are interested in the road, not in the people who are
doing the repairs.)

Sometimes we use the passive voice because we don't know or do not want to express who
performed the action.
Examples

 I noticed that a window had been left open.

 Every year thousands of people are killed on our roads.
 All the cookies have been eaten.
 My car has been stolen!

The passive voice is often used in formal texts. Switching to the active voice will make your
writing clearer and easier to read.

Passive Active

A great deal of meaning is conveyed by a A few well-chosen words convey a great deal

few well-chosen words. of meaning.

Our planet is wrapped in a mass of gases. A mass of gases wrap around our planet.

Waste materials are disposed of in a The city disposes of waste materials in a

variety of ways. variety of ways.
If we want to say who or what performs the action while using the passive voice, we use the
preposition by. When we know who performed the action and are interested in him, it is
always better to switch to the active voice instead.
 Passive Active

"A Hard Day's Night" was written by the The Beatles wrote "A Hard Day's Night".
Beatles.

The movie ET was directed by Spielberg. Spielberg directed the movie ET.

This house was built by my father. My father built this house.

Read more about the passive voice and active equivalents for all English verb tenses.

Forming the passive voice

The passive voice in English is composed of two elements:
the appropriate form of the verb 'to be' + past participle

Affirmative Negative Interrogative Negative

interrogative

The house was The house wasn't Was the house built Wasn't the house
built in 1899. built in 1899. in 1899? built in 1899?

These houses These houses Were these houses Weren't these houses
were built in weren't built in built in 1899? built in 1899?
1899. 1899.

To clean, passive voice

Subject + to be + past participle + rest of sentence

(conjugated)

Simple present

The house Is cleaned every day.

Present continuous

The house is being cleaned at the moment.

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Subject + to be + past participle + rest of sentence
(conjugated)

Simple past

The house Was cleaned yesterday.

Past continuous

The house was being cleaned last week.

Present perfect

The house has been cleaned since you left.

Past perfect

The house had been cleaned before they arrived.

Future

The house will be cleaned next week.

Future continuous

The house will be being cleaned tomorrow.

Present conditional

The house would be cleaned if they had visitors.

Past conditional

The house would have been cleaned if it had been dirty.

Inifinitive

The house must be cleaned before we arrive.

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 Passive voice with infinitives
The infinitive passive voice is used after modal verbs and other most verbs normally followed
by an infinitive.

Examples

 You have to be tested on your English grammar.

 John might be promoted next year.
 She wants to be invited to the party.
 I expect to be surprised on my birthday.
 You may be disappointed.

Passive voice with gerunds

Gerunds are used after prepositions and verbs normally followed by a gerund.

Examples

 I remember being taught to drive.

 The children are excited about being taken to the zoo.
 The children are excited to be taken to the zoo.
 Most film stars hate being interviewed.
 Most film stars hate to be interviewed.
 Poodles like to be pampered.
 Poodles like being pampered.

Using "to be born"

"To be born" is a passive form and is most commonly used in the past tense. However, in
some cases, the present or future tense is appropriate.

Examples

 I was born in 1976.

 Where were you born?
 Around 100 babies are born in this hospital every week.
 We don't know on exactly which day the baby will be born.

Exercise on Passive Voice

I. Put the following sentences into the PASSIVE VOICE with a PERSONAL SUBJECT:

1. They gave my little sister a ticket, too.

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2. People will show the visitors the new buildings.

3. Someone has already paid the electrician for his work.

4. They promise us higher wages.

5. Somebody will tell you what time the train leaves.

6. Someone ordered the prisoners to stand up.

7. Somebody recommended me to another doctor.

8. Someone taught him French and gave him a dictionary.

9. They will allow each boy a second plate of ice cream.

10. The authorities refused Cyril a passport.

11. They will ask us all several questions.

12. When we first met, they had already offered me a job at the bank.

13. Someone will read you another chapter next time.

14. They requested the stranger to leave the meeting.

15. This is the third time they have written to us about this.

16. They still deny women the right to vote in some countries.

17. They have made my uncle a captain.

18. They asked the rest of us to be there at eight o'clock.

19. The others told the new students where to sit.

20. Someone is showing Maisie how to bath a baby.

II. Put the following sentences into the PASSIVE VOICE

1. They will send (modal +v1) Cyril to prison.

Cyril will be sent to prison by Budi.

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2. People should make (modal +v1) lessons more interesting for children. => S.future
Lessons should be made more interesting for children.
3. They had eaten (had +v3) all the dinner before they finished the conversation. (2
PASSIVES) => past P

4. Somebody left (v2) the light on all night. => Simple past
The light was left on all night by somebody.

5. We shall lock (modal +V1) the house up for the summer and the old gardener will look
(modal +V1) after it. (2 PASSIVES) => Simple Future

The house shall be locked up for the summer by us and it will be looked after by the
old gardener.

6. No one can answer (modal + V1) your question. => simple Future
Your question can’t be answered.

7. Somebody has spilt (has +V3) tea all over the tablecloth. => Present P

Tea has been spilt all over the tablecloth by somebody.

8. His brother just beat(V2) John in the 100-yards race. => simple past
John was just beaten in the 100-yards race by his brother.

9. Has someone mended that chair yet? => Present Perfect

Has that chair been mended by someone yet?

10. Nobody has ever spoken to me like that before. => Present Perfect
I hasn’t ever been spoken like that before.

11. A friend lent (V2) me this book. (AGENT) => Simple Past
I was lent that book by my friend.

12. We have asked some friends of hers to join us. => Present Perfect
Some friends if hers have been asked to join us.

13. People talked about Maisie all over the town.

14. They will give you the answer next week.

15. Didn't they tell you to be here by six o'clock?

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16. I'd like someone to read to me. (PASSIVE INFINITIVE)

17. You must not throw away empty bottles.

18. No one has drunk out of this glass.

19. The stone struck him in the right shoulder. (AGENT)

20. The fire destroyed many valuable paintings. (AGENT)

21. Someone blew a whistle three times.

23. A huge wave overturned the little boat. (AGENT) 29 He finished his work by eight
o'clock.

25. Ladies used to wear their dresses very long.

26. The maid washed the floor only this morning.

27. Lions attacked the travelers. (AGENT)

28. Someone has stolen my collection of stamps.

29. I have sharpened the knives.

30. The same man mended your shoes. (AGENT)

31. They built two new houses last year.

32. They sent letters of thanks to all their friends.

33. We ate up all the biscuits yesterday.

34. People will laugh at you if you wear that silly hat.

35. People were carrying the chairs out into the garden.

36. His friends gave him a cake for his birthday.

37. They took photographs after the ceremony.

38. I hate people looking at me.

39. Do you intend us to take your remark seriously?

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40. The police ought to put you in prison.

41. They turned my offer down.

42. This is a good idea, but one cannot carry it out in practice.

43. People shan’t speak to me as if I were a child.

44. Somebody has eaten all the food in the house and drunk all the wine.

45. Somebody has locked the box and I cannot open it.

III. Put the following sentences into the PASSIVE VOICE:

1. Somebody must have taken it while I was out.

2. You must iron this dress for tonight.

3. Did the noise frighten you?

4. They treated us to some ice-cream.

5. Don't let the others see you. (PASSIVE REFLEXIVE)

6. The orchestra played that piece beautifully.

7. He's so good at golf nobody can beat him.

8. The doctor had to operate on him to find out what was wrong.

9. Didn't anybody ever teach you how to behave?

10. They did nothing until he came.

11. I can assure you I will arrange everything in time. (2 PASSIVES)

12. Somebody will meet the visitors at the station.

13. A sudden increase in water pressure would break the dam.

14. Men can shell cities from a distance of several miles.

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 15. One cannot eat an orange if nobody has peeled it. (2 PASSIVES)

16. They took the collection half-way through the meeting.

17. The police are sure to ask you that question.

18. Her beauty struck me deeply. (AGENT)

19. You needn't think your joke took me in. (AGENT)

20. They should not make the celebration an excuse for bad behavior.

21. People generally assume that money brings happiness. (Money . . .)

22. Let me know if there is anything we should do.

23. They gave the thief a fair trial and sent him to prison. (2 PASSIVES)

24. Poverty drove him to desperation.

25. You must account for every penny.

26. A new company has taken the business over.

27. They tell me somebody has shot your uncle. (2 PASSIVES)

28. Somebody can't have shut the safe properly.

29. They can't put you in prison if they haven't tried you. (2 PASSIVES)

30. We'll have to examine you again.

Direct and indirect speech

Direct and indirect speech can be a source of confusion for English learners. Let's first define
the terms, then look at how to talk about what someone said, and how to convert speech
from direct to indirect or vice-versa.

You can answer the question What did he say? in two ways:

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  by repeating the words spoken (direct speech)
 by reporting the words spoken (indirect or reported speech).

Direct Speech
Direct speech repeats, or quotes, the exact words spoken. When we use direct speech in
writing, we place the words spoken between quotation marks (" ") and there is no change in
these words. We may be reporting something that's being said NOW (for example a
telephone conversation), or telling someone later about a previous conversation.

Examples

 She says, "What time will you be home?"

 She said, "What time will you be home?" and I said, "I don't know! "
 "There's a fly in my soup!" screamed Simone.
 John said, "There's an elephant outside the window."

Indirect speech
Reported or indirect speech is usually used to talk about the past, so we normally change the
tense of the words spoken. We use reporting verbs like 'say', 'tell', 'ask', and we may use the
word 'that' to introduce the reported words. Inverted commas are not used.

She said, "I saw him." (direct speech) = She said that she had seen him. (indirect speech)

"That" may be omitted:

She told him that she was happy. = She told him she was happy.

"Say" and "tell"

Use 'say' when there is no indirect object:
He said that he was tired.

Always use 'tell' when you say who was being spoken to (i.e. with an indirect object):
He told me that he was tired.

"Talk" and "speak"

Use these verbs to describe the action of communicating:
He talked to us.
She was speaking on the telephone.

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Use these verbs with 'about' to refer to what was said:
He talked (to us) about his parents.

Tense changes when using reported speech

Normally, the tense in reported speech is one tense back in time from the tense in direct
speech:
She said, "I am tired." = She said that she  was tired.

Phrase in direct speech Equivalent in reported speech

Simple present Simple past

"I always drink coffee", she said She said that she

always drank coffee.

Present continuous Past continuous

"I am reading a book", he explained. He explained that he was reading a

book

Simple past Past perfect

"Bill arrived on Saturday", he said. He said that Bill had arrived on

Saturday.

Present perfect Past perfect

"I have been to Spain", he told me. He told me that he had been to Spain.

Past perfect Past perfect

"I had just turned out the light," he He explained that he had just turned
explained. out the light.

Present perfect continuous Past perfect continuous

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 Phrase in direct speech Equivalent in reported speech

They complained, "We have been They complained that they had been

waiting for hours". waiting for hours.

Past continuous Past perfect continuous

"We were living in Paris", they told They told me that they had been
me. living in Paris.

Future Present conditional

"I will be in Geneva on Monday", he He said that he would be in Geneva

said. on Monday.

Future continuous Conditional continuous

She said, "I'll be using the car next She said that she would be using the
Friday". car next Friday.

You do not need to change the tense if the reporting verb is in the present, or if the original
statement was about something that is still true, e.g.

 He says he has missed the train but he'll catch the next one.

 We explained that it is very difficult to find our house.

These modal verbs do not change in reported speech: might, could, would, should, ought
to:

 We explained, "It could be difficult to find our house." = We explained that it could be

difficult to find our house.
 She said, "I might bring a friend to the party." = She said that she might bring a friend
to the party.

Changing time and place references

 Time and place must often change when going from direct to reported speech.

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Phrase in direct speech Equivalent in reported speech

today that day

"I saw him today", she said. She said that she had seen him that
day.

yesterday the day before

"I saw him yesterday", she She said that she had seen him the
said. day before.

The day before yesterday two days before

"I met her the day before He said that he had met her two days
yesterday", he said. before.

tomorrow the next/following day

"I'll see you tomorrow", he He said that he would see me the

said next day.

the day after tomorrow in two days time/ two days later

"We'll come the day after They said that they would come in
tomorrow", they said. two days time/ two days later.

next week/month/year the following week/month/year

"I have an appointment next She said that she had an

week", she said. appointment the following week.

last week/month/year the previous/week/month/year

"I was on holiday last week", He told us that he had been on

he told us. holiday the previous week.

ago before

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 Phrase in direct speech Equivalent in reported speech

"I saw her a week ago," he He said he had seen her a week
said. before.

this (for time) that

"I'm getting a new car this She said she was getting a new
week", she said. car that week.

this/that (adjectives) the

"Do you like this shirt?" he He asked if I liked the shirt.

asked

here there

He said, "I live here". He told me he lived there.

 In general, personal pronouns change to the third person singular or plural, except when
the speaker reports his own words:
I/me/my/mine, you/your/yours = him/his/her/hers
we/us/our/ours, you/your/yours = they/their/theirs
 He said: "I like your new car." = He told her that he liked her new car.
I said: "I'm going to my friend's house." = I said that I was going to my friend's house.
 
Question forms and reported speech

 Word order
 Normal word order is used in reported questions, that is, the subject comes before the
verb, and it is not necessary to use 'do' or 'did':

 Examples

Direct speech Indirect speech

"Where does Peter live?" She asked him where Peter lived.

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 Direct speech Indirect speech

"Where are you going?" She asked where I was going.

"Why is she crying?" He asked why she was crying.

 Yes / no questions
 This type of question is reported by using 'ask' + 'if / whether' + clause:

 Examples

Direct speech Indirect speech

"Do you speak English?" He asked me if I spoke English.

"Are you British or American?" He asked me whether I was British or

American.

"Is it raining?" She asked if it was raining.

"Have you got a computer?" He wanted to know whether I had a

computer.

"Can you type?" She asked if I could type.

"Did you come by train?" He enquired whether I had come by train.

"Have you been to Bristol before?" She asked if I had been to Bristol before.

 Question words
 This type of question is reported by using 'ask' (or another verb like 'ask') + question
word + clause. The clause contains the question, in normal word order and with the
necessary tense change.

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 Examples

Direct speech Indirect speech

"What is your name?" he asked me. He asked me what my name was.

"How old is your mother?", he asked. He asked how old her mother was.

The policman said to the boy, "Where do The policeman asked the boy where
you live?" he lived.

"What time does the train arrive?" she She asked what time the train
asked. arrived.

"When can we have dinner?" she asked. She asked when they could have
dinner.

Peter said to John, "Why are you so Peter asked John why he was so late.
late?"

Reported speech: orders, requests & suggestions

Reporting orders and requests

When we want to report an order or request, we can use a verb like 'tell' with a to-
clause: He told me to go away. The pattern is verb + indirect object + to-clause. The
indirect object is the person spoken to. Other verbs used to report orders and requests
in this way are: command, order, warn, ask, advise, invite, beg, teach, & forbid.

Examples

Direct speech Indirect speech

The doctor said to me, "Stop The doctor told me to stop smoking.

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 Direct speech Indirect speech

smoking!".

"Get out of the car!" said the The policeman ordered him to get out of
policeman. the car.

"Could you please be quiet," she said. She asked me to be quiet.

The man with the gun said to us, The man with the gun warned us not to
"Don't move!" move.

Requests for objects

Requests for objects are reported using the pattern "asked for" + object.

Examples

Direct speech Indirect speech

"Can I have an apple?", she asked. She asked for an apple.

"Can I have the newspaper, please?" He asked for the newspaper.

"May I have a glass of water?" he said. He asked for a glass of water.

"Sugar, please." She asked for the sugar.

"Could I have three kilos of onions?" He asked for three kilos of onions.

Suggestions
Suggestions are most often reported using the verbs suggest, insist, recommend, demand,
request, and propose followed by a that clause. 'That' and 'should' are optional in these
clauses, as shown in the first two examples below. Note that suggest, recommend, and
propose may also be followed by a gerund in order to eliminate the indirect object (the
receiver of the suggestion) and thus make the suggestion more polite. This usage of the
gerund is illustrated in the fourth and fifth examples below.

Examples

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Direct speech Indirect speech

She said, "Why don't you get a mechanic
to look at the car?"
She suggested that I should get a mechanic
to look at the car. OR
She suggested I should get a mechanic to
look at the car. OR
She suggested that I get a mechanic to look
at the car.OR
She suggested I get a mechanic to look at
the car.

"Why don't you go to the doctor?" he He suggested I go to the doctor. OR

said. He suggested that I go to the doctor. OR
He suggested I should go to the doctor.OR
He suggested that I should go to the doctor.

"It would be a good idea to see the My mother suggested I see the dentist.

dentist", said my mother.

EXERCISES ON REPORTED SPEECH

I. Put the following sentences into REPORTED SPEECH, introducing them with a verb
in the PRESENT, PRESENT PERFECT, or FUTURE tense:

1. I am going to town with my sister.

2. You have bought yourself a new hat.
3. We are very late.
4. I want to speak to you.
5. We have finished our work.
6. He is ready to come with us.
7. They do not know you.
8. I will answer the phone.
9. You can do it if you try.
10. She has done her homework well.
11. We are living in another house now.
12. I have been shopping all the morning.

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13. I have not told you anything yet.
14. You may see the photographs if you like.
15. She has written me a long letter.
16. I am giving a party this week to all my friends.
17. You have an excellent cook.
18. We have not heard the news.
19. I like oranges better than bananas.
20. They are learning higher mathematics.
21. He is sitting over there.
22. You are not working hard enough.
23. She has given me a present.
24. You play the piano very well
25. I have flown about a million kilometres.
26. You have been very quick.
27. Elizabeth has gone to school.
28. They are waiting outside.
29. We always try to please you.
30. I have been smoking too much.

II. Put the following sentences into REPORTED SPEECH, intro ducing them with a
verb in the PAST tense.

1. I am ill.
2. I met him last year.
3. They will be here soon.
4. She has finished now.
5. I am living in London.
6. He is going to Berlin tomorrow.
7. I've just been to the butcher's.
8. I can come next week.
9. I don't know what he'll say.
10. They went away yesterday.
11. Wait till I come.
12. I think she is married.
13. I fell downstairs.
14. I'll leave it on the table.
15. I'm sorry I'm late.
16. I am very stupid.
17. She is quite charming but hasn't much sense.
18. He can come in when I have finished my work.
19. The clock will never work again if you try to mend it.
20. I lost my temper yesterday morning.

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21. I'll come as soon as I can.
22. I've sold all those you gave me yesterday. 23 I was very ill yesterday.
23. I learnt all this nonsense a long time ago.
24. I have never been here before.
25. I haven't done my homework.
26. You may have to stay in bed for a week.
27. She will be here in half an hour if she isn't late.
28. That is the last time I saw him.
29. I shall try to be in time today.
30. I'm sorry I forgot to come yesterday.

III. Put the following sentences into REPORTED SPEECH with the introducing verb in
the PAST tense. Vary the introducing verb.

1. Where do you live?

2. Have you been to town today?
3. How is your mother-in-law now?
4. Where shall I be tomorrow?
5. Can you tell me where I can find the British Museum?
6. Where are you going?
7. Where did I leave my shirt and trousers?
8. How much did you pay for these overripe tomatoes?
9. Do you speak Russian? Do you think you can learn it in a year?
10. Can you lend me five pounds? Do you think you can trust me?
11. Does Cyril wipe his feet on the mat when he comes in?
12. Do you know the way to the station?
13. How old is he now? Can he read yet?
14. Have you brought your books with you or not?
15. Why didn't you get up earlier?
16. Now do you believe me, or do you still think I'm lying?
17. What do you mean? Do you think I'm mad?
18. Are you American or do you come from Africa?
19. Must we be here by six or can we come a little later?
20. Did you understand my instructions?
21. Were you very busy yesterday or the day before? Why didn't you come here?
22. When will you come again? Shall I be seeing you next week?
23. Where has Mary put my slippers? Why can't she leave them where I put them
when I took them off?
24. How far is it to the National Theatre? Can I walk it in ten minutes or must I take a
bus?

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 25. What's the English for Deutch?
26. How many cakes can you get into your mouth at once? Do you think it is greedy to
eat more than two at a time?
27. Has Henry got a lawn-mower? Do you think he will lend it to me?
28. How many times have I told you not to do that?
29. Who called while I was out? Did she leave a message?
30. Did Maisie question you about my whereabouts last Friday? What did you tell her?
Is she asking you any more questions tomorrow?

Conditional
Conditional tenses are used to speculate about what could happen, what might have happened,
and what we wish would happen. In English, most sentences using the conditional contain the
word if. Many conditional forms in English are used in sentences that include verbs in one of
the past tenses. This usage is referred to as "the unreal past" because we use a past tense but
we are not actually referring to something that happened in the past. There are five main ways
of constructing conditional sentences in English. In all cases, these sentences are made up of
an if clause and a main clause. In many negative conditional sentences, there is an equivalent
sentence construction using "unless" instead of "if".

Conditional Usage If clause Main clause

sentence verb verb tense
type tense

Zero General truths Simple Simple present

present

Type 1 A possible Simple Simple future

condition and its present
probable result

Type 2 A hypothetical Simple Present

condition and its past conditional or
probable result Present
continuous

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Conditional Usage If clause Main clause
sentence verb verb tense
type tense

conditional

Type 3 An unreal past Past Perfect

condition and its perfect conditional
probable result in
the past

10
0
The zero conditional
The zero conditional is used for when the time being referred to is now or always and the
situation is real and possible. The zero conditional is often used to refer to general truths. The
tense in both parts of the sentence is the simple present. In zero conditional sentences, the word
"if" can usually be replaced by the word "when" without changing the meaning.

If clause Main clause

If + simple present simple present

If you heat ice it melts.

If it rains the grass gets wet.

Type 1 conditional
The type 1 conditional is used to refer to the present or future where the situation is real. The
type 1 conditional refers to a possible condition and its probable result. In these sentences the if
clause is in the simple present, and the main clause is in the simple future.

If clause Main clause

If + simple present simple future

If you don't hurry you will miss the train.

If it rains today you will get wet.

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1
Type 2 conditional
The type 2 conditional is used to refer to a time that is now or any time, and a situation that is unreal.
These sentences are not based on fact. The type 2 conditional is used to refer to a hypothetical condition
and its probable result. In type 2 conditional sentences, the if clause uses the simple past, and the main
clause uses the present conditional.

If clause Main clause

If + simple past present conditional or present continuous conditional

If you went to bed earlier you would not be so tired.

If it rained you would get wet.

If I spoke Italian I would be working in Italy.

Type 3 conditional
The type 3 conditional is used to refer to a time that is in the past, and a situation that is contrary to
reality. The facts they are based on are the opposite of what is expressed. The type 3 conditional is used
to refer to an unreal past condition and its probable past result. In type 3 conditional sentences, the if
clause uses the past perfect, and the main clause uses the perfect conditional.

If clause Main clause

If + past perfect perfect conditional or perfect continuous conditional

If you had studied harder you would have passed the exam.

If it had rained you would have gotten wet.

If I had accepted that promotion I would have been working in Milan.

EXERCISES ON CONDITIONALS
I. State the type of the following conditionals:

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2
1. If you had done as I told you, you would have succeeded.

2. If you did as I told you, you would succeed.

3. You'll succeed if you do as I tell you.
4. If you are good, I'll give you a piece of chocolate.
5. If Felicia had known English was so difficult, she would never have taken it up.
6. If the rain failed to come, there would be a famine.
7. If you eat too much, you will be ill.
8. You would be ill if you ate too much.
9. If I hadn't told him, he would never have known.
10. You would catch the train if you left earlier.
11. You will pass your examination if you work hard.
12. If you had left earlier, you would have caught the train.
13. You will catch the train if you leave earlier.
14. If I'd lost my spectacles, I wouldn't have been able to read.
15. If I were an orange, I should be spherical and juicy.

II. Supply if or unless in the following sentences, noticing carefully the tense
sequence:
1. He wouldn't have waited — you'd been late.

2. He won't speak French — he goes to France.

3. I'll go to the door — I hear the bell.

4. I shan't go to the door — I hear the bell.

5. — you ring the bell, the servant will come.

6. He'll come — you ring the bell.

7. — you don't ring the bell, the servant won't come.

8. He won't come — you ring the bell.

9. — he wrote to me, I should write to him.

10. I shan't write to him — he writes to me.

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11. — the clock had been right, we would have caught the train.

12. — my watch hadn't been slow, I wouldn't have been late.

13. He will not learn much — he works harder.

14. --- you send a telegram now, he'll get it this evening.

15. —he started immediately, he would arrive by midday.

16. I should never have found the house — the policeman hadn't helped me.

17. — you invited him, he would come.

18. He would come — you invited him.

19. — you had invited him, he would have come.

20. He would have come — you had invited him.

III. Now identify each of the following sentences first in the form printed and
then in mention the other two forms:
1. He'll come if you wait.

2. If you ring the bell, somebody will come.

3. You'll catch the train if you take a taxi.

4. If he wrote to me, I should write to him.

5. You would have found the book if you had opened the bag.

6. If he saw you, he would speak to you.

7. The streets would be wet if it rained.

8. You'll be ill if you drink that water.

9. What will you do if you meet Mr. Robinson?

10. I wouldn't have spoken to him even if he had spoken to me.

11. If a beggar asks you for money, will you give him any?

12. What would happen if the bridge broke?

13. If he had fallen into the river, he would have been drowned.

14. If he had been able to swim, he wouldn't have been drowned.

15. If you buy that big house, you will need several servants.

16. Will you be angry if I steal your pocket-knife?

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17. Tommy would be sick if he ate all those chocolates.

18. If he'd been thirsty, he would have drunk some water.

19. I shall come and see you if I have time.

20. If you leave the letter on that table, my sister will post it for you.

IV. Read the following sentences in the form printed, and then Intermediate in
the other two forms:
1. We won't go out unless it stops raining.

2. If you could come too, it would be very nice.

3. It would have been better if they hadn't come.

4. I'll give it to you if you must have one.

5. If Cyril doesn't object, I shall join you.

6. He'll certainly do it if it's possible.

7. If the sun didn't shine, fruit wouldn't ripen.

8. He would steal it from you if he could.

9. If you go to town, will you buy something for me?

10. Maisie would do it if she wanted to.

11 If they hadn't told us, we shouldn't have found the way.

12. What would you do if a bee stung you?

13. He wouldn't have written if he hadn't heard some news.

14. If I had enough money, I would buy a radio set.

15. I shall have to buy a thick coat if the weather gets colder.

16. If you hit the dog, it will bite you.

17. We shall be pleased if our school wins the match.

18. You'll be able to speak English better if you study harder.

19. If he buys a house for £ 8,OOO and sells it for £ 11,000, he'll make a good profit.

20. The soldiers will fight bravely if they understand their orders.

V. Supply a suitable tense of the verbs in brackets:

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1. You will be ill if you (eat) so much.

2. I (go) if I had known.

3. If my car (not break) down, I should have caught the train.

4. If she were older, she (have) more sense.

5. If you (read) that book carefully, you would understand it.

6. If the children (be) good, they can stay up late.

7. I (buy) that hat if it were not so dear.

8. You (kill) yourself if you always work as hard as that.

9. If they had waited, they (find) me.

10. I'm sure she will do well if she (go) to the University.

11. If it (be) fine tomorrow, I shall play tennis.

12. I shouldn't have thought it possible if I (not see) it.

13. I'm sure my sister would go out with you if you (ask) her nicely.

14. We (enjoy) the play better if it had not been so long.

15. They would do it if they (can).

16. If dinner is not ready, I (go) without it.

17. I (show) you how to do it if I knew myself.

18. If the dog had not woken us, we (never hear) the burglar.

19. Blackpool (be) ideal for a holiday, if there were not so many people there.

20. If he wants to play the violin, I (play) the piano for him.

21. The dog (bite) you if it had not been tied up.

22. If you don't shut that window, we all (die) of cold.

23. I shall be very angry if you (break) any more plates.

24. The child (be killed) if the train hadn't stopped quickly.

25. I would have come yesterday if I (have) nothing to do.

VI. Supply a suitable tense of the verbs in brackets:

1. If you (go) away, please write to me.

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2. If we (have) some bread, we could have some bread and cheese if we had some cheese!

3. We are going to play tennis this afternoon if it (stop) raining.

4. If you (be) in, I should have given it to you.

5. If Johnny (eat) another cake, he will be sick.

6. If you (not turn) off that noisy radio, I shall scream !

7. If you (can) type, you ought to be able to get a job easily.

8. If men (be) only more reasonable, there would be no more war.

9. You would be taking a great risk if you (invest) your money in that business.

10. We would not have despatched the goods if they (not be) in good condition.

11. If it (be) convenient, let's meet at nine o'clock.

12. I wouldn't do that if I (be) you.

13. It will be impossible for me to finish my work if you (not cease) this chatter.

14. If Cyril (take) my advice, everything ought to go well.

15. I would have come sooner if I (know) you were here.

16. If you (want) to have tea ready in time, put the kettle on now.

17. It is easy to paint pictures if one (know) how to.

18. If she (not answer) the telephone, she would never have heard the good news.

19. Tell him he must visit the Tower if ever he (go) to London.

20. My uncle would be able to help us if he (be) here.

21. If I (have) the courage, I would have answered him back.

22. If it (rain), you will get wet.

23. If you (want) me to help you, why didn't you say so ?

24. Maisie's mother would have known what to do if she (be) alive.

25. If I had had enough money, I (go) abroad.

VII. Complete the following sentences :

1. The cake would have been burnt if . , .

2. You will get into trouble if . . .

3. Your dress would look better if . . .

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4. She would not have married him if ….

5. Don't give him anything unless ….. .

6. If I had time ….. .

7. If it hadn't been raining

8. I might have learnt more English if

9. The teacher would not be angry with you if . . .

10. You will lose your money if …….

SEMESTER 2

Defining relative clauses

Main points
 You use defining relative clauses to say exact which person or thing you are talking
about.
 Defining relative clauses are usually introduced by a relative pronoun such as 'that',
'which', 'who', 'whom', or 'whose'.
 A defining relative clause comes immediately after a noun, and needs a main clause to
make a complete sentence.

1. You use defining relative clauses to give information that helps to identify the person or
thing you are talking about.
Example :
The man who you met yesterday was my brother.
The car which crashed into me belonged to Paul.
When you are talking about people, you use 'that' or 'who' in the relative clause.
He was the man that bought my house.
You are the only person here who knows me.
When you are talking about things, you use 'that' or 'which' in the relative clause.
Example :
There was ice cream that Mum had made herself.

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 I will tell you the first thing which I can remember.

2. 'That', 'who', or 'which' can be:

 the subject of the verb in the relative clause
- The thing that really surprised me was his attitude.
- The woman who lives next door is very friendly.
- The car which caused the accident drove off.
 the object of the verb in the relative clause
- The thing that I really liked about it was its size.
- The woman who you met yesterday lives next door.
- The car which I wanted to buy was not for sale.

In formal English, 'whom' is used instead of 'who' as the object of the verb in the relative
clause.
She was a woman whom I greatly respected.

3. You can leave out 'that', 'who', or 'which' when they are the object of the verb in
the relative clause.
The woman you met yesterday lives next door.
The car I wanted to buy was not for sale.
The thing I really liked about it was its size.

WARNING• You cannot leave out 'that', 'who', or 'which' when they are the subject of the
verb in the relative clause. For example, you say 'The woman who lives next door is very
friendly'. You do not say 'The woman lives next door is very friendly'.

4.
a. A relative pronoun in a relative clause can be the object of a preposition. Usually the
preposition goes at the end of the clause.
I wanted to do the job which I'd been training for.
The house that we lived in was huge.

b. You can often omit a relative pronoun that is the object of a preposition.
Angela was the only person I could talk to. She's the girl I sang the song for.

c. The preposition always goes in front of 'whom', and in front of 'which' in formal English.
These are the people to whom Catherine was referring.
He was asking questions to which there were no answers.

5. You use 'whose' in relative clauses to indicate who something belongs to or relates to.
You normally use 'whose' for people, not for things.
A child whose mother had left him was crying loudly.
We have only told the people whose work is relevant to this project.

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6. You can use 'when', 'where', and 'why' in defining relative clauses after certain nouns.
You use 'when' after 'time' or time words such as 'day' or 'year'. You use 'where' after 'place'
or place words such as 'room' or 'street'. You use 'why' after 'reason'.

There had been a time when she hated all men.

This is the year when profits should increase.

He showed me the place where they work.

That was the room where I did my homework.

There are several reasons why we can't do that.

PRACTICE

A. Complete the following sentences using a relative clause with that as the subject.
1. The train leaves at 2.15. / You're too late to catch the train that leaves 2.15.
2. Mary has two brothers. One lives in America. / Do you know the one ___________?
3. Some things were stolen. / Have you got back the things _______________ ?
4. A man plays James Bond/ What is the name of the man _________________
5. A woman answered the phone. / The woman ___________________ asked me
to call back later.
6. A book was left behind on the desk. / The book ___________________belongs to
John.
7. Some people live in glass houses. / People _______________________ shouldn’t throw
stones.

Now do the same with these using that as the object of the relative clause.
8. I read a book last week. / I really enjoyed the book that I read last week.
9 I met someone on the train. / Someone _______________ gave me some good
advice.
10. We took some photographs on holiday. / Have you seen the photographs
________________?
11. You read things in the newspaper. / You shouldn't believe all the things
________________ .
12. I left some money on the table. / The money ________________ seems to have
disappeared.
13. The Beatles recorded this song in 1966. / This is one of the songs ____________ .
14. You asked for some information. / We cannot provide the information _________ .

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 B. Look at the sentences above. In some the relative pronoun that stands for a person and
can be replaced by who. In others that stands for a thing and can be replaced by which.
Write who or which in brackets after each sentence to show which word could replace that.
Example : You're too late to catch the train that leaves at 2.15 (which)

C. Complete these sentences by adding when, where, whose, or why.

1. This is definitely the place where I left it.
2. Do you remember the time _________we got lost?
3. There must be a good reason ___________he's late.
4. They are building a hospital on the street _______we live.
5. Peter? Is he the one car__________ you borrowed?
6. Can you give me any reason _________I should help you?
7. Carl is the one___________ desk is next to mine.

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 Non-defining relative clauses
----------------------------------------------------------------
 You use non- defining relative clauses to give extra information about the person or
thing you are talking about.
 Non-defining relative clauses must be introduced by a relative pronoun such as ‘which’,
‘who’ , ‘whom’, or ‘whose’.
 A non-defining relative clause comes immediately after a noun and needs a main clause
to make a complete sentence.

----------------------------------------------------------------
1. You use non-defining relative clauses to give extra information about the person or the
thing you are talking about. The information is not needed to identify that person or thing.
Professor Marvin, who was always early, was there already.

'Who was always early' gives extra information about Professor Marvin. This is a non-
defining relative clause because it is not needed to identify the person you are talking about.
We already know that you are talking about Professor Marvin.

Note that in written English, a non-defining relative clause is usually separated from the main
clause by a comma, or by two commas.

I went to the cinema with Mary, who I think you met.

British Rail, which has launched an enquiry, said one coach was badly damaged.

2. You always start a non-defining relative clause with a relative pronoun. When you are
talking about people, you use ‘who’. ‘Who’ can be the subject or object of a non-defining
relative clause.

Health Robinson, who died in 1944, was a graphic artist and cartoonist.
I was in the same group as Janice, who I like a lot.

In formal English, ‘whom’ is sometimes used instead of ‘who’ as the object of a non-defining
relative clause.

She was engaged to a sailor, whom she had met at Dartmouth.

3. When you are talking about things, you use ‘which’ as the subject or object of a non-
defining relative clause.

I am teaching at the Sally Oak centre, which is just over the road.

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 He was a man of considerable inherited wealth, which he ultimately spent on his
experiments.

!! You do not normally use ‘that’ in non-defining relative clauses.

4. You can also use a non-defining relative clause beginning with ‘which’ to say something
about the whole situation described in a main clause.

I never met Brando again, which was a pity.

She was a little tense, which was understandable.
Small computers need only small amounts of power, which means that they will run on small
batteries.

5. When you are talking about a group of people or things and then want to say something
about only some of them, you can use one of the following expressions:
 many of which
 many of whom
 none of which
 none of whom
 one of which
 one of whom
 some of which
 some of whom

They were all friends, many of whom had known each other for years.
He talked about several very interesting people, some of whom he was still in contact with.

6. You can use ‘when’ and ‘where’ in non-defining relative clauses after expressions of
time or place.

This happened in 1967, when I was still a baby.

She has just come back from a holiday in Holland, where Alex and I went last year.

PRACTICE
A Join the sentences below using who, whose, or which. Make sure that the relative
clause goes next to the word it gives extra information about.
1. I met Jane's father. He works at the university.
I met Jane’s father, who works at the university.
1. Peter is studying French and German. He has never been abroad.
Peter, who is studying French and German, has never been abroad.
3. You've all met Michael Wood. He is visiting us for a couple of days.
4. Michael Wood is one of my oldest friends. He has just gone to live in Canada.

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5. We are moving to Manchester. Manchester is in the north-west.
6. Manchester is in the north-west. It is one of England's fastest growing towns.
7. I'll be staying with Adrian. His brother is one of my closest friends.
8. This is Adrian. We stayed in Adrian's house for our holidays.

B. Match the first clauses with the non-defining relative clauses.

1. I had to travel first class, ……….. a. which meant we had to cancel the match next day.
2. It snowed heavily all night, ……… b. which meant we had to eat out in the evenings.
3. The car uses very little petrol, …… c. which really annoyed everyone.
4. He didn't get up until after eight d. which certainly pleased her mother.
o'clock, …………… e. which means it is quite cheap to run.
5. The food in the hotel was not f. which meant he was almost late for work.
very good, ……… g. which meant we had to leave without them.
6. He kept complaining about h. which was very expensive.
everything, ………..
7. Both the girls were late, ……….
8. Michelle always did very well at
school, ………..

C. Rewrite these sentences using phrases with 'of which' or 'of whom'.
1. I got four books for my birthday. I had read three of them before.
I got four books for my birthday, three of which I had read before.
2. Only two people came to look at the house, and neither of them
wanted to buy it.
3. He had a lot to say about his new computer. None of it interested
me very much.
4. There were some noisy people in the audience. One of them kept
interrupting the speaker.
5. She made all kinds of suggestions. I couldn't understand most of
them.

I. Add relative pronouns to the following:

1. The Pope, — many people had never heard before, spoke on the radio last night.
2. He met Prince Henry's mother, from — he got the news of Henry's marriage.
3. It was the last king of Ruritania, — name few people can remember.

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4. The elephant, — is an animal that never forgets, lives more than a hundred years.
5. Nicholas II, to --- you were referring, was the last czar of Russia.
6. He is a famous scientist, about — many books have been written.
7. The chief of police, — work is very important, takes care of the public safety.
8. Geometry, about — so many books have been written, is not really a dull subject.
9. They developed the hovercraft, — seemed to have a great future.
10. The King, — life has been devoted to his country, deserves his popularity.
11. Parliament, — has just started a new session, is going to discuss the new Bill today.
12. This subject, about — I was speaking yesterday, is an important part of our course.
13. The Tower of London, about— a lecture is to be given tomorrow, is a famous historic
building.
14. Beethoven, — music you have just been listening to, was one of the world's finest
composers.
15. You should not miss the Iguazü Falls, — are said to be the finest in the world.
16. The lark, — has a very sweet song, builds its nest on the ground.
17. We cannot decide whether tomatoes, — we are all fond of, are a fruit or a vegetable.
18. The science of medicine, in — progress has been very rapid lately, is perhaps the most
important of all the sciences.
19. Chess, — is a very old game, is difficult to play.
20. Madame Currie, — discovered radium, is one of the greatest women of our age.

II. Combine the following pairs of sentences by means of NON-DEFINING RELATIVE

PRONOUNS:

1. Julius Caesar came to Britain in 55 BC. He was a powerful Roman general.

2. These cactus plants should not have too much water. They will grow in pots indoors.
3. They are still working on the motorway. Its completion date was last May.
4. The antiquities of Egypt should not be missed. Such a lot has been written about them.
5. The pelican is a very queer-looking bird. His beak (says a popular rhyme) can hold more than
his belly can.
6. The Irrawaddy flows through countless large swamps. It is one of the most important rivers
in Asia.
7. The Dover—Calais hovercraft makes the crossing in 30 minutes. It carries about 20 vehicles.
8. It is strange that the peacock butterfly has a similar name in most languages. The peacock
butterfly is found in most parts of Europe.
9. The great fire of London destroyed a large part of the city. It broke out in 1666.
10. Dr. Johnson often met his friends in the Cheshire Cheese. His house was quite near.
11. Helicopters can land near the centre of a large city. They do not need a long runway.
12. The shops store food in their deep-freezes. The deep-freezes, however, need a constant
electricity supply.
13. The world was to be a great adventure for him. He knew very little about the world.
14. The programme came by the Indian Ocean satellite. It went into fixed orbit in 1969.
15. The Indian Ocean satellite relays hundreds of signals. The satellite has been in position since
1969.

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III. Combine the following ideas by means of DEFINING or NON-DEFINING relatives,
using a contact-clause wherever possible.

1. Is that the new station? You pointed it out to me last week.

2. This is the man. I gave money to him this morning.
3. Anne Boleyn was Henry Vlll's second wife. Henry executed her in 1536.
4. Who would look elsewhere, as Henry did? He had such a charming wife.
5. An old soldier sits begging on the pavement. His legs were shot away in the last war.
6. His stepmother was not very kind to him. He was living with her.
7. He had seen only a few policemen. They were all young. (Begin with 'The few…. ')
8. Last week I went to see the country town. He used to live in that town.
9. Bring me the cigarettes. I left them on the table. The table stands by the window.
10. Mozart spent the last ten years of his life in Vienna. His birthplace was Salzburg,
11. What was the name of the girl? She came here last night.
12. This large map belonged to Ptolemy XI. In the middle of it you can see part of the Arctic
Circle.
13. We now come to Euclid. Readers are well acquainted with his work.
14. I'm sure it was Cyril. He told her to do it.
15. The matter has been settled. You were arguing about it last night.

Participles
A participle is a verb form that can be used (1) as an adjective, (2) to create verb tense, or (3)
to create the passive voice.

There are two types of participles:

Present participle (ending -ing)
Past participle (usually ending -ed, -d, -t, -en, or -n).

The Participle Forms of a Verb

1 The Base Form love take

2 The -s form loves takes
3 The Past Form loved took
4 The Present Participle loving taking
Form ( the -ing form)
5 The Past Participle Form loved taken

A. Participles as Adjectives
Examples of Participles Being Used as Adjectives

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Here are some present and past participles being used as adjectives:
The Verb The Present Participle The Past Participle
To rise the rising sun the risen sun
To boil the boiling water the boiled water
To break the breaking news the broken news
To cook the cooking ham the cooked ham

More Examples of Present Participles as Adjectives

Remember that present participles end in -ing. Here are some more examples:
 boiling water
 caring nature
 deserving recipient

(a) Here are some real-life examples of present participles (shaded) being used as adjectives:
 A laughing man is stronger than a suffering man. (Gustave Flaubert, 1821-1880)
 If you pick up a starving dog and make him prosperous, he will not bite you. This is the
principal difference between a dog and a man. (Mark Twain, 1835-1910)
 The only thing that comes to a sleeping man is dreams. (Tupac Shakur)
 The present participle as an adjective
 It was an amazing film.
 Dark billowing clouds often precede a storm.
 He was trapped inside the burning house.
 Many of his paintings show the setting sun.

More Examples of Past Participles as Adjectives

Remember that past participles have various endings, usually -ed, -d, -t, -en, or -n. Here are
some more examples:
 broken window
 painted frame
 destroyed bridge

(b) Here are some real-life examples of past participles (shaded) being used as adjectives:
 A swollen eye is God's way of telling you to improve your interpersonal skills.
 Do not waste time staring at a closed door.
 I like children...if they're properly cooked. (W.C. Fields)
(Don't forget that an adjective can also appear after the noun it is modifying. See predicate
adjectives.)

(c ) The present participle after verbs of perception

The pattern for this usage is verb + object + present participle. There is a difference in meaning
when such a sentence contains a zero infinitive rather than a participle. The infinitive refers to
a complete action while the present participle refers to an ongoing action.

Examples

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I heard someone singing.
He saw his friend walking along the road.
I can smell something burning!
I watched the birds flying away.

B. Participle Phrases
(1) It is really common to see participles in participle phrases.

A participle phrase also acts like an adjective. In the examples below, the participle
phrases are shaded and the participles are in bold:
 The man carrying the bricks is my father.
(The participle phrase carrying the bricks describes the the man.)
 She showed us a plate of scones crammed with cream.
(The participle phrase crammed with cream describes the scones.)
 Whistling the same tune as always, Ted touched the front of his cap with his forefinger
as she dismounted.
(The participle phrase Whistling the same tune as always describes Ted.)
 Stunned by the blow, Mike quickly gathered his senses and searched frantically for the
pepper spray.
(The participle phrase Stunned by the blow describes Mike.)

(2) The present participle for two actions at the same time
When two actions occur at the same time, and are done by the same person or thing, we can
use a present participle to describe one of them. When one action follows very quickly after
another done by the same person or thing, we can express the first action with a present
participle.

Examples
 Whistling to himself, he walked down the road. = He whistled to himself as he walked
down the road.
 They went laughing out into the snow. = They laughed as they went out into the snow.
 Dropping the gun, she put her hands in the air. = She dropped the gun and put her
hands in the air.
 Putting on his coat, he left the house. = He put on his coat and left the house.

(3) The present participle as part of the continuous form of a verb

Examples
 I am working.
 He was singing.
 They have been walking.
 We will be staying.
 She would have been expecting me.

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 Perfect Participles
Before we end this lesson on participles, there is another term we should cover quickly:
"perfect participles."
Perfect participles are formed like this:
"Having" + [past participle]

Examples:
 Having taken
 Having eaten
 Having played
Some more examples of perfect participles (shaded):
 Having heard the news, he quickly sold his brother's record collection.
 Having been promised a steak dinner, she looked less than impressed with her Happy
Meal.

Exercises on Participles

A. Rewrite the sentences replacing the italic part with a present participle.
1. She was talking to her friend and forgot everything around her.
 Talking to her friend she forgot everything around her.
2. Since we watch the news everyday we know what’s going on in the world.
3. They are vegetarians and don’t eat meat.
4. The dog wagged its tail and bit the postman.
5. While she was tidying up her room she found some old photos.
6. He was a good boy and help his mother in the kitchen.
7. As they didn’t have enough money they spent their holidays at home last year.
8. The man was sitting in the café. He was reading a paper.
9. Since I didn’t feel well I didn’t go to the cinema.
10. She walked home and met an old friend.

B. Complete each pair of sentences with the correct form of the same verb, once as a present
participle and once as a past participle.
1. I hurt my leg ------------------------ football.
Bridge is a card game __________by four people.
2. It says” _______in Korea “ on my camera.
I have a job in a café ____________sandwiches.
3. I’ve spent the whole morning _______ an essay.
On the wall was some graffiti _________________in big letters.
4. Goods ________in the sales cannot be refunded.
I’ve spent all my money ___________Christmas presents.
5. The police caught the burglar _________into a house.

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Careful! There’s a lot of ___________ glass on the floor.

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