Ch. 5 Word Formation Online 2nd Term 20-21

Chapter 5
Word Formation
Dr. Nesreen Nawwab

Lec. Tahani Almansour
Word Formation
• The creation of new words in a language never stops and English

is one language that is fond of adding to its large vocabulary.
-iftar
-Brexit
2 Dr. Nesreen Nawwab

Chapter outline
In this chapter, we will explore some of the basic processes by which
new words are created.
Neologisms NW
Etymology (the study of the history and origin of NWs)
Word Formation Processes:
1.Borrowing: Loan-translation
2.Compounding: Blending
3.Clipping: Hypocorisms & Backformation
4.Conversion
5.Coinage: Eponyms & Acronyms
6.Derivation: Prefixes, Suffixes & Infixes
•Multiple Processes Dr. Nesreen Nawwab

3
Neologisms
• 1990, Ohio, USA, J. Spangler
• Device: electric suction sweeper  spangler

Neologisms
 The use of this new word spangler was very popular that the word
was used in different forms.
• People could have been spanglering their floors. (v.)
• They might even have spanglered their rugs and curtains. (v.)
 The use of this word could have extended to the following words,
but this invention was sold.
• Spanglerish. (adj.) >> a type of person who droned on and on
• Spanglerism. (n.) >>> The use of the word have also extended to a whole style of
behavior

Neologisms
• William Hoover
• Electric suction sweeper  spangler  Hoover  hoover 

hoovering the carpets.
Neologisms
• The purpose of this story is that, although we had never heard of

Mr. Spangler before, people had no difficulty coping with the new
words: spangler, spanglerish, spanglerism, spanglering or spanglered
…etc.
• Electric suction sweeper spangler hoover  vacuum cleaner

Neologisms
• Unknown people VS coping with new words
(different forms/ different processes of word formation):
• Though we had never heard of Mr. Spangler before, we had no
difficulty coping with the new words: spangler, spanglerish,
spanglerism, spanglering or spanglered.
• Processes: (coinage >> eponym, derviation >> suffix)

Neologisms
• Therefore, ‘neologism’ is a new word that people accept the use of

its different forms of that new word in the language.
• This ability to accept the use of different forms of a new word is

because there is a lot of regularity in the word-formation processes
by which new words are created.
Regularity >>> words formed according to rules & processes.

What is Etymology?
• It is the study of the origin and history of a word.

1. When did the words enter the language?
2. From what source (e.g. Latin, Greek….etc.)?
3. How have the form and meaning of words changed over time?

Etymology
 It is a term derived from Latin, but has its origins in Greek

(étymon = original form + logia = study of).
 Latin and Greek are the sources of many English words, often
providing alternative ways to describe things.
e. g., uni- (uni-cycle) Latin
mono- (mono-cycle) Greek

Etymology (continued)
• A few other parts of words derived from Ancient Greek from which
the following words came into use:
 tele (long distance) >>> telephone
 micro (small) >>> microscope
 phone (speak) >>> microphone
 scope (look) >>> telescope

Etymology (continued)
•A lot of words in daily use today were, at one time, considered

barbaric misuses of the language.
•It is difficult now to understand the horror expressed by a London

newspaper in 1909 over the use of the newly coined word aviation.

Etymology
• The constant evolution of new words and new uses

of old words can be viewed as a reassuring sign of
vitality and creativeness in the way a language is
shaped by the needs of its users.

Borrowing
 One of the most common sources of new words in English is the

process simply labeled “borrowing.”
 Borrowing is the process of taking words from other languages.

1. Borrowing words: the English language has adopted a large
number of words from other languages, including:
Croissant Piano
(French) (Italian)
Lilac Yogurt
(Persian) (Turkish)
16 Dr. Nesreen •Nawwab

1. Borrowing words: more examples
Pretzel Sofa
(German) (Arabic)
Ski Zebra
(Norwegian) (Bantu)

Borrowing (continued)
 2. Borrowing sounds: sometimes a new sound comes along

with new words.
 The voiced fricative /ʒ/ became part of English through borrowed

French words such as measure and rouge.

3. Other languages borrowing terms from English:
 Japanese use of → suupaamaaketto (supermarket)
 Hungarian → klub & futbal (sport)
 French → le stress & le weekend

 In some cases, other languages borrow words
from English but they
A. Change the word function (turned into verbs):

e.g., Portuguese → up & nerd (V.)
-upar = to upload
-nerdear = to surf the internet
B. Change the familiar meanings to unfamiliar meanings

e. g., German >>>> partnerlook >>>> English: partner + look
=to describe two people who are together and are wearing similar
clothing.
Borrowing: Loan-Translation
(Calque)
 A special type of borrowing is described as loan-translation or calque.
 It is a direct translation of the elements of a word into the

borrowing language.

The slide can be found at the following link:
https://www.slideshare.net/internationalcatlady/chapter-5-word-formation-26953106
Borrowing: Loan-Translation
(Calque)
The following English words are loan translation of other languages
 The English word superman German Ubermensch.
 The term loanword German Lehnwort.
 The expression moment of truth Spanish expression el

momento de la verdad.

Book Questions, p. 64
Which of the following is an example of calque?

a.Footbooru (Japanese) – football (English)
b.Trèning (Hungarian) – training (English)
c.Luna del miel (Spanish Moon of honey)-honeymoon (English)
d.Jardin d’enfants (French “garden of children”) – kindergarten (German
“children garden”)

2. Compounding
• Compounding is the joining of two separate words to produce a

single form.
• This process is common in German and English:
e.g., English: finger + print = fingerprint

German: lehn + wort= Lehnwort (loanword)
• We can also create compound nouns and adjectives.

Examples of Common English Compounds
1. Compound Nouns: N. + N.
Bookcase Waterbed
Wallpaper Doorknob

More Examples of Common English Compounds: N + N
N. + N.
This image27
can be found at: Dr. Nesreen Nawwab
https://www.google.com/search?q=word+formation+processes+george+yule&tbm=isch&ved=2ahUKEwiszOmR2cfnAhWN0YUKHZWdB9wQ2-cCegQIABAA&oq=word+formation+processes+george+yule&gs_l=img.3...
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Examples of Common English Compounds
2. Compound adjectives: Adj. + Adj.

 Good-looking
 Low-paid
3. Compound adjective & noun: Adj. + N.

 Fast-food
 Full-time

Compounding: Blending
• Blending is the process of combining two
separate forms to produce a single new term.
• Types of Blending:
1. the beginning of one word + the end of the other word.
Beginning + End
 Smoke + fog = smog

 Smoke + haze = smaze
 Smoke + murk = smurk
 Volcano + fog = vog
 Binary
29
+ digit = bit Dr. Nesreen Nawwab
More Examples of Blending
Beginning + End
 Breakfast + lunch = brunch

 Oxford + Cambridge = Oxbridge
 Motor + hotel = motel
 Television + broadcast = telecast
 Croissant + doughnut= cronut

More Examples of Blending
Beginning + End
•New blends from life with television:

Television + marathon = telethon
Information + entertainment = infotainment
Simultaneous + broadcast = simulcast
•New blends from the mixing of languages:

Francais + Anglais= Franglais
Spanish+ English= Spanglish

Compounding: Blending
2. Combining the beginning of both words:
Beginning + Beginning
Teleprinter + exchange = telex

Modulator+ demodulator= modem

3. Clipping
• Clipping is the process by which a word of more than one syllable
is reduced to a shorter form.
• Examples of clipping are:

Facsimile →fax Gasoline → gas
Advertisement → ad Cabriolet → cab
Fanatic→ fan Influenza→ flu
Chemistry→ chem Examination→ exam
Permanent wave → perm

Clipping
• English speakers like to clip names such as Liz, mike, Ed..etc.
Elizabeth >>>> Liz
• Examples of educational environment clipping: exam, math, gym,

lab, prof, typo
Examination >>>> exam

Clipping: Hypocorisms
•A particular type of reduction favored in Australian and British English

is known as hypocorisms.
•For example:
moving pictures→ movie television→ telly

Clipping: Hypocorisms
•In this process, a longer word is reduced to a single syllable then -y or

-ie is added to the end.
•More examples:
barbecue→ barbie bookmaker→ bookie
breakfast→ brekky Australian → Aussie
biscuit → bickie handkerchief → hankie
toasted sandwich → toastie

Clipping: Backformation
A very specialized type of reduction process is known as

backformation >>>>> a word of one type (usually a noun) is reduced
to form a word of another type (usually a verb.)
For example: babysitter (n.) babysit (v.)

television (n.) televised (v.)

 Verb: back-form (itself a back-formation).
 More examples:
Noun Verb
-donation (n.) donate (v.)

-worker (n.) work (v.)
-emotion (n.) emote (v.)
-enthusiasm (n.) enthuse (v.)

 Recent creations:
Noun Verb
-automation (n.) automate (v.)

-syllabification (n.) syllabify (v.)
-bulldozer (n.) bulldoze (v.)
-mixture (n.) mix (v.)

 One very regular source of backformed verbs in English is based on
the common pattern
worker >>> work

 If there is a noun ending in –er (or something close in sound), then we
can create a verb for what that noun –er does.
Noun+ER Verb
-editor (n.) edit (v.)

-worker (n.) work (v.)
-sculptor (n.) sculpt (v.)
-beggars (n.) beg (v.)
-burglar (n.) burgle(v.)
-peddler (n.) peddle (v.)
Clipping: Backformation VS Clipping
Backformation Clipping
VS
•Television (n.) >>> Televise •Examination (n.) >>> Exam
(v.) (n.)
Bac

Clipping: Backformation VS Clipping
Backformation Clipping
•Reduces a long word such •Reduces words of more
as a noun to a shorter VS than one syllable to a shorter
version and using it as a form, but
new word such
Bac as a verb.
•changes the part of •does not change the part
speech of words. of speech of words.
•Television (n.) >>> Televise •Examination (n.) >>> Exam

(v.) (n.)

4. Conversion
o Do you have glue adj? VS I want you to glue v the

papers.
He is using a glue n stick. He glued v the papers.

Conversion
o Conversion is a change in the function of a word without any

reduction as when a noun comes to be used as a verb.
o It is also known as “category change” or “functional shift.”

Conversion
o Examples of “category change/functional shift” conversion:
1. Nouns Verbs
 Bottle (n.) >>> We bottled the home-brew last night. (v.)

 Butter (n.) >>> Have you buttered the toast? (v.)
 Chair (n.) >>> Someone has to chair the meeting? (v.)
 Vacation (n.) >>> They are vacationing in Florida. (v.)

Conversion
o The conversion process is very productive in Modern English, with
new uses occurring frequently.
2. Verbs Nouns
-guess(v.) > a guess (n.)

-must (v.) a must (n.)
-spy (v.) a spy (n.)

Conversion
• Some other examples of conversion are listed here:

Conversion
3. Phrasal verbs Nouns
-to print out >> a printout (n.)

-to take over a takeover (n.)
4. One complex verb combination Noun
-want to be >> He isn’t in the group. He’s just a wannabe.

Conversion
5. Verbs Adjectives
I can see through the door. >> This is a see-through material
You must stand up for yourself. He is a stand-up comedian.
Adjectives Verbs
6.
-a dirty floor >> to dirty (v.)

-an empty room to empty (v.)
Adjectives Nouns
7.
-crazy >> a crazy (n.)
-nasty
49
the nasty (n.) Dr. Nesreen Nawwab
Conversion
8. Compounds Nouns Adjectives
The ball-park (estimate) >> a ball-park figure. (adj.)
9. Compounds Nouns Verbs
-The ball park >> to ball-park an estimate of the cost. (v.)

-Some other compound nouns used as verbs:
carpool, microwave, quarterback.
10.
Other forms Verbs
-up >> -They are going to up the price. (v.)

-down -The storm downed power lines through out the
50 city (v.) Dr. Nesreen Nawwab
Continued: Conversion
• Some words can shift in meaning when they go through conversion.
-He doctored the documents / the receipts.

• Example: the word to doctor has a negative sense, not normally
associated with the source noun a doctor.

5. Coinage
 One of the least common processes of word formation in English,
that is the invention and general use of totally new terms.
 It is usually without capital letters.
 The most typical sources are invented trade names for commercial
products that become general terms for any version of that product.

Coinage: trade names for commercial products >> general
terms >> no capital letters
Older examples:
•aspirin
•vaseline
•zipper
More Examples
• The most significant contemporary example of coinage is the word
google.
googol >> Googleplex >> Google >> google (n.) >> google (v.)
• New products and concepts (ebay) and new activities are the usual
sources of coinage.


Coinage (continued)
• There are two types of coinage:
1.Eponyms 2.Acronyms
e. g. NASA
e. g. hoover


 One type of coinage is called eponyms (new words based on
the name of a person or a place).
Examples:
hoover sandwich
jeans teddy bear

•When is an eponym a neologism?


Another type of coinage is called Acronyms.
• Acronyms are new words formed from the initial letters of a set of
other words.
• There are many types of acronyms:

(1)
-CD (“Compact Disk”) or
-SPCA (“Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals”).

Acronyms
• (2)
-UNESCO >> the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization.
-NASA >> National Aeronautics and Space Administration.

Acronyms
• (3)
-laser >> “light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation.”
-radar >> “radio detecting and ranging”
-scuba >> “self-contained underwater breathing apparatus”
-sim >> “subscriber identity module” a sim card
-zip code >> “zone improvement plan” zip code

Acronyms
• (4) The initial letters are pronounced as names for

organizations where their acronym represent an appropriate
term as
-MADD>> “mothers against drunk driving.”

-WAR >> “women against rape”

Acronyms
• (5)
-ATM>> “automatic teller machine.”
-PIN>> “personal identification number.”
Speaker: I sometimes forget my PIN number when I go to the ATM
machine.

Acronyms
• (5) The initial letters are pronounced as names for innovations

where one of their elements is repeated. Many speakers do not
think of these acronyms component meanings. For example,
-ATM>> “automatic teller machine.”

-PIN>> “personal identification number.”
Speaker: I sometimes forget my PIN number when I go to the ATM
machine.

Summary of Types of Acronyms
The pronunciation of the initial letters of a set of other words by

pronouncing
1. Each letter separately as CD.

2.Letters as new single words and kept their capital letters as NASA
3. Letters as new single words, but have become everyday terms written
with small letters as laser.
4. Letters as names for organizations where their acronym represent an
appropriate term as WAR >> “women against rape”
5. Letters as names for innovations where one of their elements is
repeated as ATM >> “automatic teller machine.”

Derivation .6
• e.g. unhappy, misrepresent, prejudge, joyful, careless, boyish,

terrorism and sadness.

Derivation
• It is the most common word-formation process.
• Derivation is the word formation process in which a derivational

affix attaches to the base form of a word to create a new word.
• Affixes: small groups of letters added to a word to change its meaning

such as un-, mis-, pre-, -ful, -less, -ish, -ism, -ness.
• E.g. unhappy, misrepresent, prejudge, joyful, careless, boyish,

terrorism and sadness.

Types of Affixes
All English words are formed by this derivational process using three
types of affixes:
(1) Prefixes, e.g. mislead.

(2) Suffixes, e.g. foolish Both are called bound morphemes.
(3) Infixes, e. g. absoblessedlutely

Types of Affixes
(1) Prefixes are added at beginning of the word, e.g. mislead.

(2) Suffixes are added at end of the word, e.g. foolish Both are called
bound morphemes.
•Both types can be used:

separately in words as replay, joyful.
together (prefix & suffix) in the same word, e.g., disrespectful.
two suffixes together as foolishness.

Derivation: Prefixes
• a- – without, not
• co- – together
• de- – opposite, negative, removal, separation
• dis- –opposite, negative
• en- – cause to be
• ex- – former, previous, from
• in- – negative, not
• non- – absence, not
• re- – again, repeatedly
• un- – negative, not, opposite, reversal

Derivation: Suffixes
• -able – sense of being
• -er – agent
• -ful – characterized by
• -fy – make, become, cause to be
• -ism – action or practice, state or condition
• -less – lack of
• -ly – -like
• -ology – study, science
• -ship – condition, character, skill
• -y – characterized by, inclination, condition

 Suffixes: Grammatical Form Changing
• V. → N.: preserve → preservation

• V. → Adj. : bore → boring
• N. → verb: code → codify
• N. → Adj. : nature → natural
• Adj. → N. : ugly → ugliness
• Adj. → verb: sweet → sweeten
• Adj. → Adv. : quick → quickly
• Read more: http://www.brighthub.com/education/languages/articles/59338.aspx#ixzz1GzTRwR8Z

Types of Affixes
(3) Infixes >>> not used in English, but found in some other languages.
-It is an affix that is incorporated inside another word (inserted in the

middle of a stem). ‫قول‬
•It is occasionally used in aggravating circumstances by emotionally

aroused English speakers.
•Example: Hallebloodylujah and absoblessedlutely.

Derivation
• Infixes can form new words of different grammatical forms, e.g.,
verb to noun as shown in the following examples from Khmu, a
language spoken in northern Laos and Vietnam.
• We can see a regular pattern whereby the infix –rn- is added to verbs
to form nouns.

What are the word-formation processes used in these

examples?
•They might get AIDS.
•That’s fundamntastic!
•My new skateboards are kickass.
•I want to see a doc, not a vet.
•My house was burgled when I was out babysitting.
•This old sofa is comfy.
•I would like a toastie for brekky.
•You don’t need to button this shirt because it has velcro inside.

Multiple processes
 In the previous slides, we have focused on
explaining the word formation processes in
isolation.

Multiple processes
 It is possible to trace the operation of more than one process at
work in the creation of a particular word.
 Examples:
• deli (from German delicatessen) → Borrowing + clipping
• snowball (V) → Compounding + conversion

e.g. Problems with the project have snowballed.

Multiple processes
• Forms that begin as acronyms can also go through other processes

as in the use of lase (v.)
-Acronym: laser “light amplification by stimulated emission of

radiation.”
laser → lase (v.) Clipping: backformation
-Acronym: WASP “white Anglo-Saxon Protestant”

WASP → waspish attitudes (adj.) Derivation

Multiple processes
• WASP: pronounce as one word.
• Refer to PPL in American society whose
ancestors came from Northern Europe
especially England (considered to have power/
high status people)

Multiple processes
• An acronym that never seems to have had capital letters :
• Acronym: yuppie >> comes from “young urban professional”

yuppie → process → Clipping: hypocorism
yuppie → analogy with an earlier word >> hippie
Hippie → analogy with an earlier word >> yippie
yippie >>> acronym “youth international party”

>>> and the process of analogy continuous.

Multiple processes
• Analogy: new words are formed similar in a
way to existing words.

Multiple processes
• Many of these new words can have a very brief life-span.
• The generally accepted test of the recently formed words in a

language is their recent appearance in dictionaries.
 app (application), vape (vaporizer), both via clipping.

 Blog (web log) via blending.
 Unfriend and mint (= cool) via conversion.

• Assignment:
-Answer questions # 1-10on pp. 64-65.

End of Chapter 5


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Chapter 5

Dr. Nesreen Nawwab

• The creation of new words in a language never stops and English

2 Dr. Nesreen Nawwab

•Multiple Processes Dr. Nesreen Nawwab

• Device: electric suction sweeper  spangler

4 Dr. Nesreen Nawwab

5 Dr. Nesreen Nawwab

• Electric suction sweeper  spangler  Hoover  hoover 

• The purpose of this story is that, although we had never heard of

• Electric suction sweeper spangler hoover  vacuum cleaner

7 Dr. Nesreen Nawwab

8 Dr. Nesreen Nawwab

• Therefore, ‘neologism’ is a new word that people accept the use of

• This ability to accept the use of different forms of a new word is

Regularity >>> words formed according to rules & processes.

9 Dr. Nesreen Nawwab

• It is the study of the origin and history of a word.

10 Dr. Nesreen Nawwab

 It is a term derived from Latin, but has its origins in Greek

11 Dr. Nesreen Nawwab

 micro (small) >>> microscope

 phone (speak) >>> microphone

 scope (look) >>> telescope

12 Dr. Nesreen Nawwab

•A lot of words in daily use today were, at one time, considered

•It is difficult now to understand the horror expressed by a London

13 Dr. Nesreen Nawwab

• The constant evolution of new words and new uses

14 Dr. Nesreen Nawwab

 One of the most common sources of new words in English is the

 Borrowing is the process of taking words from other languages.

15 Dr. Nesreen Nawwab

16 Dr. Nesreen •Nawwab

17 Dr. Nesreen Nawwab

 2. Borrowing sounds: sometimes a new sound comes along

 The voiced fricative /ʒ/ became part of English through borrowed

18 Dr. Nesreen Nawwab

3. Other languages borrowing terms from English:

 Japanese use of → suupaamaaketto (supermarket)

 Hungarian → klub & futbal (sport)

 French → le stress & le weekend

19 Dr. Nesreen Nawwab

A. Change the word function (turned into verbs):

B. Change the familiar meanings to unfamiliar meanings

 A special type of borrowing is described as loan-translation or calque.

 It is a direct translation of the elements of a word into the

21 Dr. Nesreen Nawwab

The following English words are loan translation of other languages

 The English word superman German Ubermensch.

 The term loanword German Lehnwort.

 The expression moment of truth Spanish expression el

23 Dr. Nesreen Nawwab

Which of the following is an example of calque?

24 Dr. Nesreen Nawwab

• Compounding is the joining of two separate words to produce a

• This process is common in German and English:

e.g., English: finger + print = fingerprint

• We can also create compound nouns and adjectives.

25 Dr. Nesreen Nawwab

26 Dr. Nesreen Nawwab

2. Compound adjectives: Adj. + Adj.

3. Compound adjective & noun: Adj. + N.