Pumps and Pumping Systems

Energy Balance for a Typical Pumping

System
ELECTRICITY
100%
12% LOSS
2% LOSS
24% LOSS
9% LOSS
11% LOSS
MOTOR
COUPLING
PUMPS
VALVES
PIPES
WORK DONE ON WATER
(Source: ASHRAE HVAC Systems and Equipment Handbook 2004)
Base plate-mounted centrifugal pump installation
Centrifugal pump
(Source: Wang, S. K., 2001. Handbook of Air Conditioning and Refrigeration)
A double-suction, horizontal split-case, single-stage centrifugal pump
Pump motor Centrifugal pump body
CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS
DEFINITION: DEVICE THAT USES AN EXTERNAL POWER
SOURCE TO APPLY FORCE TO A FLUID IN ORDER TO
MOVE IT FROM ONE PLACE TO ANOTHER

USED TO DECREASE THE MECHANICAL ENERGY OF
FLUID.

THE ENERGY DECREASES MAY BE USED TO DECREASE
THE VELOCITY. THE PRESSURE OR THE ELEVATION OF
THE FLUID.

CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS
PUMPS FIND APPLICATION IN VARIOUS TYPES OF
INDUSTRIES SUCH AS
-CHEMICAL
-PETROCHEMICAL
-REFINERIES
-FERTILISERS
-PAPER
-SUGAR ETC
THE PUBLIC WORKS, THERMAL POWER STATIONS, SEWAGE
TREATMENT PLANTS AGRICULTURAL SECTOR ALSO FIND
MAJOR APPLICATION FOR PUMPS.

*ADVANTAGES OF CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS

- SIMPLICITY

- LOW FIRST COST

- UNIFORM FLOW ( NON - PULSATING)

- SMALL FLOOR SPACE

- LOW OPERATION & MAINTENANCE EXPENSE

- QUICK OPERATION AND

- ADOPTABILITY TO USE WITH MOTOR OR
TURBINE DRIVE.


CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS
INDUSTRY /SECTOR ANNUAL SAVING POTENTIAL

(in Rs. Million)* (in MW)

CHEMICAL &
PETROCHEMICAL PLANT 700 29.30
PULP AND PAPER PLANT 675 28.30
STEEL PLANT 400 16.70
FERTILIZER PLANT 300 12.60
THERMAL POWER PLANT 270 11.30
TEXTILE PLANT 100 4.20
CEMENT PLANT 45 1.90
COMMERCIAL BUILDINGS &
HOTELS 60 2.50
PUBLIC WATER WORKS 1500 62.80
OTHERS 200 8.40


TOTAL 4250 178.00
BREAK-UP OF ENERGY SAVINGS POTENTIAL
IN PUMPS
* BASED ON AVERAGE ELECTRICITY PRICE OF Rs 3.00 PER
UNIT AND OPERATING PERIOD OF 8000 HOURS PER YEAR
H
E
A
D

CAPACITY
CENTRIFUGAL PUMP CHARACTERISTICS
H
E
A
D

CAPACITY
CENTRIFUGAL PUMP CHARACTERISTICS
E
F
F
I
C
I
E
N
C
Y

CAPACITY
CENTRIFUGAL PUMP CHARACTERISTICS
B
H
P

CAPACITY
H
E
A
D

CAPACITY
CENTRIFUGAL PUMP CHARACTERISTICS
OPERATING POINT
ENERGY CONSERVATION IN PUMPS AT
DESIGN STAGE
SELECT PUMPS IN THEIR RANGE OF GREATEST EFFICIENCY,
WHICH IS USUALLY IN THE RANGE OF 50-70% OF THEIR
MAXIMUM CAPACITY.
DO NOT ALLOW AN EXTRA PRESSURE LOSS IN THE PIPING
AS A SAFETY FACTOR
PROVISION FOR AIR VENTING FROM THE SYSTEM IN DESIGN,
INSTALLATION AND MAINTENANCE.
DO NOT OVERSIZE THE PUMP.
ENSURE ALL THE JOINTS ARE LEAK PROOF TO AVOID AIR
IMPRESS DURING PUMPING OPERATION.
ENSURE THAT (NPSH)A >(NPSH)R
KEEP SECTION LIFT OF 4.5 TO 5M.
SPECIFIC SPEED
SPECIFIC SPEED IS A CORRELATION OF PUMP CAPACITY,
HEAD AND SPEED AT OPTIMUM EFFICIENCY.

DEFINITION
THE SPECIFIC SPEED OF AN IMPELLER, IS THE REVOLUTION
PER MINUTE AT WHICH A GEOMENTRICALLY SIMILAR
IMPELLER WOULD RUN, IF IT WERE SUCH A SIZE AS TO
DISCHARGE 1M3/S, AGAINST 1M HEAD.

THIS IS A NUMBER EXPRESSED AS .

NS = ( N*Q)/H3/4
Ns = SPECIFIC SPEED
N = ROTATIVE SPEED IN rpm
Q = CAPACITY,m3/s
H = TOTAL HEAD, m
( Head per stage for a multistage pump)
PUMP SUCTION PRESSURE
* SYSTEM PRESSURE
* STATIC PRESSURE
* LIVE PRESSURE DROP
PUMP DISCHARGE PRESSURE
* SYSTEM PRESSURE
* STATIC PRESSURE
* LINE PRESSURE DROP
* PRESSURE DROP ACROSS INSTRUMENTS
* PRESSURE DROP ACROSS EQUIPMENTS
DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE
= DISCHARGE PRESSURE - SUCTION PRESSURE
PUMP PROCESS DESIGN
H
E
A
D

CAPACITY
CENTRIFUGAL PUMP CHARACTERISTICS
STATIC
HEAD
FRACTION
HEAD
H
E
A
D

CAPACITY
CENTRIFUGAL PUMP CHARACTERISTICS
STATIC HEAD
EFFICIENCY
SYSTEM CHAR.
PUMP - OVER DESIGN
* MORE USUALLY ENCOUNTERED DUE TO
DESIGNERS OVER PROVISION OF SAFETY
MEASUREMENT

* RESULTS HIGH EQUIPMENTS COST

* THE SYSTEM COULD SUFFER DUE TO THE
FOLLOWING

- THROTTLING MAY OCCUR, LEADING TO
WEAR ON VALVES NOT DESIGNED FOR
CONTROL AND INCREASED NOISE LEVELS

- CAVITATION
- OVER LOADED MOTOR

- REDUCED PUMP LIFE ( ESPECIALLY IF THE
FLOW RATES ARE MUCH ABOVE THE
OPTIMUM)

- PUMP INLET CONDITIONS WILL SUFFER

- HIGH ENERGY COST

PUMP - UNDER DESIGN
* PUMPS OPERATING AWAY FROM THEIR
DESIGNED DUTY POINTS, AT HIGHER HEADS
AND DECREASED FLOW , RESULTING IN THE
PLANT BEING UNABLE TO MEET ITS DESIGN
PERFORMANCE


* INCREASE IN NOISE LEVELS


* REDUCED PUMP LIFE
DESING CONSIDERATIONS
* OVER DESIGN LEADS TO CONSIDERABLE LOSS OF
EFFICIENCY & ENERGY IN PUMPS

* MINIMISE OVER DESIGN

* AN IDEAL SAFTY MARGIN FOR A PUMP WILL
BE 10 % EACH ON CAPACITY & HEAD

* THE IDEAL MARGIN FOR MPSH WHOUD BE
0.5 - 1.0 M ON THE NPSH REQUIRED

* THE NORMAL ALLOWABLE MARGINS IN
POWER ARE 5 - 15 % BETWEEN THE MAXIMUM
POWER IN OPERATING A PUMP & THE MOTOR
RATING

VARIOUS TYPE PUMP EFFICIENCY
* AUXIAL PUMP 80 %

* MIXED FLOW PUMP 70 %

* SINGLE STAGE CENTRIFUGAL PUMP 60 %

* MULTISTAGE CENTRIFUGAL PUMP 40 %

* TURBINE PUMP 50 %

* SUBMERCIBLE PUMP 35 %

* RECIPROCATING PUMP 30 %

* JET PUMP 15 %
CASE STUDY 1
1.5 Kg/cm
2
7.2m
0.4m
Globe valve
0.15Kg/cm
2
0.8Kg/cm
2
0.35Kg/cm
2
21.2m
7. 5Kg/cm
2
Liquid pumped = hydrocarbon fluid
Flow rate =115m
3
/hr
Specific gravity at PT =1.20
Viscosity = 0.64
Vapour pressure =1.5Kg/Cm
2

Geometric pipe length
Suction =10m
Discharge =100m

Fluid velocity
Suction =1m/s
Discharge =2m/s
Equilibrium length in m
Pipe fitting suction Discharge
Gate valve 1.6 1.2
Strainer 12 9
Elbow 6.1 4.6
Tee 4.8 3
NRV 27.5 19.8
Entrance - 8
Exit 12 8
Reducer 1.6 1.2
Find out the following
A) suction & Discharge line sizes
B) Suction & Discharge pressure
C) Motor Hp required
D) (NPSH)a
Pump should be located at the storage
area so that the line pressure drop is
smaller. Positive head developed is more.


RECOMMENDED VELOCITIES FOR SIZING PUMP
SUCTION & DISCHARGE PIPE LINES
DESCRPTION SUCTION DISCHARGE
(m/s) (m/s)

VISCOUS LIQUIDS 0.50 0.80

LIGHT OILS 0.80 1.00

WATER 1.50 1.5 - 2.00

PIPE DIAMETER
P
U
M
P
I
N
G

C
O
S
T


C
A
P
I
T
A
L

C
O
S
T

ECONOMIC PIPE DIAMETER
Solution:
Suction side:
Fluid flow rate = 115m3/hr
Q = Av
Q = /4Ds
2
*v
115/3600 = /4Ds
2
*1
Ds = 0.2016m
pf = 4fLv
2
/2gD
Geometric length of the suction side
Equivalent length=10m
L = (1.6*2)+4.8+(12*1)+(1.6*1)+3(6.1)+12
= 39.9+12=51.9.
L = Geometric length + equivalent pipe length for fitting.
L = 10+51.9=61.9 m

NRe = [(D**v)/]
= [(0.2016*1*1200)/0.6*10
-3
]
= 403200
Since Turbulent flow
F = 0.0035+0.264(403200)
-0.42
F = 4.67*10
-3
F = [(4*4.67*10
-3
*61.9*12)/2*9.81*0.2016]
= 0.2922m
= 0.2922*10
-4
*1200
= 0.0351Kg/Cm
2
Static head = (7.2-0.4)*1200*10
-4
= 0.816Kg/Cm
2


Suction pressure Kg/Cm
2

System pressure 1.5
Static head 0.816
Line pressure drop -0.0351
Suction pressure 2.2809Kg/Cm
2


Discharge side:
Q = AdVd
115/3600 = /4Dd
2
*2
Dd = 0.1426m

Equivalent length calculation.
Gate value 6*1.2 7.2
Elbow 3*4.6 13.8
Tee 4*3 12.0
Entrance 2*8 16.0
Exit 1*8 8
NRV 1*19.8 19.8
76.8 m
L = 100+76.8
= 176.8m
NRe = DVP/
= (0.1426*2*1200)/0.6*10-3
= 570400
F = 0.0035+0.264(570400)
-0.42
= 4.51*10
-3

pf =[(4*f*L*v2)/2gD]

pf = 4*4.51*10-3*176.8*2
2
/2*9.81*0.1426
= .56m
= 4.56*10-4*1200
= 0.547Kg/Cm2

Static head = (21.2-0.4)*10
-4
*1200
= 2.496Kg/Cm
2

Discharge pressure Kg/Cm
2

System pressure 7.5
Pressure drop across cv 0.8
Pressure drop across orifice 0.15
Pressure drop across He 0.35
Static head 2.496
Line Pressure drop 0.547

Discharge pressure = 11.843Kg/Cm
2


Differential pressure = Discharge pressure suction pressure
= 11.843-2.2809
= 9.5621Kg/Cm2
= 95.621mWC
(NPSH)a
Suction pressure Vapour pressure
= 2.2809-1.5
= 0.7809 Kg/Cm
2
=7.809 mWC
Safety margin = 0.600/7.209 mWC
=7.209/1.2 = 6.0075MLC

Horse power required
HHP = (115/3600)*[(1200*95.621)/75]
= 48.87
BHP = HHP/Pump = 48.87/0.6 = 81.45
Motor HP = BHP/Motor = 81.45/0.9 = 90
CASE STUDY 2
CALCULATE NPSH AVAILABLE FOR THE PUMP SHOWN IN FIG.
LIQUID PUMPED CONDENSATE AT 85
0
C AT 50m3/hr.

SPECIFIC GRAVITY AT 85
0
C =0.9
VISCOSITY AT 85
0
C =0.32cp
VAPOUR AT 85
0
C =0.48kg/cm2


EQUIVALENT PIPE LENGTH
FOOT VALVE =12m
ELBOW =3.2m
GATE VALVE =1.4m
STRAINER =0.2m
REDUCER =0.9m
0.5m
1m
0.5m
100
pipe
4 x 3reducer
SOLUTION:
Static head =10
-4
x900x1.5=0.135kg/cm
2
System pressure =10.33mwc=1.033kg/cm
2
Line pressure drop
pf =[(4*f*L*v2)/2gD]
L =(12*1)+(3.2*1)+(1.4*1)+(0.2*1)+(0.9*1)=17.7
L = 3+17.7=20.7
/4*D
2
*v = Q
/4*0.1
2
*v = 50/3600
V= 50/3600*4/*1/0.01
V=1.77m/sec
NRe = [(D**v)/]=[(0.1*900*1.77)/0.32*10
-3
]=497812.5
F = 0.0035+0.264(497812.5)
-0.42
F =4.57*10
-3
p
f
=[(4*4.57*10
-3
*20.7*1.77
2
)/(2*9.81*0.1)]=0.604m

Kg/Cm
2
System pressure 1.033
Static head -0.135
Line pressure drop (10-4*900*0.604) -0.054
=0.884Kg/Cm
2
(NPSH) available
0.884
-0.480 (Vapour pressure)
=0.364 Kg/Cm
2
=3.64 mwc
Safety margin =0.60mwc
=3.04mwc

(NPSH)a =3.04mwc
=3.04/0.9
=3.378MLC
SAFETY MARGINS CONSIDERED IN
DETERMINING THE MOTOR SIZES
UPTO 7.5 Kw = 20 %
FROM 7.5 Kw TO 40 Kw = 15 %
ABOVE 40 Kw = 10 %


* ABOVE FACTORS ARE APPLICABLE ONLY TO
THOSE CASES, WHERE THE PERFORMANCE
PARAMETERS CAN BE PREDICTED ACCURA -
TELY AT DESIGN STAGE



* IMPROVED OPERATING EFFICIENCY

* REDUCTION IN OPERATION & MAINTANANCE
COSTS

* IMPROVED PROFITS

ECON MEASURES AT THE DEGIGN STAGE RESULTS IN
BOILER FEED PUMP WILL HAVE A CAPACITY
OF 1.2 TO 1.25 TIMES THE BOILER CAPACITY
COOLING TOWEER PUMPS IN A POWER PLANT
WILL HAVE A CAPACITY OF 60 TIMES THE
BOILER CAPACITY
PUMP CAPACITY
PUMP EFFICIENCY =
USEFUL OUTPUT POWER, kW

INPUT POWER, kW
* 100
HHP
BHP
* 100
=

INPUT POWER, W =1 .73 VI COS

V - SUPPLY VOLTAGE , 440 V

I - CURRENT CONSUMED BY THE PUMP, AMPS

COS - POWER FACTOR, NORMALLY > 0.8

W - POWER CONSUMED IN WATTS


OUTPUT POWER, BHP =

Q - FLOW RATE , m
3
/s

P - DIFFERENTIAL HEAD, kg/m
2
Q * P

102
PREDICTION OF PUMP EFFICIENCY
FLOW RATE MEASURED, Q = 45 m
3
/h

HEAD ,P = 30 kg/ cm
2

= 30* 10
4
kg /m
2

USEFUL OUTPUT POWER, kW

= (FLOW RATE, m
3
/ s) * (DIFFERENTIAL HEAD kg /m
2
) * 1/102

= 45 / 3600 * ( 30* 10
4
) * 1/102

= 36.76 kW

VOLTAGE MEASSURED = 400 V

CURRENT MEASSURED = 85A

POWER FACTOR = 0.85

INPUT POWER, kW = 1 .73 VI COS / 1000

= 1 .73 * 400*85*0.85 / 1000

= 50 kW

36.76
EFFICIENCY = * 100

50

= 73.52 %

PREDICTION OF PUMP EFFICIENCY
CASE STUDY 3
EFFICIENCY OF CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS

Pump
= (Output / Input)x100

Pump
= [Q*H*g*] / [3600 x
motor
x 1000 x P]

P = Input power in KW = [( 3
*
V
*
I
*
COS) / 1000]
Q = Flow rate in m
3
/ h
G = Acceleration due to gravity, 9.807m/s

H = Head in m
= Fluid density, Kg / m
3
Pump = Pump efficiency
Motor = Motor efficiency
V = Supply voltage, V
I = Current drawn by the motor, A
Cos = Power factor



PUMP PERFORMANCE WITH IMPELLER
DIAMETER & OR SPEED CHANGE


Q1,H1,BHP1,D1 & N1 - INITIAL CAPACITY,

HEAD, BRAKE HORSE POWER, DIAMETER

& SPEED


Q2,H2,BHP2,D2 & N2 - NEW CAPACITY,

HEAD, BRAKE HORSE POWER, DIAMETER

& SPEED





DIAMATER CHANGE ONLY


Q2 = Q1( D2 /D1)

H2 = H1(D2/D1)
2

BHP2 = BHP1(D2/D1)
3


CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS-CAPACITY
CONTROL
PARALLEL OPERATION
CONTROL VALUE WITH BY PASS
REGULATION
SPEED REGULATION
THROTTLING AT CONSTANT SPEED
ENERGY CONSERVATION OPTIONS IN
PUMPING SYSTEM
IMPELLER TRIMMING
DOWN SIZING THE IMPELLER
IMPELLER REPAIR AND REPLACEMENT
REPLACEMENT WITH SMALLER PUMPS
SPEED VARIATION
COMBINED THROTTLING & SPEED CONTROL
DECENTRALIZATION OF PUMPING SYSTEM
AVOID UNNECESSARY PUMPING
PROVIDE OVERHEAD TANK FOR GRAVITY FLOW
FOR THE GIVEN PIPE SIZE
Normal Flow Rate = Q
1
Normal Pressure Drop = P
1
Max. Flow Rate = Q
2
Max. Pressure Drop = P
2

What is the relation between P
1
& P
2
?
P
2
= X
2
P
1
Where X = (Q
2
/ Q
1
)
For example :
Q
1
= 65 m
3
/ h , P
1
= 0.45 kg / cm
2
Q
2
= 80 m
3
/ h , P
2
= ?

P
2
= (Q
2
/ Q
1
)
2
*
P
1

=(80/65)
2
*
0.45
= 0.68 kg / cm
2
PUMP PERFORMANCE WITH IMPELLER
DIAMETER & OR SPEED CHANGE




SPEED CHANGE ONLY

Q2 = Q1(N2/N1)


H2 = H1(N2/N2)
2


BHP2 = BHP1(N2/N1)
3





DIAMETER AND SPEED CHANGE

Q2 = Q1(D2/D1 * N2/N1)


H2 = H1(D2/D1 * N2/N2)
2


BHP2 = BHP1(D2/D1 * N2/N1)
3




* THE SUCTION LINE SHOULD NEVER BE
SMALLER THAN PUMP INLET & SHOULD BE
LARGER IF FEASIBLE

* WHEN TWO OR MORE PUMPS ARE CONNECTED
TO A COMMAN HEADER, A SUCTION LINE
SHOULD BE SELECTED LARGER ENOUGH SO
THAT THE FLUID DOESNOT TRAVEL FASTER
THAN 0.8 m/s THROUGH THE SUCTIONLINE AT
THE COMBINED CAPACITY.

* SLOPE UNIFORMLY TO PUMP FROM FLUID
SUPPLY TO AVOID AIR PACKETS

* BYPASS DESIGN SHOULD TAKE FLUID BACK
TO FLUID SOURCE & NOT INTO SUCTION LINE

* SUCTION LINE SHOULD BE FIRMLY ANCHORED
OR BURIED TO AVOID PUTTING A STRAIN ON
THE PUMP & TO HELP PREVENT SYSTEM
VIBRATIONS FROM ACTING DIRECTLY ON
THE PUMP

DESIGN OF PIPINGS
DESIGN OF PIPINGS

FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED IN THE DESIGN OF
SUCTION PIPING :




* PUMP SHOULD BE AS CLOSE TO THE FLUID
SUPPLY AS POSSIBLE

* USE FULL OPENING VALVES & AVOID
CONSTRICTING VALVES

* THE IDEAL PIPE ARRANGEMENT IS SHORT
AND DIRECT, USING NO ELLS. SHOULD ELLS
BE REQUIRED USE 45
O
LONG, RADIUS INSTEAD
OF 90
0
ELLS

* IF A REDUCER IS REQUIRED IN SUCTION LINE
BETWEEN MAIN LINE & PUMP, USE AN
ECCENTRIC REDUCER RATHER THAN
CONCENTRIC WITH STRAIGHT PORTION IN
TOP
CAVITATION:
IT IS A PHENOMENON WHICH HAS BEEN KNOWN FOR ITS
DESTRUCTIVE POWERS & GENERALLY ARISES BECAUSE OF
THE BOILING OF A LIQUID DUE TO LOW PRESSURE RATHER
THAN HIGH PRESSURE.
CAVITATION CAN CREATE SEVERE EROSION ON PUMP
IMPELLERS WHICH IN TURN SETS UP VIBRATION AND NOISE,
RUNNING WITH A RESULT AND LOSS IN PUMPING
EFFICIENCY.
VARIOUS FACTORS, EITHER COLLECTIVE OR INDIVIDUALLY
CONTRIBUTE TO THIS PHINOMENON IN THE PUMPING FIELD.
ABNORMALLY HIGH SUCTION LIFTS OR IN CORRECT PIPE
LAYOUTS ARE TWO PROMINENT FAULTS.
GENERALLY SPEAKING, CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS ARE LIMITED
TO SUCTION LIFT OF A APPROXIMATES 4.5M HIGHER VALUE
CAN BE ACHIEVED UNDER CERTAIN CIRCUMSTANCE .

THEORETICAL SUCTION LIFT 10.35M FOR WATER AT 40C
SUCTION LIFT IS REDUCED BY
ATTITUDE
FRICTIONAL LOSSES IN THE SUCTION BY INCLUDING
VELOCITY HEAD AND ENTERY LOSSES.
THE EFFECT AND VAPOUR PRESSURE OF THE FLUID AT P.T.
REQUIRED NPSH.




THE EFFICIENCYOF PUMP CAN BE IMPROVED BY THE ADOPTION OF THE FOLLOWING MEASURES


* RIGHT SELECTION OF PUMP FOR A PARTICULAR
APPLICATION

* SELECTION AND INSTALLATION OF CORRECT SIZE PUMPS

* ENERGY EFFICIENT OPERATING PRACTICES

* UNITIZATION OF PUMPS

* INSTALLATION OF VARIABLE SPEED DRIVERS

* SEREGATION OF HIGH-HEAD AND LOW-HEAD USERS

* UTILIZATION OF GRAVITY HEAD
CONCLUSON
* INSTALLATION OF HIGH EFFICIENCY PUMPS

* RELOCATION OF PROCESS CODENSERS

* ADOPTION OF THE PROPER DESIGN PARAMETERS
FOR PUMPS AND PIPING

* PROPER INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL FOR EFFICIENT
OPERATION, MONITORING AND CONTROL




THE ENERGY EFFICIENCY IN PUMPING SYSTEMS IS BEST
ACHIEVED BY ADOPTION OF ENERGY CONSERVATION AND
RATED DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS AT THE IMPLEMENTATION
/ PROJECT STAGE.
CONCLUSON
VALVES
Types of Valves
Two basic groups:
Stop valves - used to shut off or partially shut
off the flow of fluid ( ex: globe, gate, plug,
needle, butterfly)
Check Valves - used to permit flow in only
one direction (ex: ball-check, swing-check, lift-
check)
Special types:
Relief valves
Pressure-reducing valves
Remote-operated valves
Globe Valve
Most common valve
in a propulsion plant
Body may be straight,
angle, or cross type
Valve inlet and outlet
openings are
designed to suit
varying requirements
of flow
Valve may be
operated in the
partially open position
(throttled)
Commonly used in
steam, air, oil and
water lines
Gate
Valve
Used for a straight line of flow where minimum
restriction is desired
Not suitable for throttling
May be rising stem or nonrising stem
Ball Valve
Most ball valves are
quick acting - only require
90
o
turn to completely
open or shut valve
Some ball valves may
have gearing for ease of
use (also increases
operating time)
Used in seawater,
sanitary, trim and drain,
air, hydraulic, and oil
transfer systems
Butterfly Valve
Lightweight, relatively small, and quick acting
May be used for throttling
Used in freshwater, saltwater, lube oil, JP-5,
F-76, and chill water systems
Check Valve
Allows fluid to
flow in a system
in only one
direction
May be swing, lift,
or ball type
Check valves
may be built into
globe valves or
ball valves
Relief Valve
Installed in piping systems to
protect them from excessive
pressure
The relieving pressure is set
by the force exerted on the
disk by the spring
Relief valves may have a
lever which allows manual
opening of the valve for test
purposes
Valve Operating Devices
Manual
Handwheel or lever is directly connected to the stem and
is operated by hand
Hydraulic
Hydraulic pressure is applied to one side of a piston
which is connected to the stem of the valve
Motor
A hydraulic, electric, or air driven motor is used to turn the
stem of the valve
Solenoid
Uses an electromagnet to open or close a valve against
spring pressure
IMPROVING PUMPS
PERFORMANCE & REDUCING
ENERGY CONSUMPTION

Questions
+How do pumps perform?
+How can I select an efficient pump?
+What causes a pump to become inefficient?
+How can I determine my pumps
performance?
+How can I improve my pumps performance?
+Will improving my pumps performance
reduce my energy bill?
Basic Concepts
ODefinition
+Energy = kilowatt-hours
o One kilowatt is 1.34 horsepower
o Hours = operating time
+Energy cost is based on kwhr consumed and
unit energy cost ($/kwhr)
OReducing energy costs
+Reduce Input Horsepower
+Reduce Operating Hours
+Reduce Unit Energy Cost
Improving Pumping Plant Efficiency
+Adjust pump impeller
+Repair worn pump
+Replace mismatched pump
+Convert to an energy-efficient
electric motor
Shaft Frame Impeller Discharge Inlet
Stuffing
Box
Balance
Line
Volute Wearing
Rings
Centrifugal or Booster Pump
Deep Well Turbine
Deep Well Turbine
Submersible
Pump
Improving Pumping Plant
Performance
Impeller Adjustment
Effect of Impeller Adjustment



Capacity
(gpm)
Total
Head
(feet)
Overall
Efficiency
(%)
Input
Horsepower

Pump 1 Before 605 148 54 42
After 910 152 71 49

Pump 2 Before 708 181 59 55
After 789 206 63 65

Pump 3 Before 432 302 54 61
After 539 323 65 67

Pump 4 Before 616 488 57 133
After 796 489 68 144

Same Operating
Time
Same Volume
of Water
Pump 1 +16.7% -22.8%
Pump 2 +18.2% +5.0%
Pump 3 +9.8% -12.3%
Pump 4 +8.3% -16.8%

Effect of Impeller
Adjustment on Energy Use
Repair Worn Pump
Effect of Pump Repair
OBefore
Pumping lift = 95 feet
Capacity = 1552 gpm
IHP = 83
Efficiency = 45%
OAfter
Pumping lift = 118
feet
Capacity = 2008 gpm
IHP = 89
Efficiency = 67%
Summary of the Effect of Repairing Pumps
O63 pump tests comparing pump performance before-
and-after repair
OAverage percent increase in pump capacity 41%
OAverage percent increase in total head 0.5%
(pumping lift only)
OAverage percent increase in pumping plant
efficiency 33%
OIHP increased for 58% of the pumping plants.
Average percent increase in input horsepower 17%
Adjusting/Repairing Pumps
OAdjustment/repair will increase
pump capacity and total head
OAdjustment/repair will increase
input horsepower
OReduction in operating time is
needed to realize any energy
savings
OMore acres irrigated per set
OLess time per set
OEnergy costs will increase if
operating time is not reduced
Replace Mismatched Pump
A mismatched pump is one that is
operating properly, but is not operating
near its point of maximum efficiency
Capacity (gpm)
E
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
y


(
%
)

0
0
Improperly
Matched
Pump
Matched Pump

Mismatched Pump

Pumping Plant Test Data
Pumping Lift (feet) 113
Discharge Pressure (psi) 50
Total Head (feet) 228
Capacity (gpm) 940
Input Horsepower 112
Overall Efficiency (%) 48

Test 1
(Normal)
Test 2 Test 3
Capacity (gpm) 940 870 1060
Pressure (psi) 50 79 15
Pumping Lift (feet) 113 112 112
Total Head (feet) 228 295 147
IHP 112 112 104
Overall Efficiency (%) 48 57 38

Multiple Pump Tests
Replacing this pump with one operating at an
overall efficiency of 60% would:
Reduce the input horsepower by 19%
Reduce the annual energy consumption
by 34,000 Kwhr
Reduce the annual energy costs by
$3,400 (annual operating time of 2000
hours and an energy cost of $0.10/kwhr)
Replacing a Mismatched Pump
OPumping plant efficiency will
increase
OInput horsepower demand
will decrease
OEnergy savings will occur
because of the reduced
horsepower demand
How do I determine the
condition of my pump?
Answer: Conduct a pumping plant test
and evaluate the results using the
manufacturers pump performance data
Pumping
Lift
Pump
Capacity
Discharge
Pressure
FLOW METER
8 PIPE DIAMETERS DIAMETERS
2 PIPE
FLOW
Input
Horsepower
Is a pump worn or mismatched?
OMultiple pump tests
OCompare pump test data
with manufacturers pump
performance curves
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100
PUMP CAPACITY (gpm)
0
50
100
150
200
TOTAL HEAD (feet)
REPAIRED PUMP
Pumping Lift = 102 ft
Capacity = 537 gpm
Input Horsepower = 28
Overall Efficiency = 50%
Kwhr/af = 211
WORN PUMP
Pumping Lift = 45 ft
Capacity = 624 gpm
Input Horsepower = 19
Overall Efficiency = 39%
Kwhr/af = 123
Large
Difference
Small
Difference
2000 2400 2800 3200 3600
PUMP CAPACITY (gpm)
0
20
40
60
80
100
TOTAL HEAD (feet)
1983 (64%)
1984(54%)
1985 (62%)
2000 2400 2800 3200 3600
PUMP CAPACITY (gpm)
0
20
40
60
80
100
TOTAL HEAD (feet)
1983 (64%)
1984 (66%)
1985 (55%)
Recommended Corrective Action
Eo greater than 60% - no corrective action
55% to 60% - consider adjusting impeller
50% to 55% - consider adjusting impeller;
consider repairing or replacing pump if
adjustment has no effect
Less than 50% - consider repairing or
replacing pump
Energy-efficient Electric Motors


Horsepower Standard Energy
Efficient
10 86.5 91.7
20 86.5 93.0
50 90.2 94.5
75 90.2 95.0
100 91.7 95.8
125 91.7 96.2




Efficiencies of Standard
and Energy-efficient
Electric Motors
Variable Frequency Drives
What is a Variable Frequency
Drive?
OElectronic device that changes the
frequency of the power to an electric
motor
OReducing the power frequency reduces
the motor rpm
OReducing the motor rpm, and thus the
pump rpm, decreases the pump
horsepower demand
o A small reduction in pump rpm results in a
large reduction in the horsepower demand
When are Variable Frequency
Drives Appropriate?
OOne pump is used to irrigate differently-
sized fields. Pump capacity must be
reduced for the smaller fields
ONumber of laterals changes during the
field irrigation (odd shaped fields)
OFluctuating ground water levels
OFluctuating canal or ditch water levels





Unthrottled Throttled VFD
Acres 80 50 50
Pressure (psi) 80 64 60
Capacity (gpm) 1,100 600 700
Input Horsepower 128 90 55
RPM 1770 1770 1345
Overall Efficiency (%) 40 24 44

Centrifugal pump used to irrigate
Both 80-and 50-acre fields
Note: Pumping plants should be
operated at the reduced frequency
for at least 1,000 hours per year
to be economical
Convert To Diesel Engines
Options for Converting From Electric Motors to
Engines
Direct drive (gear head)
Engine shaft to pump shaft
efficiency = 98%

Diesel-generator
Engine shaft to pump shaft
efficiency less than about 80%
Considerations
OBrake Horsepower = Shaft Horsepower
OEngines and motors are rated based on
brake horsepower ( 100 HP electric motor
provides the same horsepower as a 100 HP
engine
OInput horsepower of an engine is greater
than that of an electric motor for the same
brake horsepower

Engine Horsepower
OMaximum horsepower
OContinuous horsepower
About s of the maximum horsepower
Derated for altitude, temperature,
accessories, etc.
110
128
144
157
167
173
1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200
ENGINE RPM
0
50
100
150
200
B
R
A
K
E

H
O
R
S
E
P
O
W
E
R
0.39
0.38
0.37 0.37
0.37
0.38
1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200
ENGINE RPM
0.30
0.32
0.34
0.36
0.38
0.40
F
U
E
L

C
O
N
S
U
M
P
T
I
O
N

(
l
b
/
b
h
p
-
h
r
)

33.2
34.2
35.1 35.1
34.7
33.9
1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200
ENGINE RPM
30
32
34
36
38
40
E
N
G
I
N
E

E
F
F
I
C
I
E
N
C
Y

(
%
)
1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 2200
RPM
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
H
O
R
S
E
P
O
W
E
R
PUMP HP CONTINUOUS ENGINE HP


Fuel Use Versus RPM
RPM Pump Flow
Rate (gpm)
Gallons of Diesel
per Hour
Gallons of Water
per Gallon of
Diesel
1500 1228 9 8187
1600 1731 11 9617
1700 2161 15 8644
1800 2486 19 8019





Electric Motors vs Diesel Engines:
Which is the Best?
Unit energy cost
Capital costs, maintenance costs, etc
Hours of operation
Horsepower
Cost of pollution control devices for
engines





Electric
Motor
Diesel Engine
Capital Cost $5,500 $11,500 $16,500 $16,500
Unit Energy Cost $0.14/kwhr $0.95/gal $0.95/gal $1.25/gal
Total Cost ($/af) 60.5 37.8 39.9 48.5

Comparison of electric motor and
diesel engine
O100 HP
O1,100 gpm
O2,000 hours per year
Optimizing Pump
Systems for Energy
Efficiency
What Is A Pump System?
A Pump System comprises of all piping,
fittings and valves before and after a pump
as well as the motor and motor driver.
There can be multiple pumps, motors and
drives, and they can be arranged to
operate in parallel or in series.
Pump Systems can have static head
(pressure), or be circulating systems
(friction only systems)
133
First, Let's Get A Big Picture
Perspective
Of Energy Flow in Pumping
Systems
Electric utility
feeder
Transformer
Motor breaker/
starter
Motor
Adjustable
speed drive
(electrical)
Coupling Pump
Fluid
system
Ultimate
goal
At each interface, there are
inefficiencies. The goal should
be to maximize the overall cost
effectiveness of the pumping, or
how much flow is delivered per
unit of input energy.
Specific Energy E
s



= Motor efficiency

= Pump efficiency

m
q
E
s
=
f
HS

g
m
q
H
S
= Fluid density
= Gravitational
constant
= Static head
= Hydraulic System
factor

f
HS

H
S
g
=
Pel x Time
Pumped Volume
p
q
p
q
136
Understand The Ultimate Goal
Electric utility
feeder
Transformer
Motor breaker/
starter
Motor
Adjustable
speed drive
(electrical)
Coupling Pump
Fluid
system
Ultimate
goal
Maximize the overall effectiveness.
137
It Is Essential To Understand The
Ultimate Goal Of The Fluid System To
Optimize It
Understand why the system exists
Have clearly defined criteria for what is
really needed
Understand what's negotiable and what's
not
Requirements
For Designing A System
Duration Curve (Flow)
System Curve (Pressure vs. Flow)
Pump & Component selection

0
1000
2000
3000
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000
Time [hours]
I
n
f
l
o
w

[
G
P
M
]

Annualized Flow Duration Curve
140
Understand The Fluid System
Electric utility
feeder
Transformer
Motor breaker/
starter
Motor
Adjustable
speed drive
(electrical)
Coupling Pump
Fluid
system
Ultimate
goal
Maximize the overall effectiveness.
141
System Curves Are Made Up Of Two
Fundamental
Components - The Static Head And The
Frictional Head
120
80
40
0
H
e
a
d
,

f
t

5000 4000 3000 2000 1000 0
Flow rate, gpm
Static/
Fixed
Friction
Total
Hydraulic System
Factor
The Hydraulic System factor is
defined as The ratio of a hydraulic
systems static head to total head.


Head
Flow
Total
head
Loss Head
Static Head
SYSTEM CURVE
HS
f
HS
f
f
HS

H
S

H
S
+
H
F

=
143
What Are Some Sources Of
Friction In Pumping Systems?
Pipe walls
Valves
Elbows
Tees
Reducers/expanders
Expansion joints
Tank inlets/outlets
(In other words, almost everything that the pumped
fluid passes through, as well as the fluid itself)
Operational Costs Are Influenced
By The Selection Of Components
And Their Size
Annual Frictional Cost Per 100 ft Of Pipe
Assumptions: 80% combined pump and motor efficiency,
electricity cost = 10 /kWh
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
A
n
n
u
a
l

c
o
s
t

(
$
)
5000 4000 3000 2000 1000 0
flow rate (gpm)
12"
14"
16"
Frictional Losses Can Be
Translated Into Operating Costs
12-inch line, 100 ft length, 10/kWh, full open valves,
80% combined pump & motor efficiency
Assumptions:
1000
800
600
400
200
0
A
n
n
u
a
l

C
o
s
t

(
$
)
2500 2000 1500 1000 500 0
flow rate (gpm)
Check valve
Butterfly valve
Sch. 40 pipe (new)
147
Understanding The Pump
Electric utility
feeder
Transformer
Motor breaker/
starter
Motor
Adjustable
speed drive
(electrical)
Coupling Pump
Fluid
system
Ultimate
goal
Maximize the overall effectiveness
148
Nameplate Data Applies To
One Particular Operating
Point
200
150
100
50
0
H
e
a
d
,

f
t

5000 4000 3000 2000 1000 0
Flow rate, gpm
Rated:
3190 gpm, 97 ft
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
h
e
a
d

(
f
t
)
5000 4000 3000 2000 1000 0
flow rate (gpm)
How Do We Know Where We'll Be
Operating On The Pump Curve?
Pump and system
curve intersection
(operating point)
System head curve
Pump head curve
Nameplate
Efficiency And Brake Horsepower Are
Commonly Plotted vs. Pump Flow
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
h
e
a
d

(
f
t
)
,

p
o
w
e
r

(
b
h
p
)
,

e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
y

(
%
)
5000 4000 3000 2000 1000 0
flow rate (gpm)
System
Pump head
brake hp
efficiency
Operating
point
BEP
Using A Larger Pipe Changes The
Frictional Part Of The System Curve
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
h
e
a
d

(
f
t
)
5000 4000 3000 2000 1000 0
flow rate (gpm)
System head,
12" pipe
System head,
16" pipe
CENTRIFUGAL PUMP PERFORMANCE
WITH VSD REGULATION
FLYGT C 3531
30-60 HZ (295-590 RPM)
Specific Energy in Three Different
Single Pump Systems
Throttling
VSD Regulation
Speed / Flow
No static head
85% static head
50% static head
Speed / Flow Speed / Flow
On-Off Regulation
154
Now Let's Look At The
Electrical End Of The Shaft
Electric utility
feeder
Transformer
Motor breaker/
starter
Motor
Adjustable
speed drive
(electrical)
Coupling Pump
Fluid
system
Maximize the overall effectiveness
Ultimate
goal
Motor Efficiency Curves
Are Dependent Upon Size And
Type
100
90
80
70
60
50
E
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
y
(
%
)
1.2 1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0.0
Power (fraction of rated)
Rated horsepower
3 5
7.5 10
25 50
100 125
200
fit 7.5 fit 100
156
Understanding Drive
Performance
Electric utility
feeder
Transformer
Motor breaker/
starter
Motor
Adjustable
speed drive
(electrical)
Coupling Pump
Fluid
system
Ultimate
goal
Maximize the overall effectiveness
The Efficiency Of Inverters
Is Affected By Operating Speed
100

90

80

70

60

e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
y
(
%
)

125

100

75

50

speed (% of rated)

Typical inverter efficiencies
as a function of motor speed
Evaluate System Design
Is the system effectiveness
acceptable?
If the system has static head,
Compare with frictionless
performance!
Re-Evaluate System Choices
Relative To Needs
Number of pumps
Pump sizes
VFD operation?
Pipe diameters
Component selection
When the System is
Commissioned the Theoretical
Calculations Should be
Compared to Actual Operational
Data to Ensure that it is
Operating as Intended
Summary
Most avoidable losses are in the pump and
fluid system, not in the electrical front end
However, the electrical front end can help
reduce the fluid system losses
Be careful with local optimization
Determine the specific energy and compare
with the ideal
MEASUREMENTS
Pressure measurement
Together with temperature and flow,
pressure is the most important parameters in
industrial process control
The unit of pressure is the Pascal (Pa) with
1Pa being 1N/m
2

At the surface of the earth, the atmospheric
pressure is generally about 100KPa. This is
sometimes referred to as a pressure of 1bar.
1.Manometers
U-tube manometer
The cistern manometer
The inclined tube manometer
2.Diaphragms
Reluctance diaphragm gauge
Capacitance diaphragm gauge


Bourdon tubes
3 Force-balance
Dead-weight tester
Spring
4Electrical pressure gauge
Strain gauge
Piezoelectric
piezoresistance
P
2
P
1
1 2 P P gh =
The basic manometer consists
of a U-tube containing a liquid.A
pressure difference between
the gases above the liquid in
the two limbs produces a
difference h in vertical heights
of the liquid in the two limbs.
If one of the limbs is open to
the atmosphere then the
pressure difference is the
gauge pressure.
Manometers
Water, alcohol and mercury are commonly
used manometric liquids. U-tube
manometers are simple and cheap and can
be used for pressure differences in the
range 20 Pa to 140KPa. The accuracy is
typically about 1%.
Temperature affect---------liquid expansion

0 0
0
0 0 0
---real temperature
(1 ) exp
1
m V V
V V r r coefficient of cubical ansion of the liquid
V
V
u u
u
u
u
u
u

u
= =
= +
= =
+
Thus the pressure when measured by a
U-tube manometer at a temperature u,
when the manometer liquid density at
0C is known, is given by:
0
1
h g
P gh
u

u
= =
+
Cistern manometer
An industrial form of the U-tube manometer is
cistern manometer. It has one of the limbs
with a much greater cross-sectional area than
the other.A difference in pressure between
the two limbs causes a difference in liquid
level with liquid flowing from one limb to the
other.
1 2
1 2
2 2
1 2
1 1
( )
( ) ( 1)
P P gH h d g
Ah A d
A d A
P P d g d g
A A
c d g

= = +
=
= + = +
=
H h
d
P1
P
2
A
2
A
1
This form of manometer thus only
require the level of liquid in one
limb to be measured from a fixed
point.
The inclined tube manometer
The inclined tube manometer is a U-tube
manometer with one limb having a larger
cross-section than the other and the narrower
limb being inclined at some angle u to the
hori zontal . It i s general l y used for the
measurement of small pressure differences
and gi ves gr eat er accur acy t han t he
c o n v e n t i o n a l U- t u b e ma n o me t e r .
u
H
d
h
2 2
1 2 ( 1) ( 1) sin
1 1
A A
P P d g gx
A A
u = + = +
x
P
1
P
2
Since A2 is much greater than A1, the
equation approximates to:
1 2 sin P P gx u =
Initial zero level
with no pressure
difference
With diaphragm pressure gauges, a difference
in pressure between two sides of a diaphragm
results in it blowing out to one side or the other.
If the fluid for which the pressure is required is
admitted to one side of the diaphragm and the
other side is open to the atmosphere, the
diaphragm gauge gives the gauge pressure. If
fluids at different pressures are admitted to the
two sides of the diaphragm, the gauge gives
the pressure difference.
Diaphragms
1.Bourdon tubes
The bourdon tube may be in the form of a
C, a flat spiral, a helical spiral. In all forms,
an increase in the pressure in the tube
causes the tube to straighten out to an
extent which depends on the pressure.
This displacement may be monitored in a
variety of ways, for example, to directly
move a pointer across a scale, to move a
slider of a potentiometer, to move the core
of an LVDT.
2 Reluctance diaphragm gauge

The displacement of the
central part of the
diaphragm increases the
reluctance of the coil on one
side of the diaphragm and
decreases it on the other.
With the two coils connected
in opposite arms of an a.c.
bridge, the out of balance
voltage is related to the
pressure difference causing
the diaphragm displacement
2
0 0
2
N s
L

o
=
Capacitance pressure transducers were originally
developed for use in low vacuum research. This
capacitance change results from the movement of a
diaphragm element. The diaphragm is usually metal
or metal-coated quartz and is exposed to the process
pressure on one side and to the reference pressure
on the other. Depending on the type of pressure, the
capacitive transducer can be either an absolute,
gauge, or differential pressure transducer.
0
2
A
C
d
d
C
d
c
=
=

The capacitor can also form part of the tuning
circuit of a frequency modulated oscillator and so
give an electrical output related to the pressure
difference across the diaphragm.


Dead-Weight Tester
Schematic
Calibration of the
pressure gauges in the
region of 20Pa to
2000kPa is generally
by means of the Dead-
weight tester. Pressure
is produced by winding
in a piston. The
pressure is determined
by adding weights to
the platform so that it
remains at a constant
height.
Mg
P
A
=
force balance gauge

Potentiometric Pressure Transducer

Measurement of low
pressures (vacuum)
Vacuum tends to be used for pressures less
than the atmospheric pressure, namely
1.01310
5
Pa. A unit that is often used for
such pressure is the torr, this being the
pressure equivalent to that given by a column
of mercury of height 1 mm.
1mmHg=133.322Pa=1 torr
The lower the absolute pressure is, the higher
the degree of vacuum is.
Pressure measurement
Pressure driven equipment (IC engines, turbines, etc.)
Pneumatic or Hydraulic mechanical elements
Biomedical applications (Blood Pressure, Barometric
Chambers)
Losses in pipes and ducts energy efficiency
Atmospheric conditions (weather forecast, altitude)
Indirect measurement of flow rate or velocity
Scuba diving
Many, many more ...

Pressure
Pressure in a fluid acts equally in all directions
Pressure in a static liquid increases linearly with depth
Ap=
increase in
depth (m)
pressure
increase
g A h
The pressure at a given depth in a continuous, static body of
liquid is constant.
p
1

p
2

p
3
p
1
= p
2
= p
3
Measuring pressure (1)
Manometers
h
p
1

p
2
=p
a

liquid
density
x
y
z
p
1
= p
x

p
x
= p
y

p
z
= p
2
= p
a

(negligible pressure
change in a gas)
(since they are at
the same height)
p
y
- p
z
= gh
p
1
- p
a
= gh
So a manometer measures gauge pressure.
Measuring Pressure (2)
Barometers
A barometer is used to measure
the pressure of the atmosphere.
The simplest type of barometer
consists of a column of fluid.
p
1
= 0 vacuum
h
p
2
= p
a
p
2
- p
1
= gh
p
a
= gh
examples
water: h = p
a
/g =10
5
/(10
3
*9.8) ~10m
mercury: h = p
a
/g =10
5
/(13.4*10
3
*9.8)
~800mm
PRESSURE
MEASUREMENT
Absolut, Differential
Barometer
Manometer

Absolute pressure
Presiune
referinta
P
abs
= 0
T R P
abs
=
h g P
A h g A 0 A P
hg abs
hg abs
=
=
Barometer

P=0
P
atm
h
h
A
P
atm
A
0
Well-type manometer
Differential
pressure
1 2
P P P = A
P
1
P
2
Types of pressures
Static And Dynamic Pressure
Dynamic pressure = Stagnation pressure (A) - Static pressure (B)
Static And Dynamic Pressure
Dynamic pressure = Stagnation pressure (A) - Static pressure (B)
Types of pressure transducers:
Liquid Column manometers
Elastic tubes, diaphragms, membranes
(equipped with displacement or strain
sensors)
Semiconductor elements (with implanted
stress elements)
Piezoelectic elements (directly convert
crystal lattice stress into voltage)
h g P P
A h g A P A P
1 2
1 2
=
=
Liquid Column Manometers
P
2
h h
A
P
2
A
P
1
P
1
A
U tube manometer
h g P P
A h g A P A P
1 2
1 2
=
=
Liquid Column Manometers
P
2
h h
A
P
2
A
P
1
P
1
A
r 1 2
r
r
1 2
1 2
h ) sin( g P P
) sin( h h
h
h
) sin(
h g P P
A h g A P A P
=
=
=
=
=
Inclined
Manometer
P
2
h
h
r
A
P
2
A
P
1
P
1
A

Pressure
transducers
atm 2
P P P = A
P
2
P
atm
Pressure transducers
Elastic elements
Changing pressure
change the shape of
the elastic element
Shape changing is
detected by a resistive
or position transducer
Tip C Spirala Tub
rasucit
Elicoidal
Tuburi
Bourdon
Capsula
Diafragme
P Absoluta
P
Diferentiala
Plata
Ondulata
evacuat
Diferential sau absolut
Tub
Pressure transducers
Elastic elements
Changing pressure
change the shape of
the elastic element
Shape changing is
detected by a
resistive or position
transducer
Pressure Sensor range
Elastic Type Manometers
More Elastic types...
Two dummy gages
mounted elsewhere
Why do we not put 4 active gages?
Dial-type Manometer
Dial-type Manometer as a mini measurement system
Diaphragm type manometers
To be able to detect pressure, we need to detect the
diaphragm deflection
Strain gauges used with Diaphragm
Strain gage based pressure cell
When a strain gage, is used to
measure the deflection of an elastic
diphragme or Bourdon tube it becomes
a comonent in apressure transducer
Strain-gage transducers are used for
narrow-span pressure and for
differential pressure measurements.
Essentially, the strain gage is used to
measure the displacement of an
elastic diaphragm due to a difference
in pressure across the diaphragme
If the low pressure side is a sealed
vacuum reference, the transmitter will
act as an absolute pressure
transmitter.
Strain gage transducers are
availablefor pressure ranges as low as
1300 MPa
Capacitance based pressure
cell
Capacitance pressure
transducerswere originally developed
for use in low vacuum research. This
capacitance change results from the
movement of a diaphragm element
(The diaphragm is usually metal or
metal-coated quartz and is exposed to
the process pressure on one side and
to the reference pressure on the other.
Depending on the type
Differential pressure transducers in a
variety of ranges and outputs of
pressure, the capacitive transducer
can be either an absolute, gauge, or
differential pressure transducer.
Capacitance pressure transducers
have a wide rangeability, from high
vacuums in the micron range to 70
MPa.
The potentiometric pressure
sensor provides a simple method
for obtaining an electronic output
from a mechanical pressure
gauge.
The device consists of a precision
potentiometer, whose wiper arm is
mechanically linked to a Bourdon
or bellows element.
This type of transducer can be
used for low differential pressure
applications as well as to detect
absolute and gauge pressures.


The resonant wire pressure
transducer
The resonant-wire pressure transducer
was introduced in the late 1970s.
a wire is gripped by a static member at one
end, and by the sensing diaphragm at the
other. An oscillator circuit causes the wire to
oscillate at its resonant frequency.
A change in process pressure changes the
wire tension, which in turn changes the
resonant frequency of the wire. A digital
counter circuit detects the shift. Because this
change in frequency can be detected quite
precisely,
This type of transducer can be used for low
differential pressure applications as well as
to detect absolute and gauge pressures.
Resonant wire transducers can detect
absolute pressures from 10 mm Hg,
differential pressures and gauge pressures
up to 42 MPa. Typical accuracy is 0.1% of
calibrated span, with six-month drift of 0.1%
Piezoelectric sensors
Piezoresistive pressure sensors are sensitive to
changes in temperature and must be temperature
compensated.
Piezoresistive pressure sensors can be used from
about 21 KPa
to 100 MPa.
Resonant piezoelectric pressure sensors measure
the variation in
resonant frequency of quartz crystals under an
applied force. The
sensor can consist of a suspended beam that
oscillates while isolated from all other forces. The
beam is maintained in oscillation at its resonant
frequency. Changes in the applied force result in
resonant frequency changes. The relationship
between the applied pressure P and the oscillation
frequency is:
P = A(1-TO/T) - B(1-TO/T2)
where TO is the period of oscillation when the
applied pressure is zero, T is the period of
oscillation when the applied pressure is P, and A
and B are calibration constants for the transducer.
These transducers can be used for absolute
pressure measurements with spans from 0-100
kPa to 0-6 MPa or for differential pressure
measurements with spans from 0-40 kPa to 0-275
kPa .
Magnetic pressure transducers
These included the use of inductance, reluctance, and eddy currents.
Inductance is that property of an electric circuit that expresses the amount
of electromotive force (emf) induced by a given rate of change of current
flow in the circuit.
Reluctance is resistance to magnetic flow, the opposition offered by
magnetic substance to magnetic flux.
In these sensors, a change in pressure produces a movement, which in turn
changes the inductance or reluctance of an electric circuit.


Optical pressure transducers
Optical pressure transducers detect the
effects of minute motions due to changes
in process pressure and generate a
corresponding electronic output signal.
A light emitting diode (LED) is used as the
light source, and a vane blocks some of
the light as it is moved by the diaphragm.
As the process pressure moves the vane
between the source diode and the
measuring diode, the amount of infrared
light received changes.
Optical pressure transducers do not
require much maintenance.
They have excellent stability and are
designed for long-duration
measurements.
They are available with ranges from 35
kPa to 413 MPa and with 0.1% full scale
accuracy.
Sensor/Cavity System Response
(Helmholz Resonator)
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
Pressure signal at the source
Pressure signal at the sensor face
( )
2
/ 2
C a
f
V L a
t
t
=
+
(
(
(

where C is the sound velocity, L and a are the
length and area of the connecting tube and V
is the cavity volume.
In this second order system air acts as mass,
the pressure acts as a spring and the
connecting tube as a damping element.
The fundamental natural
frequency of the tube/cavity
system may be expressed as
Bourdon tube over pressure
protection
Most pressure instruments are
provided with overpressure
protection of 50% to 200% of
range These protectors satisfy the
majority of applications. Where
higher overpressures are
expected and their nature is
temporary (pressure spikes of
short durationseconds or less),
snubbers can be installed.
If excessive overpressure is
expected to be of longer duration,
one can protect the sensor by
installing a pressure relief valve.
However, this will result in a loss
of measurement when the relief
valve is open.
Mechanical High pressure
sensors
In the case of the button repeater ( figA), the diaphragm can detect extruder pressures up to 10,000 psig and can
operate at temperatures up to 4300C because of its selfcooling design. It operates on direct force balance
between the process pressure (P1) acting on the sensing diaphragm and the pressure of the output air signal (P2)
acting on the balancing diaphragm. The pressure of the output air signal follows the process pressure in inverse
ratio to the areas of the two diaphragms. If the diaphragm area ratio is 200:1, a 1,000-psig increase in process
pressure will raise the air output signal by 5 psig.
Another mechanical high pressure sensor uses a helical Bourdon element (Figure B). This device may include as
many as twenty coils and can measure pressures well in excess of 10,000 psig. The standard element material is
heavy-duty stainless steel, and the measurement error is around 1% of span. Helical Bourdon tube sensors
provide high overrange protection and are suitable for fluctuating pressure service, but must be protected from
plugging. An improvement on the design shown in Figure B detects tip motion optically, without requiring any
mechanical linkage.
Vacuum mesurement

Vacuum gauges in use today fall into three
main categories:
mechanical,
thermal,
ionization.

Vacuum mesurement
Semiconductor-type Sensors
Static Calibration
2
cyl
mg
p
R t
A =
Pressure transducers
Pressure transducers
Pressure transducers
Pressure transducers
Pressure transducers
Pressure transducers
Converter a.c. / c.c.
Amplifier
Output voltage
Arm
Inductive
motor
Pivot
Diaphragm
P
1

P
2

Pressure cell
Reluctance detector
Pressure
servo-transducer
Differential
amplifier
Charge amplifier
Compensation crystal Y
2

Crystal Y
1

Diaphragm
P
1

Piezoelectric pressure
transducer
Power
Relay
C
1
C
2

A
Pressure admission
B
Preso-sensitive switch
Fluid Flow Measurements
Pitot Tube
Venturi Meter
Orifice Meter
Rotameter
Others
Coriolis (Vortex shedding)
Turbine

Pitot Tube
V
1

1
2
1 atm
h
1

h
2

2 2
1 2
1 1 2 2
1 2
1 1
2 2
s
c c c c
P P g g
v h W v h F
g g g g
+ + + = + + +
Pitot Static Tube
h
V
1

1

Venturi Meter
V
1

P
1

1
2
V
2
, P
2

D
i
= pipe inner diameter, control surface 1
D
t
= venturi throat diameter, control surface 2
t
i
D
D
| =
Ratio of throat diameter to pipe ID
2
4
2
1
V
c
C P
v g

|
A
=

C
V
= coefficient of discharge (accounts for friction losses)
Usually C
V
= 0.98, see Figure 5.9, p 155 for C
V
as a function of Re.
If a manometer is used to measure AP, then
( )
2
4
2
1
V
m f
C
v gh
|
=

Orifice Meter
h
V
1

P
1

Vena contracta
D
i
is the pipe ID and D
o
is the orifice diameter
| = D
o
/D
i

Orifice Design Equation
2
2
4
0.61 2
i c f
m
D g P
|
t
=
A
With 0.2<|<0.8
Q, volumetric flow = V
o
A
0
and the mass flow m =
f
Q
Rotameter
W
V
If calibrated for one fluid, then
1/ 2
1
2 1
2
Q Q

| |
=
|
\ .
Others
1. Vortex-shedding flow meter flow past a blunt
object causes vortexes
2. Turbine meters paddle wheel speed measures
flow rate
3. Thermal gas mass flow meter a slip stream is
heated by a constant heat input and temperature
rise is related to the gas mass flow
4. Magnetic flow meters a magnetic field is
generated across a conducting fluid with the
induced voltage proportional to the flow velocity
5. Coriolis mass flow meter fluid enters two U-tube
side channels where coriolis forces cause a twist in
the tubes. Twist angle is proportional to mass flow
rate.
Unsteady Flow
1
2
h
z
1

z
2

Toricellis Equation
D
1
, v
1

D
2
, v
2

2
2 v gh =
Velocity of surface 1
1
dh
v
dt
=
From the equation of continuity
2
1
2 1
2
D
v v
D
| |
=
|
\ .
Flow Measurement, Q
Tracer method BS5857
Ultrasonic flow measurement
Tank filling method
Installation of an on-line flowmeter
Tracer Method
The Tracer method is particularly suitable for cooling water flow measurement because
of their sensitivity and accuracy.

This method is based on injecting a tracer into the cooling water for a few minutes at an
accurately measured constant rate. A series of samples is extracted from the system at a point
where the tracer has become completely mixed with the cooling water. The mass flow rate is
calculated from:

q
cw
= q
1 x
C
1
/C
2

where q
cw
= cooling water mass flow rate, kg/s
q
1
= mass flow rate of injected tracer, kg/s
C
1
= concentration of injected tracer, kg/kg
C2 = concentration of tracer at downstream position during the plateau period
of constant concentration, kg/kg

The tracer normally used is sodium chloride.
Ultrasonic Flow meter
Operating under Doppler effect principle these meters are non-invasive, meaning
measurements can be taken without disturbing the system. Scales and rust in the pipes are
likely to impact the accuracy.
Ensure measurements are taken in a sufficiently long length of pipe free from flow
disturbance due to bends, tees and other fittings.
The pipe section where measurement is to be taken should be hammered gently to enable
scales and rusts to fall out.
For better accuracy, a section of the pipe can be replaced with new pipe for flow
measurements.
Tank filing method
In open flow systems such as water getting pumped to an overhead tank or a sump, the flow
can be measured by noting the difference in tank levels for a specified period during which
the outlet flow from the tank is stopped. The internal tank dimensions should be preferable
taken from the design drawings, in the absence of which direct measurements may be
resorted to.
Installation of an on-line
flowmeter
If the application to be measured is going to be critical and periodic then the best option
would be to install an on-line flowmeter which can rid of the major problems encountered
with other types.
Pumps Bernoullis Theorem
Pressure head: measure of fluids mech. PE
Velocity head: measure of fluids mech. KE
Friction head: measure of energy lost that heats fluid

Z
1
+ P
1
/ + V
1
2
/2g = Z
2
+ P
2
/ + V
2
2
/2g + [(U
2
U
1
) W Q]

q + w
shaft
= (h
2
h
1
) + (v
2
2
v
1
2
)/2 + g(z
2
z
1
)

Z/z: fluid height; P: fluid pressure; : fluid density
V/v: fluid velocity U: internal energy W/w: work
Q/q: heat transferred h: enthalpy g: grav. acceleration

BOTTOM LINE: Total energy within the control volume is
constant under SS conditions.
Flow of Fluids in Pipes
ASSUMPTIONS:

Steady state flow (flow speed is
constant in time at any given
point along pipe).
No internal energy change (no
transformation of mechanical
energy to thermal energy, no
viscous drag).
Irrotational flow (no vorticity, no
whirlpools, eddies, etc.)
ANALYSIS:

Conservation of Mass.
Work Energy Theorem.
GOALS: Understand how the fluid pressure and flow speed change from
point to point along the pipe.
1
2
1
2
1
2
Principle of Continuity
1
2
v
1
Consider the amount (mass m
1
) of fluid passing into the region between
points 1 and 2 in the pipe during a time At:
( ) | |
1 1 1 1
A t v m A =
A
1

1
length
volume
This is the mass of the fluid
that passed point 1.
Principle of Continuity
1
2
Conservation of mass (along with steady state flow) says that whatever
flowed into the region between 1 and 2 MUST have flowed out:
( ) | | ( ) | |
2 2 2 1 1 1
2 2 2 1 1 1
2 1
A v A v
A t v A t v
m m
=
A = A
=
The product v A is called mass flow rate with units kg/s.
v
1
v
2
Principle of Continuity
1
2
v
1
ASSUMPTION: The fluid density remains constant (liquid).
2 2 1 1
2 2 1 1
A v A v
A v A v
=
=
The product v A is called (volume) flow rate with units m
3
/s.
v
2
For the flow of liquids, pipe cross-sectional area A (and A alone) governs
flow speed. In particular, flow speed increases through a constriction.
Check Question on Principle of Continuity
Water flowing at 0.4 m/s through a pipe of circular cross section 2.0 cm in
diameter meets a constriction of diameter 1.0 cm.

a) What is the flow speed within the constricted portion of the pipe in m/s?
b) What is the volume flow rate of the water in the pipe?
The Bernoulli Equation
1
2
y
y
1
y
2
( ) | |
( ) | |
1 1 1
2 2 2
gy A t v
gy A t v PE
A
A = A

Principle of Continuity says:

( ) ( ) V A t v A t v A = A = A
2 2 1 1
y g gy gy
V
PE
A = =
A
A

1 2
The change in gravitational PE per
unit volume swept out.
v
1
v
2
The Bernoulli Equation
1
2
y
y
1
y
2
v
1
v
2
( ) | |
( ) | |
2
1 1 1
2
2 2 2
2
1
2
1
v A t v
v A t v KE
A
A = A

Principle of Continuity says:

( ) ( ) V A t v A t v A = A = A
2 2 1 1
( ) | |
2 2
1
2
2
2
1
2
1
2
1
v v v
V
KE
A = =
A
A

The change in gravitational KE
per unit volume swept out.
The Bernoulli Equation
1
2
y
y
1
y
2
v
1
v
2
( )
( ) t v A p
t v A p W
A
A =
2 2 2
1 1 1
Principle of Continuity says:
( ) ( ) V t v A t v A A = A = A
2 2 1 1
p p p
V
W
A = =
A
2 1
The work done on system by adjacent fluid
per unit volume swept out.
p
1
A
1
p
2
A
2
The Bernoulli Equation
V
PE
V
KE
V
W
A
A
+
A
A
=
A
The Work Energy Theorem relates the net work to the change in total
mechanical energy:
( ) | | 0
2
1
2
= A + A + A y g v p
2
2
2 2 1
2
1 1
2
1
2
1
gy v p gy v p + + = + +
Thereby giving us Bernoullis equation in its two common forms:
BASIC VACUUM
PRACTICE
Why is a Vacuum Needed?

To move a particle in a (straight) line over a large distance
(Page 5 manual)
Why is a Vacuum Needed?
Contamination
(usually water)
Clean surface
Atmosphere (High)Vacuum
To provide a clean surface
HOW DO WE CREATE A
VACUUM?
VACUUM PUMPING METHODS
Sliding Vane
Rotary Pump
Molecular
Drag Pump
Turbomolecular
Pump
Fluid Entrainment
Pump
VACUUM PUMPS
(METHODS)
Reciprocating
Displacement Pump
Gas Transfer
Vacuum Pump
Drag
Pump
Entrapment
Vacuum Pump
Positive Displacement
Vacuum Pump
Kinetic
Vacuum Pump
Rotary
Pump
Diaphragm
Pump
Piston
Pump
Liquid Ring
Pump
Rotary
Piston Pump
Rotary
Plunger Pump
Roots
Pump
Multiple Vane
Rotary Pump
Dry
Pump
Adsorption
Pump
Cryopump
Getter
Pump
Getter Ion
Pump
Sputter Ion
Pump
Evaporation
Ion Pump
Bulk Getter
Pump
Cold Trap
Ion Transfer
Pump
Gaseous
Ring Pump
Turbine
Pump
Axial Flow
Pump
Radial Flow
Pump
Ejector
Pump
Liquid Jet
Pump
Gas Jet
Pump
Vapor Jet
Pump
Diffusion
Pump
Diffusion
Ejector Pump
Self Purifying
Diffusion Pump
Fractionating
Diffusion Pump
Condenser
Sublimation
Pump
BAROMETER
WATER MERCURY
760
mm
Mercury: 13.58 times
heavier than water:
Column is 13.58 x shorter :
10321 mm/13.58=760 mm
(= 760 Torr)
10.321
mm
29,9
in
(Page 12 manual)
PRESSURE OF 1 STANDARD
ATMOSPHERE:
760 TORR, 1013 mbar

AT SEA LEVEL, 0
O
C AND 45
O
LATITUDE
Pressure Equivalents
Atmospheric Pressure (Standard) =
0
14.7
29.9
760
760
760,000
101,325
1.013
1013
gauge pressure (psig)
pounds per square inch (psia)
inches of mercury
millimeter of mercury
torr
millitorr or microns
pascal
bar
millibar
THE ATMOSPHERE IS A MIXTURE OF GASES
PARTIAL PRESSURES OF GASES CORRESPOND TO THEIR RELATIVE VOLUMES
GAS SYMBOL
PERCENT BY
VOLUME
PARTIAL PRESSURE
TORR PASCAL
Nitrogen
Oxygen
Argon
Carbon Dioxide
Neon
Helium
Krypton
Hydrogen
Xenon
Water

N
2

O
2

A
CO
2

Ne
He
Kr
H
2
X
H
2
O
78
21
0.93
0.03
0.0018
0.0005
0.0001
0.00005
0.0000087
Variable
593
158
7.1
0.25
1.4 x 10
-2

4.0 x 10
-3
8.7 x 10
-4
4.0 x 10
-4
6.6 x 10
-5
5 to 50
79,000
21,000
940
33
1.8
5.3 x 10
-1
1.1 x 10
-1
5.1 x 10
-2
8.7 x 10
-3
665 to 6650
(Page 13 manual)
VAPOR PRESSURE OF WATER AT
VARIOUS TEMPERATURES
T (
O
C)
100
25
0
-40
-78.5
-196
P (mbar)
1013
32
6.4
0.13
6.6 x 10
-4

10
-24
(BOILING)

(FREEZING)

(DRY ICE)
(LIQUID NITROGEN)
(Page 14 manual)
(Page 15 manual)
Vapor Pressure of some Solids
(Page 15 manual)
PRESSURE RANGES
RANGE

ROUGH (LOW) VACUUM

HIGH VACUUM

ULTRA HIGH VACUUM
PRESSURE

759 TO 1 x 10
-3
(mbar)

1 x 10
-3
TO 1 x 10
-8
(mbar)

LESS THAN 1 x 10
-8
(mbar)
(Page 17 manual)
GAS FLOW
CONDUCTANCE
(Page 24 manual)
Viscous and Molecular Flow
Viscous Flow
(momentum transfer
between molecules)
Molecular Flow
(molecules move
independently)
FLOW REGIMES
Viscous Flow:
Distance between molecules is small; collisions between
molecules dominate; flow through momentum transfer;
generally P greater than 0.1 mbar

Transition Flow:
Region between viscous and molecular flow

Molecular Flow:
Distance between molecules is large; collisions between
molecules and wall dominate; flow through random motion;
generally P smaller than 10 mbar
-3
(Page 25 manual)
MEAN FREE PATH
MOLECULAR DENSITY AND MEAN FREE PATH
1013 mbar (atm) 1 x 10
-3
mbar 1 x 10
-9
mbar
#
mol/cm
3
MFP
3 x 10
19
(30 million trillion)
4 x 10
13
(40 trillion)
4 x 10
7
(40 million)
2.5 x 10
-6
in
6.4 x 10
-5
mm
2 inches
5.1 cm
31 miles
50 km
FLOW REGIMES
Mean Free Path
Characteristic Dimension
Viscous Flow: is less than 0.01
Mean Free Path
Characteristic Dimension
Molecular Flow: is greater than 1
Mean Free Path
Characteristic Dimension
Transition Flow:
is between 0.01 and 1
Conductance in Viscous
Flow
Under viscous flow conditions doubling the
pipe diameter increases the conductance
sixteen times.
The conductance is INVERSELY related to
the pipe length
(Page 28 manual)
Conductance in Molecular
Flow
Under molecular flow conditions doubling
the pipe diameter increases the conductance
eight times.
The conductance is INVERSELY related to
the pipe length.
SYSTEM
PUMP
C
1
C
2
Series Conductance
R
T
= R
1
+ R
2
1 = 1 + 1
C
1
C
2
C
T
1 = C
1
+ C
2
C
1
x C
2
C
T
C
T
= C
1
x C
2
C
1
+ C
2
(Page 29 manual)
GAS LOAD
Outgassing
Leaks
Virtual
Real
Backstreaming
Diffusion
Permeation
GAS LOAD (Q) IS EXPRESSED IN:
mbar liters per second
Pumpdown Curve
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

(
m
b
a
r
)

Time (sec)
10
-11
10
1
10
3
10
5
10
7
10
9
10
11
10
13
10
15
10
17
10
+1
10
-1
10
-3
10
-5
10
-7
10
-9
Volume
Surface Desorption
Diffusion
Permeation
Roughing Pumps
2
(Page 39 manual)
VACUUM PUMPING METHODS
Sliding Vane
Rotary Pump
Molecular
Drag Pump
Turbomolecular
Pump
Fluid Entrainment
Pump
VACUUM PUMPS
(METHODS)
Reciprocating
Displacement Pump
Gas Transfer
Vacuum Pump
Drag
Pump
Entrapment
Vacuum Pump
Positive Displacement
Vacuum Pump
Kinetic
Vacuum Pump
Rotary
Pump
Diaphragm
Pump
Piston
Pump
Liquid Ring
Pump
Rotary
Piston Pump
Rotary
Plunger Pump
Roots
Pump
Multiple Vane
Rotary Pump
Dry
Pump
Adsorption
Pump
Cryopump
Getter
Pump
Getter Ion
Pump
Sputter Ion
Pump
Evaporation
Ion Pump
Bulk Getter
Pump
Cold Trap
Ion Transfer
Pump
Gaseous
Ring Pump
Turbine
Pump
Axial Flow
Pump
Radial Flow
Pump
Ejector
Pump
Liquid Jet
Pump
Gas Jet
Pump
Vapor Jet
Pump
Diffusion
Pump
Diffusion
Ejector Pump
Self Purifying
Diffusion Pump
Fractionating
Diffusion Pump
Condenser
Sublimation
Pump
PUMP OPERATING RANGES
10
-12
10
-10
10
-8
10
-6
10
-4
10
-2
1 10
+2
P (mbar)
Rough Vacuum High Vacuum
Ultra High
Vacuum
Venturi Pump
Rotary Vane Mechanical Pump
Rotary Piston Mechanical Pump
Sorption Pump
Dry Mechanical Pump
Blower/Booster Pump
High Vac. Pumps
Ultra-High Vac. Pumps
VACUUM SYSTEM USE
1
2
4
6
5
9
8
8
7
1
2
3
3a
4
5
6
7
8
9
Chamber
High Vac. Pump
Roughing Pump
Foreline Pump
Hi-Vac. Valve
Roughing Valve
Foreline Valve
Vent Valve
Roughing Gauge
High Vac. Gauge
7
3
3a
(Page 44 manual)
Rotary Vane, Oil-Sealed
Mechanical Pump
(Page 45 manual)
Pump Mechanism
How the Pump Works
(Page 46 manual)
OIL BACKSTREAMING
2
PRESSURE LEVELS: LESS THAN 0.2 mbar
The Molecular Sieve/Zeolite
Trap
(Page 48 manual)
Dry Vacuum Pumps
Blower/Booster Pump
(Page 61 manual)
One Stage Roots Blower
Pump Assembly
VACUUM SYSTEM USE
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Chamber
Foreline
Roughing Valve
Roughing Gauge
Roughing Pump
Foreline
Foreline Valve
Foreline Gauge
High Vacuum Valve
Booster/Blower
Vent Valve
High Vacuum Gauge
1
9
3
12
4
11
5
2
6
7
8
10
(Page 62 manual)
Sorption Pump Components
(Page 54 manual)
Vapor Pressure
(Page 56 manual)
Cryo-condensation
Cryo-sorption
(Page 55 manual)
HIGH VACUUM PUMPS
3
(Page 63 manual)
VACUUM PUMPING METHODS
Sliding Vane
Rotary Pump
Molecular
Drag Pump
Turbomolecular
Pump
Fluid Entrainment
Pump
VACUUM PUMPS
(METHODS)
Reciprocating
Displacement Pump
Gas Transfer
Vacuum Pump
Drag
Pump
Entrapment
Vacuum Pump
Positive Displacement
Vacuum Pump
Kinetic
Vacuum Pump
Rotary
Pump
Diaphragm
Pump
Piston
Pump
Liquid Ring
Pump
Rotary
Piston Pump
Rotary
Plunger Pump
Roots
Pump
Multiple Vane
Rotary Pump
Dry
Pump
Adsorption
Pump
Cryopump
Getter
Pump
Getter Ion
Pump
Sputter Ion
Pump
Evaporation
Ion Pump
Bulk Getter
Pump
Cold Trap
Ion Transfer
Pump
Gaseous
Ring Pump
Turbine
Pump
Axial Flow
Pump
Radial Flow
Pump
Ejector
Pump
Liquid Jet
Pump
Gas Jet
Pump
Vapor Jet
Pump
Diffusion
Pump
Diffusion
Ejector Pump
Self Purifying
Diffusion Pump
Fractionating
Diffusion Pump
Condenser
Sublimation
Pump
PUMP OPERATING RANGES
10
-12
10
-10
10
-8
10
-6
10
-4
10
-2
1 10
+2
P (Torr)
Rough Vacuum High Vacuum
Ultra High
Vacuum
Roughing Pumps
Turbo Pump
Diffusion Pump
Cryo Pump
Ion Pump
Tit. Subl. Pump
Liquid Nitrogen Trap
VACUUM SYSTEM USE
1
4
6
5
9
8
8
1
2
3
3a
4
5
6
7
8
9
Chamber
High Vac. Pump
Roughing Pump
Fore Pump
Hi-Vac. Valve
Roughing Valve
Foreline Valve
Vent Valve
Roughing Gauge
High Vac. Gauge
7
3
3a
2
8
2
Oil Diffusion Pump
Pump Construction
(Page 66 manual)
How the Pump Works
How the Pump Works
First stage vapors are
separated from others
Pumping Speed
10
-10
10
--3
10
--1
P
u
m
p
i
n
g

S
p
e
e
d

(
A
i
r
)

1 2 3 4
Inlet Pressure (Torr)
Critical Point
1. Compression Ratio Limit
2. Constant Speed
3. Constant Q (Overload)
4. Mechanical Pump Effect
Maximum Tolerable Foreline
Pressure
(Page 73 manual)
LN
2
reservoir with baffles
(Page 78 manual)
How the LN2 Trap Works
Gas
Approximate Vapor
Pressure (mbar)
Water (H
2
O)
Argon (A)
Carbon Dioxide (CO
2
)
Carbon Monoxide (CO)
Helium (He)
Hydrogen (H
2
)
Oxygen (O
2
)
Neon (Ne)
Nitrogen (N
2
)
Solvents
10
-22

500
10
-7

>760
>760
>760
350
>760
760
<10
-10
(Page 79 manual)
Turbomolecular Pump
ROTOR BODY
HIGH PUMPING SPEED
HIGH COMPRESSION
EXHAUST
HIGH FREQ. MOTOR
INLET FLANGE
STATOR BLADES
BEARING
BEARING
(Page 81 manual)
Rotor - stator assembly
(Page 82 manual)
Pump Operation
Molecule
V
Moving Wall with Speed V
Principle of the Turbomolecular Pump
(Page 83 manual)
Roughing through the turbo
1
2
3
4
5
6


Chamber
Turbo Pump
Roughing Pump
Vent Valve
Roughing Gauge
High Vac. Gauge
1
6
7
4
3
2
5
2
(Page 91 manual)
Pumping by Cryocondensation
Cryosorption in charcoal
(Page 98 manual)
Charcoal placement
Gauges
5
(Page 123 manual)
Gauge Operating Ranges
10
-12
10
-10
10
-8
10
-6
10
-4
10
-2
1 10
+2
P (mbar)
Rough Vacuum High Vacuum
Ultra High
Vacuum
Bourdon Gauge
Thermocouple Gauge
Cold Cathode Gauge
Capacitance Manometer
Hot Fil. Ion Gauge
Residual Gas Analyzer
Pirani Gauge
Spinning Rotor Gauge
McLeod Gauge
Bourdon Gauge
How the gauge works
Heat Transfer Gauges
Thermocouple gauge
and
Pirani Gauge
Thermocouple Gauge
How the gauge works
Ionization gauges
Ionization current is the
measure of vacuum
Residual Gas Analyzer
QUADRUPOLE
HEAD
CONTROL UNIT
How the RGA works
MASS NUMBER (A.M.U.)
R
E
L
A
T
I
V
E

I
N
T
E
N
S
I
T
Y

NORMAL (UNBAKED)
SYSTEM
H
2
H
2
O
N
2
,, CO
CO
2
(A)
RGA SPECTRUM
MASS NUMBER (A.M.U.)
R
E
L
A
T
I
V
E

I
N
T
E
N
S
I
T
Y

SYSTEM WITH
AIR LEAK
H
2
H
2
O
N
2
CO
2
(B)
O
2
RGA SPECTRUM
LEAK DETECTION
9
(Page 249 manual)
Introduction
Problems that appear to be
Leaks
Outgassing
Leaks
Virtual
Real
Backstreaming
Diffusion
Permeation
Trapped Volumes
Vented Screw
Double O ring sealed shafts
Atmosphere
(760 torr)
Vacuum
Differential Pumping
Atmosphere
(1013 mbar)
Vacuum
To Pump
1 mbar
PERMEATION LEAKS
Permeation leaks are different
than real leaks because the only way
to stop them is to change to a less
permeable material
One standard cubic
centimeter/sec
(std. cc/sec)
Leak rate of 1 x 10
-1
std cc/sec
Leak rate of 1 x 10
-3
std
cc/sec
Leak Rates over Time
LEAK RATES
10
-1
STD CC/SEC --- 1 CC/10 SEC
10
-3
STD CC/SEC --- 3 CC/HOUR
10
-5
STD CC/SEC --- 1 CC/DAY
10
-6
STD CC/SEC --- 1 CC/2 WEEKS
10
-7
STD CC/SEC --- 3 CC/YEAR
10
-9
STD CC/SEC --- 1 CC/30 YEARS
Why Helium is used
HELIUM
Helium is very light and small
Low concentration in air (0.0005%)
Permits dynamic testing
Permits non-destructive testing
Helium is safe
CONVENTIONAL LEAK DETECTOR
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Test Piece
Test Port
High Vac. Pump
Roughing Pump
Fore Pump
RoughingValve
Test Valve
Pump Valve
Spectrometer Tube
Cold Trap
Roughing Gauge
Vent Valve

7
6
12
4 5
1
3
8
11
2
9
10
Ion Separation in Magnetic
Field
Ion Source
To Pre-Amplifier
Collector
Magnetic Field
Deflects He Ions
90
O
, other ions
more or less than
90
O
.
He ions pass
through slit and
are collected
Lighter ions:
more
Heavier ions:
less
Ion Gauge
Tracer probe leak detection
technique
Thats All, Folks