Jay Project Report NDEH

Summer Training Report On GARMENT PRODUCTION & EXPORT DOCUMENTATION
(Submitted in partial fulfilment for Master in International Business, C.C.S. University, Meerut)
Institute of Management Studies, Noida
Submitted To: Mr. Sarveshwar Dalai HR Manager NDEH
Submitted By Jay Prakash Mishra 9190030
Garment Production & Export documentation
GARMENT PRODUCTION & EXPORT DOCUMENTATION PROJECT REPORT This project report entitled Garment production & Export Documentation based on my knowledge and two month work experience with New Delhi Export House, Noida as a summer trainee. Jay Prakash Mishra 1/7/2011
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Garment Production & Export documentation ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Life of human beings is full of interactions. No one is self-sufficient by himself whenever anyone is doing some serious and important work a lot of help from the people concerned is needed & one less specially obliged towards them. I cannot forget acknowledging them in few words as without the guidance & co-
ordination of them in my project report would not have been possible. A large number of individual contributed to this project. I am thankful to all of them for their help and encouragement. My writing in this project
report has also been influenced by a number of website and standard textbooks. As far as possible, they have been fully acknowledged at the appropriate place .I express my gratitude to all of them. First of all I owe my heartfelt gratitude to my guide prof.Ajaj ahmad and balraj shahni . Betty for his noble guidance throughout the completion of the Project. I would like to extend my heartfelt thanks to Mrs. Neelima goyal, Head Merchandiser of NEW DELHI EXPORT HOUSE, and NOIDA for giving me an opportunity to work on this project. I would also like to thank Mrs. Dipti maam merchandiser of NEW DELHI EXPORT HOUSE. For shies guidance, inspiration, and constructive suggestions, which helped me in the Project? I must also thank the management of New Delhi Export House Noida. To provide excellent opportunity and environment to be able to pull my project through. Cooperation of the staff is also gratefully acknowledged. Last but not least, also give my sincere thanks to all the people to directly indirectly have help and encourage me in finding the way to us collecting the requisite information and completing the project effectively and timely. Jay Prakash Mishra M.I.B. Roll no. - 9190030
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GUIDE CERTIFICATE TO WHOMESOEVER IT MAY CONCERN
This is to certify that the project report titled
GARMENT PRODUCTION & EXPORT DOCUMENTATION Offered by New Delhi Export House, Noida. MISHRA, Roll No.- 9190030, a student has been prepared by JAY PRAKASH of M.I.B. (Master of International
Business), session (2010-12) with International Business as major area of specialization. The study was conducted with special reference to New Delhi Export House, Noida . I recommend this project for evaluation.
Place: Date:
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INDEX IMPORTANT ABBREVIATIONS ______________________________________________________ 7 INTRODUCTION OF STUDY ________________________________________________________ 10 OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY ________________________________________________________ 11 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY _______________________________________________________ 12 RESEARCH DESIGN __________________________________________________________________ 13 SCOPE OF THE STUDY ______________________________________________________________ 13 COMPANY PROFILE _________________________________________________________________ 14 PROCESS OF READYMADE GARMENT PRODUCTION: __________________________ 18 TOOLS OF SAMPLING _______________________________________________________________ 21 PREPARATION FOR STITCHING _________________________________________________ 23 TOOLS USED IN GARMENT CONSTRUCTION __________________________________ 25 PAPER PATTERNS: _________________________________________________________________ 29 STITCHES, SEAMS AND SEAM FINISHES: ______________________________________ 31 FULLNESS: __________________________________________________________________________ 32 TUCKS _______________________________________________________________________________ 32 PLEATS ______________________________________________________________________________ 34 GATHERS ___________________________________________________________________________ 34 SMOCKING _________________________________________________________________________ 36 STITCHES USED FOR SMOCKING: _______________________________________________ 36
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NECKLINES: __________________________________________________________________________ 39 DIFFERENT METHODS OF FINISHING NECKLINES ____________________ 39 BINDING:______________________________________________________________________________ 41 FASTENERS: __________________________________________________________________________ 42 WHERE AND HOW TO TAKE MEASUREMENTS ____________________________ 47 DOCUMENTATION _________________________________________________________________ 51 THE PROFORMA INVOICE __________________________________________________________ 51 COMMERCIAL INVOICE _____________________________________________________________ 54 PACKING LIST ________________________________________________________________________ 58 LETTEROFCREDIT___________________________________________________________________ 61 FORMAT FOR LETTER OF CREDIT (CFR) _________________________________ 63 THE EXPORT CONTRACT ___________________________________________________________ 67 CERTIFICATION______________________________________________________________________ 69 BILL OF LADING (BOL OR B/L) ____________________________________________________ 71 AIR WAYBILLS _______________________________________________________________________ 74 TRANSPORT DOCUMENTS AND SPECIAL INSTRUCTIONS _____________________ 75 FREIGHT TRANSIT ORDER _________________________________________________________ 75 ROAD CONSIGNMENT NOTE _______________________________________________________ 76 MODES OF TRANSPORTATION ____________________________________________________ 77
LIMITATION
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Important Abbreviations
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INTRODUCTION OF STUDY
This project is all about to know about Garment Production & export documentation. This project puts more focus on to know ready made garment export, and production. The business of ready made garments is increasing day by day due to changes of fashions in human life. The business is not only in India, there is big export market. In the RMg sector jackets, blouse, skirts is showing good growth in local and export market. There are number of branded Ready made garments manufacturing Units in India. Even though the small scale units also surviving in the country because of verities. Besides being one of the favourite attres, jeans have also gained popularity as a casual wear too. These days several companies are into the business of making jackets, blouse, skirts, pants and also supplementary items import as like fabric, buttons, lace, barcode sticker, tag, blister, polybag, PB sticker, carton, zip, laces, elastic, Fusing, Hanger, Sizer, Safety pin, thread. The demand for RMg is increasing at around 18-20 % annually in the country. The popularity of jean pants is good among youth and fashion conscious Public. The domestic market and the export market are growing rapidly and the unit for manufacturing can be run quite successfully if they can tap the market giving good price and quality. The textile and garment sectors play an extremely significant role in India in terms specially of share in value added, foreign exchange earnings, and employment. With the impending dismantling of quotas in 2004 under mandate from the Agreement in Textile and Clothing of the WTO, the focus has clearly shifted to the future of the Indian textile and clothing exports. This study is an attempt to evaluate export-competitiveness of the Indian textile and garment exports with a view to assessing the competitive sinews in preparation for the quota-free trade beyond 2004.
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Garment Production & Export documentation OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY
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The main objectives of the research were:
To know about export import process.
To know what are the documents required before production of garment and after finishing of product to shipment.
To know different type of packing and shipment terms.
To know the work of merchandiser.
To know all about the production garment and export.
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RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Collect data/information about garment production through:
Primary data collection: Management Telephone Employ Worker (daily basis)
Secondary data collection:
Invoice Packaging list Shipping bill Internet
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RESEARCH DESIGN
Research design is the based framework, which provides guidelines for the research process. It is a map or blue print according to which the research is to be conducts. The research design specifies the methods for data collection & data analysis determine the source of data. Most specifically it was a kind of Descriptive conclusive research who takes care of who, when, where, what, how and why aspects of the investigation further the researcher used the statistical method to serve he purpose of project, it permitted the research to derive more accurate generalization whose reliability could be measured.
CENTRE RESEARCH RESEARCH TECHNIQUE TOOL USED DATA SOURCE
: ALL OVER INDIA : EXPLORATORY : QUALITATIVE & QUANNTATIVE : MANEGEMENT & DOCUMENT : PRIMARY & SECONDARY
SCOPE OF THE STUDY The aim of this project report is to unfold stepwise all complexities involved in the export business right from receving an export order to final realization of export proceed it gives a detail ideas of how different departements in an apparel export house work in synchronization so that an export order in proceed . This project would be helpful to full fill many loopholes of manufactring proccessing and analyzing the export order as well as doucumentation
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Company profile
INTRODUCTION OF THE ORGANIZATION New Delhi Export House is an established Govt. of India Recognized Export House operating since 1990. The company has been exporting and manufacturing firm under the guidance of Mrs. Kusum Uppal, the chairman of the company and one of the flag bearers of the Indian Apparel Industry. The firm carries out its operations from Noida on the outskirts of New Delhi, 25 Kms. From the International Airport. It is our commitment to quality and timely deliveries that has been the reason for our phenomenon growth over the years and also the increase of prestigious clients we are working with.
VISION / REPLENISHMENT POLICY: The Company adheres to a replenishment policy in regard to the general forecasted fabrics for the season in view of the unstable fabric market. By concentrating on our business, further internationally our designs and expanding our international markets we will consistently deliver customers value. Because each of these initiatives makes us come closer to our customers. Under this policy the company keeps a moderate stock of general prevalent fabrics which helps the company to take up quick delivery & price point orders.
Clients: Some major European & American companies that add up to NDEHS clientele are :In U.K. : Marks & Spencer, Littlewoods Shop Direct, Bay Trading, Ann-Harvey, Kaliko,J.D. Williams, White Stuff, TFNC, Sainsbury.,Envy,Dash,Nova Etam, Rene Derhy, Phildar, La-Halle, Camaieu, Miss Creeks, Burton, Camif, Phildar, J.L. International, Premaman Splash
In France
In Belgium In U.A.E.
: :
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In Netherlands, ISRAEL, GERMANY : In USA :
Castro Charlotte Russe,Guess Inc., Quiksilver (Roxy), BillaBong, Sole Technologies, Fire, Lost, Kohls, Sears Ahlens El-Corte Ingles,Trucco,Caramelo Jeans
In Canada In SWEDEN In Spain
: : :
Strengths:
The company stands at a current capacity to produce 90,000 to 1, 00,000 Pcs. / Month OR 1.7 Million Garments per year at a turnover of US$. 13 Million. The company has two factories in Noida having approximately area of 70000 sq. The manufacturing plant of the company is equipped with in-house facilities of CAD System, Assembly Line Fabrication, Testing Laboratory, Washing, Finishing and Packing of Goods. The huge infrastructure has enabled us to deliver on time and hence won over prestigious customers for us, with whom the company has strengthened its relationship over the years by its excellent services.
PRODUCTS PORTFOLIO: To keep abreast with whats happening in the world of fashion; we frequently research our target markets as well as global result and apparel trade fairs like CPD-Dusseldorf, Premiere VisionParis FACILITIES: A large workforce, Huge work space, Latest manufacturing Machinery, Latest Sewing Machines including CAD System for better and efficient production planning, excellent Show-Room Library, Design Studio, Fabrication Studio, Packaging Facilities and much more make up NDEHS arena. A work force including highly trained Merchandisers, Designers, Tailors, Weavers, Craftsmen, Embroiders make the work force of NDEH efficient, fast and smooth piece of machinery. Highly motivated teams of qualified professionals have the job of steering the company. Work conditions and facilities are paid special attention, thus are the latest ergonomically standards maintained in the organization. From the managing Director, to the daily Tailor, all are part of one bigNDEH family. A dedicated team of In-House Designers and merchandisers in addition to huge In-House research and development facilities ensure new and stunning designs.
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R&D is a major part of the organization work with alight on every aspect of garment industry and materials, in addition, to the excellent work force, the other aspect of production, infrastructures whereNDEH has an EDGE. With excellent & High-End machines to assist in every stage of production, the production facilities with NDEH are one of the best. In addition to this a team of professionals are maintained for up keep and maintenance. Also in our facilities is an excellent world- Class showroom where samples are displayed to the Buyers, our In-House models Model the clothes for the buyers, we also have an In-House ShowRoom with latest collections. New Delhi Export House is a leading high quality garment exporter, exporting from Noida, India to various leading clothing retailers all over Europe and the Americas engaged in the manufacturing of High Quality and Fashionable clothes for men and women in various distinguished collections with a big In-House development center and a dedicated team of young and talented staff, The Designs and Trends Created, The Design House by NDEHis unmatched in quality and style. A team of experienced and qualified quality technicians and QA professionals supervise the production process right from the fabric to shipment stage to achieve quality as specified by customers. We follow stringent sampling and Quality Control Systems through out the manufacturing cycle. All incoming fabrics are tested at our In-House laboratory which carries out all the required basic tests. COMMON FABRICS INCLUDE: Fabrics of the following varieties are used by us after Processing(washed, embroidered, printed and dyed). Cotton Polyesters Nylons Jacquard Rayon and Poly Crepes Corduroys Bosky Silks Tissue Satin Georgette Power Loom Yarn Dyed Cottons other Fancy Woven Fabrics with different washed effects PRET A PORTER- PARIS:
The Design house of NDEH, consisting of a team of young talented designers regularly churns out price & fashion conscious ranges for women, men & children. The product range for women includes woven Tops & Blouses, Dresses, Skirts, Jackets & Silk sequined Garments, etc. divided into:-
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Young Fashion Ladies Fashion Boutique wear Our more recent product range is for kids ages we design and manufacture Dresses, Shorts, Tops, Skirts, Capris, Pants, even fashionable sequins work dresses and tops for children to wear at parties, etc. The product range for men comprises currently of woven casual wear like shirts in yarn dyed / textured & power loom fabrics etc. The company invites serious buyers from India and abroad to take a look at its exciting range of womens and mens wear in wide range of style, designed to ensure comfort with style. The companys clothes line are cut to perfection & made from the finest quality materials, including natural fibres like cottons, silks, viscose and synthetic fibers like polyesters, Nylons etc.
TO PRODUCE QUALITY MERCHANDISE:
I) 4 POINT SYSTEM IS USED IN FABRIC CHECKIN II) ALL CUT PARTS CHECKED BEFORE BUNDLING Quality standards during the entire production is controlled at AQL 2.5.Broken Needle / Hand Needle Policy is strictly followed to ensure that no needle is trapped in a garment and rechecked again by Needle detection machine. We are committed towards Quality by adhering to product specific statutory and regularity requirements, maintaining time & action schedules, PP meetings once order confirmed with production team, fabric store, accessorsy store, QA team and training employees about importance for quality merchandise.
INFRASTRUCTURE: NDEH has two factories situated in NOIDA, where all the sophisticated In-House support facilities have been installed with the 2 factories having 600 machines in place. We have a production capacity of about 1.7 Million garments per year. Both factories currently have sophisticated In-House facilities that include a wide Spectrum of Machinery: Eastmans Cutting Machines, Hashimas Fussing Machine, Brothers Single Needle Lockstitch Machine, Brothers Double Needle Machine, Brothers feed of arm, Pegasuss 6 & 5 thread over lock Machines, Pfafers, Germany & Brothers button hold machines, Ramasons Steam Genitors, Thermax & Xcels Inductrial Boiler, Simtec / Capri Hans & Xcels steam irons, Eastmans Drill Machine, thread sucking machines, thread cutting Machines, Eastmans fabric knotchers washing machines, Tumblers and Hydro Extractors. The factories are centrally Air cooled our sophisticated support facilities include an In-House laboratory and CAD. The electronic global data exchange feature has substantially reduced the communication time required for exchange of pattern data during the sampling stages. The work place is ergonomically designed with proper light, spaces and amenities for the workers.
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OUR BANKERS: The Karnataka Bank Ltd. F-27/28, Sector-18, Noida-201301.INDIA. Swift Code: KARBINBBNAOND Telefax: 0091-120- 2514049, 2514892 Telex: 3161403 HANI IN Contact us: NEW DELHI EXPORT HOUSE Contact Person Address Phone No. Fax No. E-mail Website : : : : : : Mrs. Kusum Uppal New Delhi Export House C-135, Sector-63, Noida, (U.P.) India. 91-120-4014700 91-120-4014799 info@ndeh.com www.ndeh.com
PROCESS OF READYMADE GARMENT PRODUCTION: The process of garment manufacturing comprise of following main operation:
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Garment Production & Export documentation Designing & Sampling As Per Customer Sample
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Patter making
Raw Material
Grey Cloth
Bleaching or Dyeing or Printing Finishing
Cutting of Components
Fabrication
Value Added (embroidery or needle work)
Finishing
Checking / Packing & Forwarding
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Garment is designed according to the sample supplied by buyers. The counter sample is prepared and all the components and raw material details are recorded. Then costing part of the garment is done at the sample stage. After getting the approval from the buyers and also for the cost, raw material is procured and processed according to the requirements in the textile processing mills. Then according to design and size, patterns are prepared. The fabrics are cut according to the pattern and stitched. The value-added work like embroidery is done either before or after stitching operation, as per sample. The goods are checked for measurements and packed for forwarding to final destination. There are so many items produced under the name of readymade Garments. Process of manufacture of each item varies from each other that detailed manufacturing process of all the product cannot be given in this report. The common process of manufacture is given below: Cutting of cloth
Stitching
Embroidery work
Cutting of threads
Checking and passing
Washing/Dry cleaning
Pressing/ironing
Checking
Packing
It is whole process of making ready made garment in the New Delhi Export House Noida
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Garment Production & Export documentation Tools of sampling SEWING MACHINE TYPES:
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Sewing is a creative and interesting skill. The knowledge of sewing give a confident feeling when it is applied to the construction of garments. The earlier method of sewing by hand is not applicable for all stages of garment making. Therefore, considerable emphasis is given to machine sewing. There are several machines in the market today, each with its own desirable features and advantages. Sewing machines range from most basic having only simple lock stitch to the electronic machines that use advanced computer technology having various functions for example piping, binding, ruffling, pleating, darning, hemming and even making buttonholes and attaching fasteners. A good sewing machine is required to obtain quality products. One has to be familiar with the characteristics of different types of machines for selecting appropriate machine, depending upon the ability and requirements of the person. Sewing machines are now available in various models such as domestic model, tailor model, industrial model, portable and cabinet models. They may be operated by hand, treadle or electric motor. Hand Operated Sewing Machine: This is the simplest form of sewing machine which is operated by hand. A detachable handle provided to the flywheel is used to operate the machine. This machine is generally suitable for domestic purpose because it does not help in speeding up the work. Treadle Sewing Machine: This machine is exactly like the hand sewing machine but it is operated by foot using an additional stand. In this type the balance wheel is operated by a belt with the help of lower stand, which is driven by feet. This machine operates faster than that of the hand-operated machine. This machine is suitable where there is no power supply. When handling this machine both the hands are free to handle the fabric, speeding up the work. Even some of the heavy-duty machines are operated by this method. Electric Sewing Machine: This is the fastest sewing machine. One needs practice to handle it. In an electric machine the balance wheel comes to motion by a belt, which is attached to an electric motor.
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Garment Production & Export documentation PARTS OF A SEWING MACHINE AND THEIR FUNCTIONS: The basic structure of sewing machine is the same whether it is hand-operated sewing, treadle sewing machine or electric sewing machine. The basic parts of a sewing are listed below and seen in Fig.1
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Fig. 1 Parts of a Sewing Machine 1. Spool pin: It is fitted on top of the arm to hold the reel. 2. Thread guide: It holds the thread in position from the spool to the needle. 3. Tension disc: The two concave discs put together with the convex sides facing each other. The thread passes between the two. The tension of the thread is adjusted by a spring and nut which increases or decreases pressure 4. Take up lever: It is a lever fitted to the body of the arm. Its up and down motion feeds the thread to the needle and tightens the loop formed by the shuttle. 5. Needle bar: This is a steel rod to hold the needle at one end with the help of a clamp. Its main function is to give motion to the needle. 6. Bobbin case: This moves into position to catch the top thread and form the stitch as the needle is lowered into the bobbin chamber. 7. Presser foot: It is fixed to the presser bar to hold the cloth firmly in position when lowered. 8. Presser foot lifter: A lever attached to the presser bar for raising and lowering the presser foot. 9. Stitch regulator: This controls the length of the stitch. 10. Bobbin winder: A simple mechanism used for winding thread on the bobbin. 11. Fly Wheel: When this is made to revolve, it works the mechanism of the motion 12. Clutch or Thumb Screw: This is in the center of the fly wheel and it engages and disengages the stitching mechanism.
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13. Slide Plate: A rectangular plate, which facilitates the removal of the bobbin case without lifting the machine. 14. Needle Plate or Throat Plate: A semi-circular disc with a hole to allow the needle to pass through it. 15. Feed dog: This consists of a set of teeth fitted below the needle plate. It helps to move the cloth forward while sewing. 16. Face plate: A cover which on removal gives access to the oiling points on the needle bar, presser bar and take-up lever. 17. Spool pin for bobbin winding: Spool of thread is placed on this at the time of bobbin winding. PREPARATION FOR STITCHING Before starting actual machining, you should check that the needle of the machine is of correct size, is sharp and correctly set. The bobbin should be evenly set. Briefly, the various steps of pre-preparation are: Winding the bobbin Upper Threading Drawing the bobbin thread Tension adjustments Pressure and feed adjustments Selection of thread and needle
A perfect stitch can be obtained only when the thread selected is suitable to the material to be stitched and the needle is of the correct size. For stitching on delicate thin fabrics, use fine thread and fine needle. For heavy fabrics, needles and thread size should be larger. The following Table 1 will be a guide to help selection of appropriate needle and thread sizes. Table 1: Selection of thread and needles for fabrics F ab ric Fiber Thread Needle Stitch lengt S nh tc. y t ei , h synthetic60 FinelyWoven co tton & 9-11 1 -15 0 mercerized50 blenei . S nhds y t tc, Li htweg t g ih synthetic60 1 -15 2 co tton & mercerized50 11-14 woven blenei . S nhds y t tc, Mediumwe synthetic60 1 -15 2 co tton & mercerized50 11-14 ightwoven blenei . He v we ay S nhds y t tc, 1 -18 6 synthetic60 1 -12 0 i ht g co tton & mercerized50 14 woven blen ds
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Types of Threads The natural fibre threads available in the market are cotton and silk. Synthetic threads are usually made from polyester and terylene. Threads whether natural or synthetic are produced in various thickness: higher the number, finer is the thread and smaller the number, coarser is the thread. It is important to remember that the same thread should be used for the bobbin and top spool. Selection of needles Machine needles are selected according to the weight and other characteristics of the fabric, as well as the thread type being used for construction. Generally, a needle should be fine enough to penetrate the fabric without damaging it and yet have an eye, which is big enough so that the thread does not fray or break. Needles come in various sizes, from very fine (size 9) for light weight fabrics to thick (size 18) for very heavy weight and dense fabrics.
COMMON MACHINE TROUBLES The sewing like any other machine, gives troubles of stitching like thread breaking, uneven stitching, puckering, bending and breaking of needle, looping of threads, skipping of stitches, etc. Little problems with the sewing machine can be very irritating and time consuming. They can happen to even the most experienced seamstress. A person operating the machine should be able to rectify these and solve the problems. Some of the common machine problems are listed below: breaking needles looping of stitches skipping stitches variation in stitch length puckered seams upper thread breaking lower thread breaking machine not feeding properly machine working heavily layers feed unevenly fabric does not feed in straight line cause damage to fabric Puckering on both layers of fabric Puckering on under layer only Shows feed marks on the under side Fabric is damaged or holes around the stitches
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Garment Production & Export documentation TOOLS USED IN GARMENT CONSTRUCTION
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Besides a sewing machine in good condition, well selected sewing equipment and pressing equipment are essential for making garments of good quality and appearance. Sewing box / kit: First and foremost, one should have a box or basket with compartments for keeping the things needed for sewing. 2.1 SEWING AND EMBROIDERY TOOLS: Hand Sewing Needles: They are found in sizes from the very fine 9 to the heavy 18. The best quality needles are made of hand ground steel. For hand sewing medium length needles with a short oval eye is selected. Crewel needles designed for embroidery work have a long oval eye. Sewing Machine Needles: They are found in sizes from the fine 9 to the heavy 18. The needles are made to fit the specific make and model of each sewing machine. The needle size should conform to the weight, thickness, and kind of fabric. Sewing thread: With the wide and ever increasing range of fabrics available in the market, it is important to know the right sewing thread for the various types of fabrics. The right kind of thread is important in sewing as both the thread and the garment should share the same characteristics, as they have to be laundered and ironed together, they should shrink and stretch together. Pins: These come in different sizes for use in different fabrics. The right choice of pins is most essential for good workmanship, speed, and convenience in sewing. Use silk or stainless steel pins. The ball point pins are useful for fine knits. The other types of pins are dressmaker pin (a pin of medium diameter but quite suitable for most sewing needs), and silk (a very slender pin with a needle point to be used on delicate fabrics). Thimbles: These are necessary for efficient and accurate hand sewing. A metal thimble should fit snugly on the middle finger of the needle holding hand. There are two types of thimbles: an open-ended thimble, preferred by tailors, and the more common closedended thimble, called the dressmakers thimble (Fig.2a).
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Garment Production & Export documentation Fig. 2a Thimble
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Embroidery Frame: This is used for keeping the fabric stretched while the work is being carried out. Embroidery Threads: These are available in a variety of colours in six stranded skeins. One can use two or three strands at a time. Stiletto: This is a sharp pointed instrument for punching holes in material. It is used for forming holes in material. It is used for forming eyelets in belts and for embroidery work. Bodkin: This is a flat needle with a blunt end and a large eye for threading elastic and tape. CUTTING TOOLS The following types of shears and scissors are made for both right-handed and left- handed cutting. All cutting tools must be kept sharp, clean, and grease-free for accurate cuts. Bent-Handle Shears: They are 8 to 10 inches long (Fig. 2b). They are used for cutting all types of fabrics. Shears differ from scissors in that they have one small ring handle for the thumb and a large ring handle for the second, third and fourth fingers
Fig. 2b Bent handle shears Scissors: They are 5 to 6 inches long. They are used for light cutting, trimming, clipping corners, and cutting curves. These have round handles for both the blades. They are designed for snipping threads and
trimming seams. Fig. 2c Scissors They
should be held so that the wider blade
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Garment Production & Export documentation is above the narrower blade
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MEASURING TOOLS Measuring Tape: It has a smooth surface that is clearly marked with increments of inches and centimeters on both sides. It is usually about 1/2 inch to 1/4 inch wide and 60 inches long, and has 1/8 divisions (Fig. 2g). At one end of the tape is attached a brass strip about 3 inches long and at the other end, a small brass covering.
Fig. 2g Measuring tape Rulers: They are used in sample room which are either clear plastic or metal. It is useful to have 2 rulers: one is 1 inch wide and 6 inches long, and the second is 2 inches wide and 18 inches long. Yardstick or meter scale: It is available in 36 inches or 45 inches in length in wood or metal. They are useful for checking grain lines when fixing pattern pieces on material and for drawing long seam lines on fabric or paper. L Square: It is an L-shaped metal ruler; the long arm measures 24 inches, the short arm 14 inches. This has a perfect right angle corner and is used to draw lines at right angles at the time of drafting. It is helpful during the process of straightening fabric to check whether the corners of the fabric have got the right-angled structure
Fig.2h L-square Skirt Marker: They mark hem length accurately. Markers are adjustable and are available for use with chalk powder or pins. A six-inch gauge can be made of cardboard or bought from a shop (Fig. 2i). It is useful as a measuring guide for marking width of hems, pleats, seam allowances etc. accurately. Notches are provided at regular intervals along the gauge. One edge of the notch is at right angles to the straight. While measuring or marking, use the straight edge of the notch as a guide.
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Fig. 2i Hem or skirt marker
MARKING TOOLS Tracing Wheel: It is used to transfer the pattern markings-including seams, darts and pocket placements to the wrong side of the fabric with the aid of tracing paper. The small serrated edge tracing wheel is appropriate for most fabrics (Fig.2j). A smooth edge tracing wheel is used on fine or knit fabrics to avoid snagging the yarns.
Fig. 2j Tracing wheel Tracing Paper: It is a wax-coated paper used with the tracing wheel to transfer pattern markings to the wrong side of the fabric Tailors Chalk: It is made of wax or stone chalk that is used to transfer markings to fabric when white carbon is not visible. Stone chalk is also available in pencil form. This is available in assorted colours and in rectangular or triangular shapes. 2.5 PRESSING TOOLS Iron: This keep an automatic iron handy for pressing fabric before cutting, during construction and after the garment is completed. Steam Iron: It has an adjustable temperature control, and is equipped with a thumb press for automatic steam. Distilled water is heated, and the resulting steam can be released with the thumb press while pressing. Ironing Board: It is used for hand pressing which is padded and of convenient height. One may
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use an ordinary table covered with sheet and blanket for this purpose. Sleeve Board: This is a well-padded miniature of a full-sized ironing board and is used to press sleeves and hard-to-reach small details (Fig. 2k). It has a tapered end on one side and a round end on the other side.
Fig:. 2k Sleeve Board Press cloth: Fabric used for press cloth should be colourfast and should be washed or boiled to remove all sizing
PAPER PATTERNS: Pattern of a garment is the blue print on the basis of the fabric is cut. The patterns can be prepared using strong brown papers, news papers for rough drafts, strong white paper which is available in a variety of weights and widths, tracing paper or butter paper may be used to develop patterns. A basic pattern of a garment can be prepared by one of these two methods: - by drafting - by draping fabric on a model or person concerned Drafting may be defined as a system of drawing patterns on paper with mechanical precision, on the basis of body measurements. The basic pattern developed on paper may be modified to develop patterns for varied styles. This is also called as flat pattern designing. This is sometimes called as the third type of preparing patterns that is rather imprecise. The basic pattern is also referred to as sloper, block, master or foundation pattern.
TYPES OF PAPER PATTERNS: Paper patterns are made and or available in two types commercial patterns prepared on the bases of standard measurements and patterns drafted using personal measurements. 1. Commercial Patterns: Commercial patterns are usually done on tissue paper. Since tissue paper is not bulky, it allows many pieces of pattern to be packed compactly in an envelope. Good patterns are carefully labeled with the following information: pattern size, name of each pattern (back, front, sleeve, etc), number of pieces to cut from each pattern piece, pattern markings like notches, buttons and button hole position, seam allowances, grain lines, center front, center back, hem line markings, dart locations, etc. Some companies even
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give markings for pattern alteration locations. In addition instruction sheets explaining steps involved in using the pattern, to cut the garment, method of cutting specific fabrics with different textures and print, method of construction and fabric suitability Commercial patterns for women and children are usually sized according to bust measurements. Pants and skirts according to waist, hip and length measurements. Hence before selecting the patterns, you should take the body measurements accurately and buy the correct size. The measurements are listed on the pattern envelope in some of the good commercial patterns. Patterns Drafted with Personal Measurements: In many ways it is most advantageous to draft your own patterns rather than buy commercial patterns. It is most economical, since draftings based on personal measurements fit well. CONTENTS OF PAPER PATTERNS A paper pattern should contain the following information as given in Fig. 3a below:
Fig. 3a Paper Pattern Name of the block e.g bodice front, back, sleeve, skirt, collar, yoke, pocket, etc. Grain line on each pattern piece Size e.g. 32, 34, 36, 38, etc Centre Front or Centre Back Style number or code number of the pattern Pattern piece e.g skirt front or back Cutting information how many pieces to be cut e.g cut 1, cut 2, cut on fold. Notches marks needed to help in assembling of garment sections Amount of seam allowances USES OF PAPER PATTERNS The paper patterns for various styles can be prepared and stored easily. The basic pattern with alterations at points can be prepared which later can be used to develop other styles. A number of styles can be developed in a short time and used comfortably even if the person using paper patterns do not have any idea of drafting patterns. They are the cheapest ways of designing used for constructing garments of varied styles.
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STITCHES, SEAMS AND SEAM FINISHES: Understanding garment making and regular knowledge of basic sewing techniques such as simple stitches, seams, darts, gathers and pleats etc. would enable appropriate application in garment construction. Before learning to stitch seam on the machine one must learn the basic hand stitches which are used in garment making. Basic hand sewing techniques are divided into constructive and decorative stitches. Constructive stitches are further divided into temporary and permanent TEMPORARY STITCHES: Temporary stitches are used to hold the garment pieces together before permanent stitches are made. These are termed as tacking or basting stitches. They are often used to hold two or more layers of material together before the permanent stitches are made. Usually this stitch is horizontal and is worked from right to left with a knot. For tacking it is better to use a contrast colour thread. There are several types of basting stitches a. Even basting: This is used for tacking seams and other details, which must be held securely. The stitches are of equal length about 1/4 inch on both sides of the material. This is used for tacking seams and other details, which must be held securely (Fig.4.1a)
Fig. 4.1a Even basting b. Uneven basting: The stitch on the upper side of the fabric is at least twice than that on the under side. The size of the stitch is usually 1/2 inch. Use this type of basting as guideline where there is little or no strain (Fig.4.1b).
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Garment Production & Export documentation Fig. 4.1 b Uneven basting
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PERMANENT STITCHES: The stitches that are left in the garment and form a part of the stitched garment are permanent stitches. Knots are not generally used for starting the permanent stitches. Two or three stitches at the beginning of a row, especially on flat seams will be helpful in securing the stitches. a. Running stitch: This is the simplest form of hand stitch which is used for permanent sewing hand seams such as tucks, gathering, shirring, quilting and mending. It is similar to even basting, but the stitches are much similar. The stitches should be straight, fine and evenly spaced and about 1/16 to 1/8 inch in length. Pass the needle through the fabric several times before pulling it through (Fig. 4.1.2a).
Fig. 4.1.2a Running stitch Backstitch: The backstitch is strong and is sometimes substituted for machine stitching. Stitches should be about 1/16 to 1/8 inch long on the topside. To make the backstitch, push needle up through the material at a point on the stitching line about 1/8 inch from its right end. Take a stitch inserting the needle 1/8 inch back of the thread at the beginning of the stitching line and bringing it out an equal distance in front of the thread. FULLNESS: Fullness of material is an important feature of style as well as a necessity for ease of movement in a well fitted garment, whereas, fashion changes the basic methods of controlling fullness that frequently recur, though adapted to enhance the current style. Darts, tucks, pleats, gathers etc are some of the devices for introducing fullness. TUCKS A tuck is a fold of fabric stitched in place by running stitch or machine stitch on the right side of the garment as a means of - shaping the garment to the body, for holding in fullness or add decorative effect at shoulders, waistlines, yokes,
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pockets or cuff of sleeves etc. The tucks that are partly stitched help in shaping the garments. These are also used in childrens garments to hold the allowance for growth. Tucks add body to thin fabrics and textural interest to plain fabrics. Tucks can be used in groups or clusters and in graduated width. When calculating the amount of material that is needed, each tuck calls for an allowance equal to twice its finished width. So for making a group of 4 tucks of 1/8 inch finished width, allow 4 x (1/ 8 x 2) = 1 inch extra material. To stitch each tuck fold along middle so that stitching lines coincide. Then stitch along the markings. Cut the garment section only after completing the stitching of the tucks. There are several methods of tucking: a. Pin tucks: These are tiny dainty tucks used on baby clothes and fine blouses. To stitch each tuck fold, along the middle of the markings. Tack or machine baste about 1/8 inch wide from the fold (Fig.5-1a).
Fig. 5-1a Pin tucks b.Piped or Corded tucks: These are made by placing cording on the wrong side of the fabric at center of tuck before stitching the tuck (Fig.5-1b) and stitched close to the cording
Fig. 5-1b Piped or corded tucks c. Shell or scalloped tucks: This is a very a decorative tuck made by hand or machine. Stitch the tuck using small running stitches. As you come to each dot, take two overcast stitches through the dot and pull tight, before proceeding further with the running stitches (Fig.5-1c).
Fig. 5-1c Shell or Scalloped tucks
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PLEATS Pleats are folds of fabric that provide fullness in some parts of a garment. They can be placed single or in a series and can be pressed flat or left unpressed, according to the style of the garment. Pressed pleats give a smooth, slimming line to a garment, whereas, unpressed pleats provide a softer and fuller shape. Pleats are introduced usually at the waist line of skirts and dresses, to provide fullness evenly all around. The preparation of pleats is similar to that of tucks, the main difference being that pleats are seldom stitched all the way down. Sometimes they are stitched part way down the garment for flatness. Each pleat require extra material of twice the width of the finished pleat. If pleats are to touch each other all round the garment, the amount of material needed is three times the finished width. There are different types of pleats that can be used in garment construction. Among more commonly used are. a. Knife pleats: They are usually about 1/2 inch to 1 inch wide and are turned towards the same direction (Fig.5-2a). The direction may be reversed at center back or centre front of the garment. Make all the pleats in the same direction. Press them. Pleats can be top stitched in place from waist to hip to produce the slender effect. The main function of a knife pleat in a tailored garment is to provide fullness at the bottom of the garment.
b. Box pleats: Fig. 5.2 a knife Pleats Two knife pleats turned away from each other (one to the left and one to the right) form a box pleat (Fig.5-2b). These are used quite often for uniforms.
GATHERS Gathering is an effective and decorative way of distributing fullness over a given area. Gathers are graceful folds of fabric that provide fullness, suggesting a soft look, which can be made using machine or hand stitches. These are formed by drawing the fabric together on a line of stitching and may be used to control the fullness at round waist, yoke lines, waist lines, neck lines and upper and lower edge of sleeves. Gathering is done by different methods, such as:
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Garment Production & Export documentation a. Gathering by hand:
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Work two rows of running stitches 1/4 inch apart 1/8 inch above and below the seam line. Draw the ends of threads until the section measures the desired length and secure the thread by winding round a pin as shown (Fig. 5-3a).
Fig. 5-3a Hand gathering b. Gathering by machine: Make seam line on the right side of the fabric by adjusting the machine for long stitch and loosening the upper tension slightly. Now work two rows of machine stitches 1/4 inch apart. Distribute the fullness evenly by pulling both bobbin threads together (Fig. 5-3b).
Fig. 5-3b Machine gathering c. Gathering by using elastic: Gathers can be made by stretching a narrow strip of elastic and stitching on the part of the garment which is to be gathered (Fig. 5-3c).
Fig. 5-3c Gathering using elastic 5.4 SHIRRING OR GAUGING When several rows of gathering (3 or more) are used for a decorative finish these are termed shirring (Fig.5-4). The rows should be evenly spaced. Shirring appears as a decorative feature at the shoulder, waistline, at the lower edge of a sleeve and usually at the narrower parts of garment also allowing a certain degree of stretching. Shirring can be done by these methods - Thread shirrs - Elasticized shirrs
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Fig. 5-4 Shirring
SMOCKING It is a type of fabric enrichment, consisting of tiny embroidery stitches sewed over the folds of gathers at regularly spaced intervals on the right side of the fabric. It is used to hold fullness or to add texture and surface interest to a bodice, neckline or sleeves of childrens or womens dress. Best-suited fabrics for smocking are soft and flat-faced fabrics such as voiles, cambric and crepes. Use a mediumweight and firmly twisted thread of cotton or silk. Gathering Fabric: Smocking on plain material requires marking with a series of dots on the wrong side (Fig. 5-5a.a). These dots should be evenly spaced, around 0.3 cm apart, and the distance between the rows may be 0.5 -1 cm. For heavy fabrics the distance can be more. Fabrics with checks, plaids or dots do not require the transfer of the pattern. Using strong thread, pick up the dots along one row and make several running stitches along. Complete all the rows. The number of rows depends on the area to be covered. The width of fabric should be three times as long as the gathered fabric for smocking area smocking is to cover. Draw up the fabric on the threads and fasten the thread ends by winding them together round the pins placed at one end to hold them securely (Fig. 5.5 a.b)
Fig. 5.5a Preparation of material for smocking Stitches Used for Smocking: a. Outline stitch This is like a stem stitch used to make outlines. Work each row over the tubular fabric folds. Take out needle on the first fold on the extreme left by making small back stitch over the fold. While making the stitch, always keep the thread under the needle. Draw up each fold firmly, after each stitch (Fig.5.5b).
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Fig. 5.5b Outline stitch b. Cable stitch It is a variation of outline stitch done in two close rows. Start in the same way as for the outline stitch. While taking stitch, keep the thread above the needle for the first stitch and below the needle for the second, and repeat throughout the length of the row (Fig.5.5c).
Fig. 5.5c Cable stitch c. Wave stitch To make wavy effect, make odd number (5, 7, 9) of outline stitches diagonally upward and then downward. For the upward row keep the thread below the needle and for the downward row keep the thread above the needle. Repeat the process to make rows of diamond shapes or rows of wavy design (Fig.5.5d).
Fig. 5.5d Wave stitch d. Honeycomb smocking: To start with, bring the needle out in first pleat; take two tiny backstitches over fold to secure the thread. Pull the needle through the first fold about 0.5 cm below the first stitch, keeping the thread above the needle. With thread below the needle, put the needle through the second fold at the same level. Draw the thread tightly together. Put the needle through the same fold at the same level as the first stitch. With thread above the needle, put the needle through the third fold at the same level. Draw tightly together. Repeat till the end of the row (Fig.5.5e).
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Fig. 5.5e Honey comb stitch 5.6 FRILLS OR RUFFLES A ruffle is a strip of fabric cut or handled in such a ways as to produce fullness. These are used for the purpose of adding decoration to a garment. Sometimes they are used at the hems of skirts and dresses to add length. To make frills allow at least one and a half times the length of the piece to which the frill will be attached. The width of the frill is usually anything from one inch to 3 inches. The longer side should be cut along the lengthwise grain of the material. The gathered edge of the frill can be concealed in a seam, facing, binding or wide band (Fig.5.6).
Fig. 5.6 Frills or Ruffles
GODETS These are wedge shaped pieces which are usually set into a skirt so that the wide side of the wedge becomes a part of the hem of the skirt. The godet may be set into a seam of the skirt, or the skirt may be slashed so that the slashed edges form the seams that join into the godet (Fig.5.7). Panels are cut and godets are stitched between panels.
Fig. 5.7 Godet Fullness is introduced into garments for various reasons such as - to give good shape and proper fit to the garment; to allow freedom of movement and comfort to the wearer and to make the garment look attractive. Darts, tucks, pleats, gathers etc are some of the devices for introducing fullness.
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NECKLINES: Neckline is an outline of bodice around the neck. It can be shaped in different ways and styles to get a decorative effect, particularly for ladies garments. Round, square, V-neckline, U-neckline etc. are the most commonly used basic shapes of plain neckline (Fig.7).
Fig. 7 Different shapes of necklines
DIFFERENT METHODS OF FINISHING NECKLINES A neckline may be finished with a facing, binding or a collar. The type of finish chosen will depend on the design of a garment, the fabric and in some cases even personal preference. Necklines are generally curved and hence tend to stretch during handling. It is therefore important to note that before garment construction, a row of stay stitching is done at a distance of 0.5 cm from the edge of the neckline, so that it will not stretch. A straight piece of material attached to a curve will look bulky and untidy. The elasticity of bias permits it to stretch or contract and thus take the shape of any curved edge giving it a flat smooth finish. Bias strips can be applied as facings and bindings
Bias and its Uses True bias falls on a diagonal line at 450 to the lengthwise and crosswise grains. It has the maximum elasticity or in other words it stretches more than any other direction on cloth (Fig. 7.1a).
Fig. 7.1a Preparation of bias strip Cutting bias strips Fold the fabric diagonally so that the lengthwise threads of the folded part fall parallel to the crosswise threads on the rest of the material. Using a gauge or ruler, measure from the fold to desired width of bias strip and draw parallel lines. Cut strips along the marked lines and trim off ends along warp threads (Fig. 7.1b-a).
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Garment Production & Export documentation Joining bias strips: Place the two strips to be joined right sides facing and the edges of the outright angles to each other. Shift the top strip 1/4 inch beyond the other so that the sharp points at the ends of the strips project on either side. Stitch a 1/4 inch seam joining the points where the sides of the two strips intersect. Press the seam open and trim the seam projections showing on right side (Fig.7.1b - b & c).
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Fig. 7.1 b Cutting and joining of bias strips 7.2 FACINGS: These are used to provide a neat finish to the raw edges in a garment and to support the shape of necklines, armholes, collars, etc. When the edge to be faced is a straight line, the facing may be cut in one piece with the garment section. Usually facings are applied separately. There are two main types of applied facings - bias facing and shaped facing. Shaped facing can be of any width, but bias facing should not be more than 1/2 inch wide. Facings are usually turned to the inside of the garment and will not show when the garment is worn. Sometimes facings are turned to the outside of the garment for decorative effect. a. Method of applying bias facing: Stay stitch edge of garment to be faced. Tack bias strip to edge of garment, right sides facing beginning at a seam. For inward corners to be faced, the bias must be eased and for outward curves it must be stretched. (Easing means holding bias strip slightly loose at the seam line). Stitch bias to the edge of the garment in line with the bias on top. Trim the seam to 1/4 inch, clip at curves, grade bulky seams and ends coinciding. Turn the strip to wrong side, under stitch the facing to the seam. Making sure that the facing is not visible from the right side of the garment. Now hem or slip stitch the facing to the garment. When finished, the bias facing should be about 3/8 inch wide (Fig.7.2a).
Fig. 7.2a Applying bias facing
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Garment Production & Export documentation Applying shaped / fitted facing:
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Shaped facing is cut to the exact shape of the garment edge to which it is to be applied. Usually it is out on the same grain as the section of the garment. Shaped facing is often used to finish square or V- necklines or scalloped edges. It is easier to apply fitted facing than bias facing and is less conspicuous. It is usually cut separately for front and back. After cutting, join the front and back facings with a plain seam, trim the seam and press it open. Finish the outer edge of the facing by turning up the edge and stitching it. Carefully tack the facing to the garment section, right sides facing, and seam lines, center lines and notches matching. Trim, clip and grade seam edges turn the facing to the wrong side under stitch it at the seam and hem or slip stitch the folded edge of the facing to the garment (Fig. 7.2b).
Fig. 7.2b Applying shaped or fitted facing
BINDING: Bias binding: Bias binding is used to finish and strengthen raw edges and to add a decorative trim to a garment. It shows both on the right and wrong sides. It is used to finish necklines, armholes, sleeve edges, front closings, collars, cuffs and seams. It can be adapted equally well to straight, curved, gathered and irregular edges. When finished, bias binding should have uniform width (less then 1/4 inch) and should lie flat and smooth without any stitches showing on the right side of the garment. There are two kinds of bias bindings: Single binding and double binding (or French binding). a.. Single bias binding: Cut a bias strip that is twice the finished width plus two seam allowances. Tack the strip to the garment right sides facing. Stitch the binding to the garment with a plain seam. Trim the seam as wide as the finished binding. Turn under 1/8 to 1 1/4 inch on the outer edge of the bias and fold it over the seam on the wrong side. Now hem the fold to the line of stitching using hemming stitches (Fig. 7.3a).
Fig. 7.3a Single bias binding

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b. Double bias binding: Double bias binding or french bias is used on sheer fabrics. Cut bias strip that is six times the desired finished width. Fold the strip in half, wrong sides together, and press. Stitch raw edges of binding to the garment on the right side and hem the folded edge to stitching line on the wrong side (Fig. 7.3b)
FASTENERS: All garments need openings at some point or the other so that they can be put on and taken off easily. These openings can be closed in a variety of ways. The type of closures selected will depend on the position, the amount of strain it will receive and whether it is to remain concealed or form a decorative feature on the garment. It is important to remember with all types of closures that the two sides of the opening match perfectly without any puckering, pulling or gaping of the fabric and give a neat appearance to the garment. In general, fasteners should be fixed on to double material for strength. They should be fixed in such a way that the right side of the garment laps over the left side for women and the left laps over the right for men. Fasteners should be selected to suit the colour, design and texture of the fabric, the style and use of the garment and the position of the placket. One should also consider the age and sex of the wearer. For example buttons and buttonholes are generally used for mens shirts, trousers etc., just as press buttons and hooks and eye are commonly used for ladies cholies and childrens dresses. HOOKS AND EYES Hooks and eyes are small but comparatively strong fasteners. Though they are mostly applied at single point of a garment opening, such as waistband or neckline, they can also be used to fasten an entire opening. There are several types of hooks and eyes, each designed to serve a particular purpose. General-purpose hooks and eyes are the smallest of all the types and are used primarily as supplementary fasteners, for example a hook and an eye at the top of zipper placket. Special-purpose hooks and eyes are larger and heavier, which can with stand more strain than those of the general purpose type. The hook is always sewn on to the back of the overlap and positioned so that the end of the hook does not extend further than the edge of under1ap of the garment. Oversew, each, loop and across the bar of
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the hook. Position the metal bar or eye on the opposite right side of the underlap and over sew around the loops. The hook and eye should appear invisible when fastened. In some cases, a thread eye can be used as a hook and eye substitute for a metal eye. A thread eye is not as strong as a metal eye; hence should not be used at places where there is much strain (Fig. 8.1).
Fig. 8.1 Hooks and eyes (metal) THREAD EYES / LOOPS To form a thread eye, use a single strand of heavy-duty thread or buttonhole twist or double strand of common sewing thread of colour matching with the fabric. A thread eye should be as long as the space between its two placements marks. Insert needle into fabric at one mark and bring it up at the other mark. Apply 2 -3 more stitches in the same way. Cover all the strands with closely spaced blanket stitches, taking care not to catch the fabric beneath. When finished, bring the needle and thread to the wrong side and fasten securely. The thread loop is an inconspicuous fastening which is most often found at the neck edge of collars. To make a thread loop, sew four or five strands of matching thread on the underlap in the correct position, then work button hole stitches over these strands (Fig.8.2)
Fig. 8.2 Thread loops BUTTONS Buttons should be selected carefully to suit both the weight and colour of the fabric. The advantages of using buttons as closures are numerous. They are both functional and decorative. They should be sewn securely by a strong matching thread in such a way that it allows the buttonholes to close under the button without puckering the fabric. The fabric on which the button is attached should be reinforced to prevent tearing or pulling under strain. There are two types of buttons: Buttons with holes and shank type buttons.
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The latter are attached to the garment from the under side. Buttons may be made of fabric, bone, glass, metal, plastic etc. On dresses buttons covered with self-fabric may be used. If you provide scraps of fabric to well established tailors, they get the buttons covered by a special machine. Covering may be done by hand also. Buttons are placed centrally on the centre front and centre back lines of the garment except in unusual cases. Sufficient buttons should be spaced equally to ensure that the opening is neat without gaping between buttons. The width of spacing varies according to the position of opening, fabric weight and size of button. Very few or many buttons can spoil the appearance of the finished garment. On a shirt or blouse the buttons must be placed to avoid gaping across the bust and on a waisted garment a button must always be used at the waist, because this is the stress point of the garment. For decoration, buttons can be: (a) grouped in pairs; (b) placed to give a double-breasted effect, and (c) be purely decorative and not as a fastening, Various types of commonly used buttons are flat sew through buttons with two or four holes, buttons with a shank (a small loop on the lower side, used to sew button to the garment), link buttons and covered buttons. a. Sewing buttons with holes Sew this type of button using double thread bringing the needle up and down through the holes in the buttons with a pin kept over the button. After working enough stitches, remove the pin, lift the button and form a shank by winding the thread tightly around the strands about six times. Now fasten the thread on the wrong side. Buttons with four holes may be sewn in the shape of a cross, two parallel lines, a square or an arrow head (Fig. 8.3a).
. Sewing fancy or shank buttons: Bring needle through fabric and shank and then back through fabric. Stitch through fabric and shank until button is secure Fasten thread on underside (Fig. 8.3b).
Fig. 8.3 Sewing buttons with (a) holes and (b) shank Sewing Press Buttons or Snaps Press buttons or Snaps are a kind of small fasteners having less holding power than hooks and eyes (Fig 8.3c). It is best to use them where there is not much strain on the opening. Each press button has two parts - a ball and a socket. General purpose press buttons range in size from fine to heavy.
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Fig. 8.3cSewing press buttons BUTTON HOLES Buttonholes are made on the overlap section of the garment opening in line with the buttons on the underlap. They are so placed that when closed the button rests on the centre front or centre back line and centrally on all other openings. Buttonholes can either be hand worked, machine worked or bound buttonholes. The method you choose for a garment will depend on the design of that garment, the fabric and your ability to sew. The steps in working a button hole are as followsa. Marking the position for vertical buttonholes: Vertical buttonholes are often used with a narrow placket, such as a shirt band, or where there are many small buttons involved in closing the garment. They are placed directly on the button placement line and the top of the buttonhole is 3 mm above the mark for centre of button. b. Marking the position for horizontal buttonholes: Horizontal buttonholes are the most secure and therefore used on most garments. When buttoned, the pull of the closure is absorbed by the end of the buttonhole with very little distortion. These buttonholes are placed to extend 3 mm beyond the button placement line (Fig. 8.4a ). c. Hand-worked buttonholes: These are used in childrens and mens garments and are worked after the garment is completed. Avoid these on fabrics that stretch and fray. Hand worked buttonholes are used where details of construction are to be finely finished. They should be made with matching thread and should have stitches of uniform length worked close together. Worked buttonholes are made through double fabric, therefore facings, collars and cuffs must be completed first. Mark the centre of the buttonhole with a row of tacking. Mark the length of the buttonhole by placing a button and marking its diameter with a pointed pencil. Do not slash. Stitch around the entire buttonhole, using very fine hand-running stitches to indicate the width of stitching. Fold the buttonhole end to end and make a small cut in the middle with a sharp pointed pair of scissors. For the vertical buttonholes, both the ends are finished in the same shape, either fanned or bar tacked. But for the horizontal buttonholes, the outer end is fanned to accommodate the button shank and the inner end is bar-tacked to give strength (Fig. 8.4 c-f).
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Bound Button holes These are more decorative than worked buttonholes and are suitable for womens and childrens dresses. A biding strip is used to bind the raw edges of the hole. The binding may also be in contrast colour or design for decorative effects. The steps in construction involve: Pin an interfacing on the wrong side and mark the button hole. Cut a strip of material 1 1/2 inch wide and one inch longer than the length of finished button hole. Place the strip with right sides facing and work a row of tacking stitches and then machine baste. Then cut along the tacking line to within 1/4 inch of the ends and then cut diagonally to all four corners as in fig. 8.4 a b. Pull the binding strip through the slit to wrong side of the garment. Next fold back the strip to form an even binding of about 1/8 inch wide along each side meeting the center of opening. Baste the binding along each side of the button hole. Remove the excess interfacing fabric leaving about 1/4 inch beyond the button hole at each end.
Fig. 8.4 a & b Steps in working a bound button hole BODY MEASUREMENTS: Accurate body measurements are of vital importance for obtaining best results in cloth construction. Besides good fitting, correct measurements can also contribute towards saving time in constructing a garment. Personal measurements are required not only for stitching the garment at home or getting it stitched, but also for buying readymade garments. Taking body measurements is a responsible task, which should be undertaken with great care. For this purpose, it is important for a dress maker to have adequate knowledge about correct methods of taking and recording body measurements, equipment required for it and other important points to be considered in taking the measurements.
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Garment Production & Export documentation POINTS CONSIDERED WHILE TAKING MEASUREMENTS
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1. A good quality measuring tape should be used for taking the body measurements. The long metal end of the tape is used for taking vertical measurements and the rounded metal end is used for taking horizontal measurements. 2. Person giving the measurements should stand straight, but in a natural pose and preferably in front of a mirror. A well fitted foundation garments should be worn while giving measurements. 3. Another person is needed to take measurements. Basic lines of the body are to be taken into consideration while measuring body parts. 4. Before body measurements are taken, a cord or tape is fastened around the waist and left until all measurements have been completed. The tape should be kept parallel to the ground while taking girth measurements like bust, waist, hip, etc. 5. The accuracy of several measurements depends on this exact waistline location. Add to these measurements the suggested amount of ease. 6. The amount of ease needed varies with the type of fabric used. More ease is needed for woven fabrics than knits. A proper order and certain sequence should be followed in taking the measurements to make it more systematic. EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED FOR MEASURING: Measuring tape, and L-shaped ruler are the most commonly used equipment for taking body measurements. However, for taking body measurements, protractor with spirit level, vernier caliper, ribbons, and marking pencil may also be required WHERE AND HOW TO TAKE MEASUREMENTS: Measurements can be taken directly on a person for whom the pattern is to be developed
Fig. 9.1 Locations for taking upper body measurements
A. Upper Bodice Measurements: 1. High bust: measure around back and chest just above bust, keeping tape
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Garment Production & Export documentation parallel to the floor across back. 2. Bust: measure over the fullest part of bust. 3. Center front bodice length measure center front from base of neck to waistline tape. 4. . Length from center back neck to tip of bust measure from tip of bust around neck to tip of other bust and divide the measurement into half. 5. Length from center back neck over bust to waistline measure from waistline over tip of bust around neck over other bust to waistline. 6. Center back bodice length measure center back from base of neck to waist line tape.
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7. Back shoulder width 4 inches below base of neck at center back, measure distance from armhole to armhole, keeping tape parallel to floor and arms relaxed at sides. 8. Shoulder length neck to arm socket measure shoulder length from base of neck to arm socket. 9. B. Sleeve Measurements:
10. Upper arm circumference with arm bent and fist clenched, measure around fullest part of the upper arm. 11. Arm length - shoulder to wrist with arm bent, measure from arm socket over elbow to wrist bone. 12. Wrist circumference measure around wrist below wrist bone
13. Hand circumference touch thumb to little finger, then measure at the position of greatest circumference. 14. C. Lower body measurements: 15. Waistline measure waist circumference. Allow enough ease for comfort in wearing finished garment. 16. High hip measure high hip circumference 3 inches below waistline tape. Keep parallel to floor.
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Leg circumference measure the fullest part of thigh, bent knee,
. Hip at fullest part - measure fullest part of hip keeping tape about 7 inches down from waist and mark this point midway between side and center front.tape parallel to floor. Waist to fullest part of hip measure from waistline tape to hip as determined in step 16. Thigh slip tapeline down to largest measure of thighs, keeping tape parallel tofloor. Waist to thigh measure a distance from waist to thigh as in step18. Skirt length measure from waist to floor at center front, center back, right side and left side. Subtract the number of inches skirt is to be worn from floor. Add hem allowance as needed. Pants length measure from waistline along side seam to desired length for pants.
MEASUREMENT CHART FOR BODICE AND SKIRT Table 2 Location FrntLe gth o n Wi th fBust do Centre Front Apex 32" 11 7/ 4 9/ 1 2 143/8 35/8 3" 4 11 7/ 2 10 11 4/ 2 3/ 3 4 36" 13 7/ 4 11 0/ 2 145/8 37/8 38" 18 11 13 4/ 4 4 4" 0 11 8/ 4 11 1/ 2 (in Inches) 4" 2 1/ 8 1 2 12 4" 4 1 34 8/ 1 12 2/ 151/8 4 3/8
1 7 /8 15 4 41/8 4/ 1 4
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UnderArmSeam FrntWaitln o sie Waistlineto Shoulder Shoulderlength CentreFronttoPrincess Line WidthofBack Centre Back Length Backwaistline Shoul ebld dr a e Center back to princess line
77/8 63/8 13 4/ 4 47/8 25/8 8/ 1 2 11 6/ 2 5 5/8 67/8
8 6/ 3 4 147/8 5 2/ 3 4 9 13 6/ 4 6 7
81/8 71/8 15 51/8 27/8 9/ 1 2 17 6 3/8 71/8
8/ 1 4 7/ 1 2 151/8 5/ 1 4 3 10 11 7/ 4 6/ 3 4 7/ 1 4
83/8 7 /8 7 11 5/ 4 53/8 31/8 11 0/ 2 11 7/ 2 7 18 / 73/8
8/ 1 2 8/ 1 4 153/8 5/ 1 2 3/ 1 4 11 1/ 7 3 4 7/ 1 2 7/ 1 2
8 5/8 85/8 1 12 5/ 5 3/8 33/8 1 12 1/ 18 7 7/8 77/8
2/ 1 2
25/8
2/ 3 4
27/8
31/8
3/ 1 4
Accurate body measurements are of vital importance for obtaining best results in cloth construction. Besides good fitting, correct measurements can also contribute towards saving time in constructing a garment. Taking body measurements is a responsible task, which should be undertaken with great care. Measurements can be taken directly on a person for whom the pattern is to be developed or on a standard dress form of intended sizes. This is the whole process of manufacturing the ready made garment.
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Garment Production & Export documentation DOCUMENTATION THE PROFORMA INVOICE
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Introduction A proforma invoice is little more than a preadvice of what will stand in the commercial invoice once negotiations have been completed. Indeed, the proforma invoice and the commercial invoice often look exactly the same, except that it should state clearly "proforma invoice" on this document, whereas the commercial invoice will state "invoice" or "commercial invoice". The proforma invoice serves as a negotiating instrument. The initial proforma invoice often sets the stage for the first round of negotiations if the exporter and importer have not yet had any real discussions. What is the difference between a proforma invoice and a quotation? In reality, there is very little difference in function between the two and the proforma invoice is really a quotation in invoice form; in other words. the difference really comes about in terms of the structure and layout of the proforma invoice/quotation. A quotation appears more like a business letter describing a written offer, while a proforma invoice appears exactly the same as a invoice (except with the words "proforma invoice" written on the document). The proforma invoice essentially serves as a 'quotation' that sets the road to further negotiations. Some exporters choose to prepare an 'official' quotation, while others prefer to use the proforma invoice as their quotation. In fact, the quotation can contain the same information as a proforma invoice. The role of the proforma invoice in the negoiation process Assuming that an importer e-mails you - an exporter - asking you to submit a proforma invoice (or a quotation) for the supply of 100 pumps according to a set standard. You would then prepare and submit a proforma invoice to the potential importer outlining a desciption of the product, what the price is, what the delivery terms will be, what the payment terms will be, as well as any other information that may be pertinent to the sale. The importer will most likely reply to your proforma invoice requesting/negotiating different requirements such as a lower price, longer terms of payment, different methods of payment, a different delivery schedule and may even request changes to the product specifications. Based on these requests from the importer, you may choose to comply or to refer back to the importer (probably via telephone, fax or e-mail) to discuss or negotiate compromises to these requirements. When you and the importer finally come to an agreement, a second (sometimes even third or fourth) proforma invoice will be exchanged between the two parties. This final proforma invoice - accepted by the importer - sets the stage for the further processing of the order. You should be aware that the importer may use the proforma invoice to request foreign exchange within his/her country if his/her currency is not freely convertible. The proforma-invoice can also help the importer apply for a letter of credit at his/her bank.
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In other instances where the exporter and importer have met before and have already discussed and thrashed out an agreement perhaps in a face-to-face meeting, only one final proforma invoice is necessary to confirm that the two parties are indeed in agreement. Every proforma invoice should be as precise and as explicit as possible to ensure that both parties understand each other. If the importer is satisfied with this final proforma invoice, he/she will request their bank to issue an L/C on the strength of information stipulated in the proforma invoice. For this reason, it is essential that the proforma invoice be extremely accurate, clear and concise. Any errors or misunderstandings will be transferred to the L/C and will cause problems, frustrations and delays down the line. What is more, the proforma invoice is also important to the importer for the purpose of obtaining an import permit and foreign exchange allocation within his country. At the same time, the exporter may use the proforma invoice and acceptance of the order from the importer to obtain funding to pay for the manufacturer of the goods concerned. Details pertinent to the proforma invoice The following details are pertinent to the setting up of the proforma invoice and need careful attention:
A complete and clear description of the goods in question The quantity of goods in question including the number and kinds of packaging involved The total price of the goods (and unit price where applicable) The currency in which the goods will be sold (e.g. US dollars or rands) The likely delivery schedule and delivery terms The physical addresses of both the exporter (referred to as the shipper) and importer (sometimes referred to as the consignee) The payment methods, for example cash in advance or L/C The payment terms, for example 30 days on sight The Incoterm to be used Who is responsible for the banking fees and other related costs (insurance and freight costs are covered by the incoterm in question) The exporter's banking details The country of origin of the goods The expected country of final destination Any freight details such as the port of loading and discharge Any trasshioment requirements Any other information relevant to the order
PROFORMA INVOICE
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Garment Production & Export documentation Exporter Invoice No. & Date Exporte's Ref Buyer's Order No. & Date Other Refrence (s) Buyer (if other than consignee) Country of Origin Country of Final of goods Destination Terms of Delivery and Payment Port of Loading Amo unt
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Consignee
Pre-Carriage by Place of Receipt by Pre-Carrier Port of Final Destination Vessel /Flight No. Discharge Marks & Nos. To No. & Kind Qua Ra ntity te Description of Container No. of PackageGoods
Amount ChargeableTOTAL FOB VALUE (In Words) Sig nat ure & Dat e
Declaration We declare that Invoice shows the actual price of the goods described and that all particulars are true and correct.E & O.E
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COMMERCIAL INVOICE Introduction: After the pro-forma invoice is accepted, the exporter must prepare a commercial invoice. The commercial invoice is required by both the exporter (to obtain the necessary export documents to enable the consignment to be exported, to prove ownership and to enable payment) and importer (who requires the commercial invoice to facilitate the import of the goods in question). In exporting, the commercial invoice is considered a very important document as it serves asthestarting document that underpins an export transaction. The commercial invoice is essentially a bill (i.e. invoice) from the seller (the exporter) to the buyer (the importer) describing the goods to be sold and the terms involved. The commercial invoice will normally be presented on the exporter's letterhead and will be addressed to the importer. It should contain full details of the consignment, including price and other related costs, in order to facilitate customs clearance. It must be signed and dated. Freight and insurance, when included in the selling price, should be itemised separately as these charges are not subject to duty in certain countries. There is usually very little, if any, difference between the final proforma invoice accepted by the importer and the commercial invoice, except that the one is titled "Proforma Invoice", while the other is titled "Commercial Invoice".
Customs' and consular invoices Some countries, however, may require the commercial invoice to be completed on their own specified forms - such commercial invoices are known as "Customs' invoices" and may be provided in lieu of or in addition to the standard commercial invoices referred to above. In addition, a "consular invoice" is required by certain countries. The consular invoice must be prepared in the language of the destination country and can be obtained from the country's consulate, and often must be "consularised" (i.e. stamped by an authorised Consul official in the exporting country). Tip The importer needs the commercial invoice since it is often used by Customs authorities to assess duties. For this reason, it is common practice to prepare a commercial invoice in English and in the language of the destination country. The freight forwarder can advise you when a translated copy is necessary.
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Garment Production & Export documentation From the proforma to the commercial invoice
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Although the proforma invoice comes before the commercial invoice, the proforma invoice really only serves as a means of negotiating the actual contract. We said previously that the proforma invoice is the 'offer' put to the importer by the exporter. The importer may accept the terms specified in the proforma invoice, but a more likely scenario is that the importer will negotiate some of these terms with the exporter. There may be some backward and forward communication between the exporter and importer before the importer finally agrees to the transaction. Once the importer indicates that (s)he is happy with the terms of the contract as outlined in the (final) proforma invoice, the exporter will then be requested to provide the importer with a commercial invoice. The commercial invoice should reflect the final (agreedupon) profroma invoice exactly - any deviances will result in problems executing the transaction and/or receiving payment. Based on the terms specified in this commercial invoice, the importer will instruct his/her bank (referred to as the issuing bank) to issue a letter of credit. This letter of credit (or the documentation associated with any other form of payment) will also need to reflect the terms specified in the commercial invoice exactly, while all subsequent documentation must reflect the terms of the L/C; there can be no exceptions. From this explanation, it is clear that the commercial invoice plays a central role in an export transaction.
What should appear in the commercial invoice The following details need to appear in the commercial invoice:

The name of the shipper/exporter and their contact details, including physical address The name of the importer/consignee and their contact details, including physical address An order number of reference to correspondence between the supplier and importer A complete and clear description of the goods in question (including brandmarks and the HS number) The packing details unless provided in a separate packing list The quantity of goods in question including the number and kinds of packaging involved The external dimensions, cubic capacity, weight, numbers and contents of each package shipped. The total price of the goods (and unit price where applicable) usually quotes as a CIF/FOB price
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The currency in which the goods will be sold (e.g. US dollars or rands)
The type and amount of discount given
The likely delivery schedule and delivery terms
The payment methods, for example cash in advance or L/C
The payment terms, for example 30 days on sight
The Incoterm to be used
Who is responsible for the banking fees and other related costs (insurance and freight costs are covered by the incoterm in question)
What the freight and insurance charges are
The exporter's banking details
A declaration of the country of origin of the goods The expected country of final destination
Any freight details such as the port of loading and discharge
Any trasshipment requirements
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Any other information relevant to the order
Commercial invoices are the basis for assessing duties and statistics Commercial invoices are often used by governments to determine the true value of goods when assessing customs duties and recording trade statistics. Governments that use the commercial invoice to control imports, will often specify its form, content, number of copies, language to be used, and other characteristics. Although the proforma invoice comes before the commercial invoice, the proforma invoice really only serves as a means of negotiating the actual contract. We said previously that the proforma invoice is the 'offer' put to the importer by the exporter. The importer may accept the terms specified in the proforma invoice, but a more likely scenario is that the importer will negotiate some of these terms with the exporter. There may be some backward and forward communication between the exporter and importer before the importer finally agrees to the transaction. Once the importer indicates that (s)he is happy with the terms of the contract as outlined in the (final) proforma invoice, the exporter will then be requested to provide the importer with a commercial invoice. The commercial invoice should reflect the final (agreed-upon) profroma invoice exactly - any deviances will result in problems executing the transaction and/or receiving payment. Based on the terms specified in this commercial invoice, the importer will instruct his/her bank (referred to as the issuing bank) to issue a letter of credit. This letter of credit (or the documentation associated with any other form of payment) will also need to reflect the terms specified in the commercial invoice exactly, while all subsequent documentation must reflect the terms of the L/C; there can be no exceptions. From this explanation, it is clear that the commercial invoice plays a central role in an export transaction.
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PACKING LIST Introduction When you prepare your goods for shipment, you will be required to prepare a detailed export packing list. This is a formal document that itemises quite a number of details about the cargo such as:
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Your name and contact details The importer's/consignee's/buyer's name, address and contact details The gross, tare and net weights of the cargo The nature, quality and specifications of the product being shipped The type of package (such as pallet, box, crate, drum, carton, etc.) The measurements/dimensions of each package The number of pallets/boxes/crates/drums, etc. The contents of each pallet or box (or other container) The package markings, if any, as well as shipper's and buyer's reference numbers
It is also important that the details on the packing list (such as shipper's/importer's details, number of items involved, etc.), match what is stipulated on the commercial invoice and bill of lading/airway bill. You can imagine that if there is a mismatch between the packing list and the other transport/export documents that this may lead to closer scrutiny of the cargo and may ultimately result in delays in the cargo arriving at its destination! Note that pricing information is not required on the packing list.
Tip If you are exporting to a market using imperial measures (such as the US or the UK), provide weights and dimensions in both metric (kg and mm), as well as imperial (lbs and inches).
The purpose of the packing list The packing list should be attached to the outside of a package in a waterproof envelope or plastic sheath marked "Packing list enclosed". The list is used by the shipper or forwarding agent to determine (1) the total shipment weight and volume and (2) whether the correct cargo is being shipped. In addition, customs officials (both local and foreign) may use the list to check the cargo. Packing lists come in fairly standard forms and can be obtained from your freight forwarder. Don't make mistakes with the packing list It is essential that the packing list agreeexactlywith all the terms and conditions of the export sale. It is important for you to realise that any mistake on the packing list may cause a delay in clearance at the port of destination. Customs Authorities in the target country have the right to delay the clearance of the shipment until the importer provides a packing list reflecting the real contents of the container (should your packing list be incomplete or incorrect). If all the information required for the packing list is already stated in the commercial invoice, then the packing list may be unnecessary. Our recommedndation is to provide it anyway - you don't want the consigment delayed simply becuase a customs official demands to see a packing list (you can never provide too much information).
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LETTEROFCREDIT In this section we discuss the following topics and terminology within the area of documentary credits:
Sight credits Usance credits Transferable credits Revolving credits Transferable credits Standby credits
Sight credits This is an easy enough term to explain. A sight credit or L/C is one which paid upon presentation of the required documentation (as stipulated in the original L/C) to the issuing or confirming bank. As exporter, you need to be careful however, as some L/Cs state that payment will only be made at a specified branch counter of the issuing or confirming bank (and won't necessarily be paid or transferred directly into your account). The process of having to go to a particular branch and receive payment and then to transfer this payment into your account will slow down the payment process and may add further costs to the overall process. Thus, when working with sight L/Cs (or any L/Cs for that matter) make sure where payment will be made. Usance credits An L/C can specify any credit period that you have negotiated with the importer. A letter of credit that that incorporates a payment after a given term (e.g. 60 days) is known as a usance credit (also referred to as a term or acceptance credit). The correct phrase is hat the L/C is at usance, meaning that it will come into effect at some future date (also referred to as maturity). You should note that the maturity date may also have further stipulations associated with it; for example:

90 days sight 120 days from Bill of Lading (B/L) date 60 days and upon issuing of a FDA (US Food and Drug Administration) clearance
Some of these provisos can have a significant impact on your receiving payment and you should make yourself fully aware of any such provisos to your L/C. A usance/term credit will require you, as exporter, to finance the gap between delivery and payment.
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Garment Production & Export documentation Transferable credits
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An irrevocable L/C may also be transferable. In the case of a transferable L/C, the exporter can transfer all or part of his/her rights to another party. Transferable letters of credit are often used when the exporter is the importer's agent or a middleperson (i.e. export agent) between supplier and importer, and not the actual supplier of merchandise. With a transferable letter of credit, the exporter uses the credit standing of the issuing bank and avoids having to borrow or use his own funds to buy goods from a supplier. Hence, it is a viable pre-export financing vehicle. Before transfer can be made, the exporter must contact, in writing, the bank handling the disbursement of funds - the transferring bank. Transferable L/Cs can only be transferred based on the terms and conditions specified in the original credit, with certain exceptions. Therefore, it may be difficult to achieve flexibility and confidentiality with this finance method. The transferring bank, whether it has confirmed the letter of credit or not, is only obligated to make the transfer to the extent and in the manner expressly specified in the L/C. Transferable L/Cs involve specific risks. When a bank opens a transferable letter of credit for a buyer, neither party can be certain of who will be the ultimate supplier. Both parties must rely upon the importer's assessment of the exporter's reputation and ability to perform. To reduce overall risk and prevent the shipment of substandard goods, an independent certificate of inspection may be required in the documentation. For simplicity's sake, many banks prefer single transfer and discourage multiple transfers, but will do multiple transfers if conditions are right. Partial transfers can also be made to one or several suppliers if the terms of the original L/C allow for partial shipments. The processing of this type of letter of credit can become complicated and tricky, requiring logistics coordination and the highest level of precision. Incomplete and/or ambiguous information on the transferable letter of credit almost always leads to problems. Furthermore, the beneficiary of the transferable letter of credit must be available throughout the entire negotiation process to assist the transferring bank. Revolving credits The term "revolving" is used to describe a letter of credit, which, incorporates a condition whereby the credit amount is to be renewed or reinstated automatically without the need for a specific amendments to the credit. This type of credit is used when regular trade is conducted between an exporter and an overseas buyer. A revolving credit can be irrevocable or confirmed. Although a credit may, in theory, revolve in relation to amount, in practice this is rare, as it would mean that there might be no limit to the number of times a specific amount could be drawn. A credit, which revolves in relation to time, is a much more common form of a revolving credit. For example, a revolving credit could be made available for an amount of US$ 10 000 per month (irrespective of whether any sum was drawn during the previous month) with an overall validity of six months. A revolving credit may be:
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Cumulative, i.e. any sum not utilised during the first period is carried over and may be utilised in the subsequent period. Non-cumulative i.e. any sum not utilised during the first period ceases to be available in subsequent periods.
Back-to-back credits Back-to-back L/Cs are another common occurrence in the world of international trade. When an exporter, who is not a manufacturer, but obtains goods from a supplier by acting as an export agent for the supplier for example, has received an L/C from an importer, the exporter, in turn, may request his bank to open a L/C in favour of his supplier on the strength of the existing L/C. These two credits are said to be "back-toback", that is to say the one is issued on the security of the other. A bank will only consider opening a second credit if the same goods are involved in both credits. In terms of the back-to-back L/C, the exporter is both the beneficiary/exporter of the first credit and the applicant/buyer for the second credit. Standby credits A standby L/C is one which is issued in favour of the exporter for the purpose of "backing-up" certain specified obligations of the importer. A standby letter of credit requires the exporter's presentation of documents which indicate that importer has not met the obligations which the standby letter of credit backs-up. A standby letter of credit, therefore, is not intended to be drawn upon by the standby letter of credit beneficiary unless the standby letter of credit applicant does not meet its obligations as specified by the standby letter of credit. FORMAT FOR LETTER OF CREDIT (CFR) FROM ADDRESS :( NAME OF &
OPENING
BANK)* TO :( NAME & ADDRESS OF
NEGOTIATING BANK) 40A TYPE OF L/C:
IRREVOCABLE 20 L/C Number 31C DATE OF ISSUE
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Garment Production & Export documentation 31D DATE & PLACE OF EXPIRY 50 NAME & ADDRESS OF THE: APPLICA NT 51 NAME & ADDRESS OF THE BENEFICIARY : STEEL AUTHORITY OF INDIA LIMITED, Central Marketing Organisation, 40 JN. Road, Kolkata-70000 1, India 32B AMOUNT OF CREDIT IN : US DOLLARS/EURO/ANY OTHER FREELY EXCHANGEABLE CURRENCY.(IN FIGURES & WORDS) 39A PERCENTAGE CREDIT AMOUNT TOLERANCE: As per contract 41A CREDIT AVAILABLE WITH :State Bank of India, Overseas Branch, Kolkata/State Bank of India, Vizag CREDIT AVAILABLE BY: PAYMENT 42C USANCE OF THE DRAFTS: AT SIGHT 42A DRAFTS TO BE DRAWN ON: OPENER 43P PARTIAL SHIPMENT: AS PER CONTRACT 43T TRANSHIPMENT: AS PER CONTRACT 44A SHIPMENT FROM: 44B SHIPMENT TO:
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44C
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Garment Production & Export documentation LATEST SHIPMENT DATE: 45A DESCRIPTI ON OF GOODS:
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a) Description of Materials b) Size ( in mm) (except for Pig Iron) and Quantity (in MT) c) Specification d) Tolerance (except for Pig Iron) e) Quantity f) Quantity Tolerance g) Price per MT (in USD/Euro/any other freely exchangeable currency) 46A DOCUMENTS REQUIRED: 1. Beneficiary's Commercial Invoice - one original plus two signed copies covering materials shipped. Invoices will be raised on the basis of (THEORETICAL/ACTUAL/ DRAFT SURVEY) WEIGHT. 2. Full set 3/3 original on board or charter party Bills of Lading (CONGEN) issued to order of the Shipper and blank endorsed marked "Stowed under deck" further more marked "freight prepaid" evidencing shipment from _____ Port, India to ____ Port in ____ . Bills of Lading (CONGEN) with remarks "Materials partly rust stained / rusty edges/ wet before shipment/ rust stained/ some rusty edges" and/or "unprotected cargo" and/or "said to be" and/or "said to weigh" and/or "stored in open area prior to loading" are acceptable. Bills of Lading (CONGEN) to give details of the contracted materials with quantity ( as mentioned under Clause 5 of the said Contract). 3. Works Test Certificate in duplicate issued by the Steel Plant (s) of the beneficiary and confirming that the materials are as per contracted specification. 4. Pre- shipment Inspection certificate issued by M/s after referred to as certifying the following: (a) The materials were inspected prior to loading at the load port and that the same were as per requirements of the contract for sale and purchase between beneficiary and the opener (herein after referred to as the said Contract). (b) Quantity loaded on board the vessel (giving details as mentioned under Clause 5 of the said Contract). (c) The materials were loaded on board the vessel without apparent damage and were found to be in good order and condition. That the loading was done under their supervision, and were properly lashed and secured (except for pig iron) inside the hatches / holds of the vessel. Remarks such as "materials partly rust stained/ rusty edges/ wet before shipment/ rust stained/ some rusty edges" and/or "stored in open area prior to loading" and/or "unprotected cargo" appearing on Pre-shipment inspection certificate are
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Garment Production & Export documentation acceptable. 5. Beneficiary's packing list indicating details of the materials shipped (as mentioned under Clause 5 of the said Contract) - 3 copies. 6. Certificate of origin.
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7. Copy of cable or Telex/e-mail or Fax from Steel Authority of India Limited, ___ / Kolkata / NEW DELHI addressed to the opener's Telex No. ___ or FAX No. ____ within FIVE working days. after the on board Bill of Lading (CONGEN) date advising the name of the vessel, Bill of Lading (CONGEN) number and date, materials and quantity, destination ports in _____ (Country) ,covering shipment of ____METRIC TONNES. 47A ADDITIONAL CONDITIONS 1 . Marine Insurance to be covered by the opener. 2. Any amendment to the letter of credit without the prior written consent of the beneficiary shall not be taken cognizance of under this letter of credit.
71B CHARGES All Bank charges incurred outside India shall be borne and paid for by the opener. All Bank charges incurred in India shall be borne and paid for by the beneficiary. 48 PERIOD FOR PRESENTAT ION Within 15 days from the date of B/L. 49 CONFIRMATION INSTRUCTIONS: Paying Bank may add their confirmation to this Letter of Credit at the request and expense of the beneficiary and such confirmation shall also apply to any amendment (s) to this credit. 78 REIMBURSEMENT INSTRUCTIONS:
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Upon presentation to you of documents complying in all respects to Letter of Credit terms, you are authorised to claim on us by tested telex certifying that all terms and conditions have been complied with and that the relative documents have been forwarded to us by Registered Airmail Courier. We undertake to remit within two working days after receipt by us of your tested telex/swift claim in US Dollars/Euro/any other freely exchangeable currency, in accordance with your instructions. This Letter of Credit is subject to the Unifom Customs and Practice for Documentary Credits (2007 Revision) International Chamber of Commerce Brochure No. 600. This telex/swift may be treated as the operative instrument. All apparent spelling mistake/mistakes in LC documents, which do not alter meaning/specification/description/quantity/value of goods are acceptable and will not count as a discrepancy.
THE EXPORT CONTRACT Introduction An export contract (also referred to as a sales contract) is essentially an agreement between you and a foreign importer to do business. The export contract can take many different forms. For example: 1. A telephonic offer to sell, covering essential issues such as the product details, quantities offered, price per unit, delivery particulars and payment terms, made by the exporter to the foreign buyer (or an offer to buy from the importer to the exporter) and confirmed by the second party is one example of a legitimate export contract. Such an agreement may or may not be confirmed in writing. Telephonic contracts are somewhat risky and are not that common in international trade. They may occur, however, between long-standing trade partners or between reputable firms dealing in commodities that are subject to rapid price fluctuations. 2. Similarly, any written offer (quotation), either contained in a formal written contract and posted or couriered to the importer, or sent by e-mail, fax, telex or cable to the importer, and confirmed (usually also in writing) by the importer, is another form of legitimate contract. Again this could also be a written offer to buy, initiated by the importer, which is then confirmed by the exporter, although this is seldom the way it works unless it is a long-standing customer. 3. A proforma invoice sent by fax, e-mail, courier or post to the importer (usually on his/her request) and confirmed by the importer, is another common form of export contract. The confirmation could be as simple as the importer writing "I agree to these terms and conditions" on the proforma invoice and signing it or perhaps the importer may generate a separate, signed document agreeing to the proforma invoice which is then attached as reference. Alternatively, the importer may indicate that (s)he is happy with the proforma invoice, but may
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request a formal contract containing the terms and conditions stipulated in the proforma invoice to be drawn up and signed by both parties. The first offer is seldom accepted It is seldom the case that the importer will accept the first offer made by the exporter and normally this first offer will be followed by a series of counter-offers sent back and forth between the exporter and the importer until each party is satisfied with the terms and conditions outlined in the final offer and agree to abide by it. You need to be clear and precise Whatever form the export contract takes, you need to be careful in formulating this document as they are drawn up between companies from countries which may have very different legal systems, regulations and attitudes to doing business. These differences may cause disputes even when trading with other fairly developed nations. The challenge is to make your export contracts as clear, precise and comprehensive as is possible. The provisions in the contract The basic provision of any contract for the sale of goods is that you, the seller (in this case, the exporter), will transfer ownership of the goods to your buyer (the importer) in exchange for payment (which, in international trade, made be made in a foreign currency). The export contract needs to specify the terms and conditions for doing this, and should at least describe:

Who is party to the contract The validity of the contracts The goods being sold (usually described in some detail) The purchase price of the goods and the currency in question The terms of payment Inspection of the goods if required Where the goods should be delivered At what point transfer of title to the goods takes place Any warranty and/or maintenance conditions associated with the sale Who is responsible for obtaining import or export licenses, if these are required What supporting documentation and/or certificates are required Who is responsible for paying import duties and other taxes Any contract performance security requirements, such as bank letters of guarantee What will happen if either of the parties defaults or cancels The provisions for independent mediation or arbitration to resolve disputes, and whether this would take place in South Africa or the importer's country, or elsewhere The contract's completion date
The role of Incoterms
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To provide a common terminology for international shipping and minimize misunderstandings over contract terms, the International Chamber of Commerce has developed a set of terms known as Incoterms. These are the basic terms used in international sales contracts, and you can learn more about them at the Incoterms 2000 Web site or in the Glossary of International Trade Terms in Appendix A. Intellectual Property (IP)licensing contracts are particularly tricky If the contract involves the licensing of proprietary information or technology, be very sure that it's precise about the licensee's rights. Vagueness about these rights can create serious problems and can lead to the loss of your intellectual property. If the licensee uses your technology to create other technologies, for example, this can severely undermine the value of your asset. Make sure the contract is signed by all contracting parties Also - and this would seem obvious, but it's sometimes overlooked - be sure that all parties to the contract have signed it. For instance, if you're working through a representative, be sure that the actual buyer signs the contract. The representative's signature is not necessarily enough, because without the buyer's signature, there is no written evidence that the buyer owes you money. Last but certainly not least, have the contract examined by a lawyer familiar with the export market. CERTIFICATION Introduction In exporting, it is quite common for cargos to require a variety of certificates, including certificates of origin, certificates of value, certificates of health, Consular certificates, etc. before they are permitted to be imported into the country of destination. The purpose of a certificate is to provide preshipment confirmation of the status of a particular aspect (health, value, condition, origin, etc.) of a specific cargo. With these certificates, the cargo will not be permitted to be imported and so certificates paly a very important role in the export process and you need to ensure that (a) you have obtained the certificates required, (b) that these certificates are correct and acceptable to the importing authorities (i.e. that you cargo complies with the requirements of the importing authority). It is no good having a certificate, but one which confirms that your cargo doesnotcomply with the import requirements; your cargo will simply not be permitted to be imported. The types of certificates that you may be required to obtain, include: Certificates of origin A Certificate of Origin (C/O) is required by some countries and is intended to certify to the importing authorities as to which country the products being imported were manufactured in - that is, the C/O certifies that the imported product meets the 'Country of Origin' requirements set by the importing country and which are expected of their foreign suppliers. It may be required that the C/O include information such as local material and labour content. In many cases, a statement of origin printed on
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Garment Production & Export documentation company letterhead will suffice, although the document may need to be certified in some way. In other instances, specific types of C/Os may be required, such as the Generalised System of Preferences (GSP) Form A and the Chamber of Commerce C/O. Certificates of Value (and Origin)
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A Certificate of Value is intended to confirm the value of a cargo to assist in quick clearing of the goods in the country of destination. Often the Certificate of value is combined with a Certificate of Origin and is referred to as a Certificate of Value and Origin (CVO). A CVO outlines details about the labour and packing costs, royalties or commissions (if applicable), freight charges and any overseas insurance costs. The CVO also provides an exporter's declaration and statement, in the form of clauses, about the value and origin of the goods. Fumigation certificate Some countries, such as Australia, Canada, New Zealand, the US and the UK, are very strict about letting in goods that might contain bacteria or insects that could harm their agriculture. For this reason, they may require a fumigation certificate - also referred to as a 'pest control certificate - as proof that the packing materials e.g. wooden crates, wood, wool etc., have been fumigated or sterilised. Fumigation certificates usually contain details such as purpose of treatment, the articles in question, temperature range used, chemicals and concentration used, etc. Sometimes they may be required for sea shipments, but not for air shipments. Your freight forwarder should be able to advise you as to whether you require such as certificate. Certificates of health Certificates of health are normally required by the importing country to ensure that the imported goods (plants, plant products, animals and animal products) are in good health and carry no diseases, pests or any health-threatening organisms. Such certificates of health confirm (a) the origin of the shipment and, (b) that local authorities have inspected the consignment and ensure its good health. Certificates of Health can be divided into two types:
Phytosanitary certificates which are required for the import of certain plants and plant products such as seeds and flowers. Phytosanitary certificates are governed by the International Plant Protection Convention and represent an internationally accepted means of pest risk mitigation. Veterinary certificates which are required for the import of live animals, as well as fresh, chilled or frozen animal products. For contact details go toThe Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fishery website.
The exact import requirements are set by the importing country but are usually communicated to the corresponding authorities in South Africa (usually the Department of Agriculture). Your best option is therefore to contact both the importer to determine what the import requirements are and the Department of Agriculture to hear their side of the story. For Phytosanitary certificates, contact the Department of Agriculture at:
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The local authorities may charge a fee for such inspections and issuing of certificates. Pre-shipment inspection certificates It is not uncommon for importers to want to confirm that the to-be-exported goods meet their requirements. This is particularly so in instances where it is essential that the goods meet certain standards. These same importers unfortunately cannot always fly to all the countries from where they are buying their products and for this reason, they may: a. Require that the shipment be inspected just before loading by an independent third-party arranged and generally paid for by the importer. The exporter will need to indicate an approximate time and place for this inspection to take place. b. Ask the exporter to obtain the pre-shipment inspection certificate from an independent third-party inspection firm which is then forwarded to the importer. In this instance either the exporter or the importer may pay for the inspection, depending what was negotiated in the contract. The independent contractor - usually a recognised firm in this field - will undertake a detailed inspection of equipment or materials after manufacture, but prior to shipment. The scope of the inspection includes quantity and quality, packing and marking and supervision of loading. A Certificate of Inspection can be provided against a Letter of Credit and may be authorised by a Chamber of Commerce. Occasionally, the importer may ask a trusted individual to undertake the inspection on their behalf. Furthermore, some countries may require certification for selected products (this is independently from the importer) and in these instances a pre-shipment inspection is a necessary step to receive an import certificate for the shipment. Without this certificate the shipment will not be able to clear customs in the country of destination.
BILL OF LADING (BOL or B/L) Introduction A BOL is one of the oldest and most common forms of transportation documents in use today. It is a document that establishes the terms of a contract between a shipping company (or its agent) and the exporter/shipper (or agent, such as a freight forwarder). Within this contract, it is agreed that freight is to be moved between specified points for a specified charge. [In the world of export documentation, the term commonly used to describe the individual or firm that contracts the transportation company to send goods to a foreign destination generally the exporter is referred as the shipper, even in the case of air freight]
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The BOL is normally completed by the exporter on forms issued by the shipping carrier. The BOL serves as a document of title, a contract of carriage, and a receipt for goods. The BOL also describes the kind and quantity of goods being shipped (such as the number of packages, the weight and consignment dimensions), the shipper (or exporter), the consignee (the person or firm to whom the goods are being shipped), the ports of loading and discharge, and the carrying vessel. As the BOL serves as a freight receipt, it will indicate if the freight costs of have been prepaid or are to be paid by the consignee (referred to as freight collect). Neither the form nor the usage of the BOL is standardised at present. With the development of containerisation and the use of different means of transport (land and sea) under one contract of carriage, the traditional marine or ocean BOL is being used less often in international trade. Goods cannot be released at the port of discharge until the consignee or their agent produces the original BOL BOLs may come in both short and long forms. The short form simply refers to the main contract as an existing document, whereas the long form (connaissement intgral) issued by the carrier sets out all the terms of the contract of carriage. Key points of BOLs The key points that you should take note of, are:
The BOL is a legal contract between the shipper (normally the exporter) and carrier (the shipping line represented by the ships master or shipping line representative) As a legal document, the BOL plays an important role in releasing payment from the bank in conjunction with the Letter of Credit A BOL is a document issued by a carrier, e.g. a ship's master or by the carriers shipping department, or a representative of either of these two The BOL must be signed or authenticated by the person issuing the document The BOL must name the ship/vessel carrying the goods The BOL does not afford the holder of the document any ownership of the goods listed in the document (it is not a negotiable document) The BOL acknowledges that specified goods have been received on board as cargo for conveyance The BOL specifies both the ports of loading and discharge The BOL normally has a named consignee The BOL will specify the goods to be conveyed, their number, weight and volume BOLs are usually issued in three originals; one for the exporter/shipper, one for the shipping line and one for receiver/consignee of the goods.
Types of BOLs Inland, ocean, through, and air waybill are common names given to certain types of BOLs. An inland BOL, for example, is a document that establishes an agreement between an exporter/shipper and a transportation company (such as a road
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hauler/trucking company or railroad company like Spoornet in South Africa) for the transportation of goods overland. Inland BOLs are used to specify the terms for transporting items from the exporters premises to the exporter's international transportation company (usually a shipping line). In South Africa, if the exporter intends using a road hauler, the inland BOL is referred to as aroad consignment note, while if the rail network is to be used, then the inland BOL is referred to as afreight transit order. An ocean bill of lading is the traditional BOL used wihen shipping goods with shipping lines. The ocean (also referred to as a marine) BOL is a document that outlines the terms between an exporter/shipper and the international ocean or marine carrier (i.e. shipping line) for the shipment of goods to a foreign location overseas. The description of a BOL that was provided earlier in this section pertains mainly to an ocean BOL. A through BOL is a contract that covers the specific terms agreed to by an exporter/shipper and carrier. This document covers the domestic and international transportation of export merchandise. It provides the details of the agreed upon transportation between specific locations (usually the exporters premises and the exporters customers premises in a foreign destination) for a set monetary amount. An air waybill is a BOL that establishes terms of flights for the transportation of goods both domestically and internationally. This document also serves as a receipt for the exporter, proving the carrier's acceptance of the exporters goods and agreement to carry those goods to a specific airport. Essentially, an air waybill is a type of through bill of lading to learn more about air waybills. This is because air waybills may cover both international and domestic transportation of goods. By contrast, ocean shipments require both inland and ocean bills of lading. Inland bills of lading are necessary for the domestic transportation of goods and ocean bills of lading are necessary for the international carriage of goods. Therefore, through bills of lading may not be used for ocean shipments. Inland and ocean BOL may be negotiable or non-negotiable. If the BOL is nonnegotiable, the transportation carrier is required to provide delivery only to the consignee named in the document. If the bill of lading is negotiable, the person with ownership of the bill of lading has the right of ownership of the goods and the right to re-route the shipment other types of bills of lading In addition to the above types of BOLs, there are two additional categories of BOLs, namely: Straight bill of lading This bill states that the goods are consigned to a specified person and it is not negotiable free from existing equities, i.e. any endorsee acquires no better rights than those held by the endorser. So, for example, if the carrier or another holds a lien over the goods as security for unpaid debts, the endorsee is bound by the lien although, if the endorser wrongfully failed to disclose the charge, the endorsee will have a right to
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This bill uses express words to make the bill negotiable, e.g. it states that delivery is to be made to the further order of the consignee using words such as "delivery to Company Name Ltd. or to order or assigns". Consequently, it can be endorsed by Company Name Ltd. or the right to take delivery can be transferred by physical delivery of the bill accompanied by adequate evidence of Company Name Ltd.'s intention to transfer. Also known as a negotiable bill of lading. Transhipment clauses If a BOL incorporates a clause stating that the carrier reserves the right to tranship, then the transhipment is allowed even if an accompanying Letter of Credit (L/C) prohibits transhipment. Loading on deck Unless otherwise required by the Letter of Credit (L/C), the BOL should not indicate that the goods are to be stored on deck. Modern container ships carry about one-third of the containers on deck. Consequently, the BOL may contain a provision that the goods may be carried on deck. If such a provision is contained in the BOL, then the loading on deck is acceptable even if the Letter of Credit (L/C) stipulates otherwise, provided that the BOL does not specifically state that the goods are or to be stored on deck.
AIR WAYBILLS Air waybills (AWB) are a form of BOL and are used for both domestic and international flights. An AWB (also referred to as air consignment note or airway bill of lading) refers to a documentary receipt issued by a carrier (i.e. airline) in favour of a shipper for goods received and is evidence of the contract of carriage to carry the goods to a specified airport under specified conditions, but it is not a document of title to the goods. Hence, the AWB is non-negotiable. It is usually the shipper - the exporter - (or their agent) that completes the AWB. It serves as:

Proof of receipt of the goods for shipment Evidence of the contract of carriage An invoice for the freight, reflecting the shipper, the consignee and the goods being shipped, as well as the full freight amount A certificate of insurance (if carriers insurance is requested by the shipper)
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A guide to airline staff for the handling, dispatch and delivery of the consignment A means of clearing the goods through customs
Usually, the AWB consists of three originals and nine copies. The first original is intended for the carrier (airline) and is signed by the exporter (or agent); the second original the consignee's copy is also signed by the exporter (or agent) and accompanies the goods; the third original is signed by the carrier and is handed to the exporter (or agent) as a receipt for the goods after they have been accepted for carriage. The AWB must be accompanied by the commercial invoice, packing list, certificate of orgigin and any other document which may be necessary to clear the goods through customs (such as any health certificates, etc.). AWBs have tracking numbers which can be used to check the status of delivery and current position of the goods being trasnported.
Types of air waybills There are two types of air waybills used for the international transportation of air cargo:

The "airline air waybill", with preprinted issuing carrier identification, The "neutral air waybill" without preprinted identification of the issuing carrier in any form and used by other bodies than air carriers (such as freight forwarder).
A Freight Transit Order (FTO) is a form of inland BOL used in South Africa and required by Spoornet, the primary rail operator in the country. Transport documents and special Instructions
FREIGHT TRANSIT ORDER Spoornet has the following to say about transport documents:
Spoornet shall only accept goods into its care if it has been timeously furnished with fully completed transport documents, or the relevant Electronic Data Interchange information, by the consignor (e.g. exporter) who warrants that all information reflected on the transport documents is accurate in all respects, and especially for Customs and Consular purposes. The consignor shall indemnify Spoornet and hold it harmless against all losses, damages, expenses and fines arising from any inaccuracy or omission made by the Consignor in the transport documents.
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Wherever it is necessary, for the purpose of these conditions or any other purpose whatever, for special instructions such as stoppage or diversion of goods to be given to Spoornet, such instructions shall only be recognised by Spoornet as valid if they are timeously given and agreed to by Spoornet. In addition, in order to render such special instructions valid, they shall either be given in writing by the consignor or, if owing to the urgency of the situation it is not practicable to give same in writing, they may be given orally and thereafter confirmed in writing as soon as reasonably practicable.
ROAD CONSIGNMENT NOTE A road consignment note (also referred to as a road transport document, a road waybill or a road manifest) is a form of inland BOL used in South Africa, although, as road consignment notes can cover cargo moving across borders, it is also a form of through BOL. As road haulage is drive by a large number of private road haulers, you may come across many different types of road consignment notes, although there is a tendency to follow the typical BOL used in the case of ocean shipping (i.e. there is still a consignee, a shipper, a description of the goods, etc.). The road consignment note is also:

Proof of receipt of the goods for trasnportation by road Evidence of the contract of carriage An invoice for the freight, reflecting the shipper, the consignee and the goods being shipped, as well as the full freight amount A guide to the road hauler for the handling, dispatch and delivery of the consignment A means of clearing the goods through customs
To clear the goods through customs, the road consignment note will need to be accompanied by a commercial invoice, a packing list and any other documentation relevant for clearing puurposes (such as phytosanitary documents, etc.).
EXPORT CARGO SHIPING INSTRUCTION (ECSI) Introduction The Export Cargo Shipping Instruction (ECSI)* is the written instruction from the exporter to the freight forwarder or carrier (shipping line, airline, road hauler, etc.) for them to facilitate the movement goods to the desired destination. It contains information on the goods and the route to their destination, any transport requirements, customs information, who is to receive what documents and how costs are to be allocated. It is extremely important that the information provided in the ECSI is accurate. Most freight forwarders and transportation companies have standard documents that exporters can complete. The document provided will capture all of the
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necessary information to enable the freight forwarder or transport company to execute their obligations. Tip: It would be wise for you to provide the freight forwarder/transport company with a copy of the L/C (where this is applicable) as well as any changes thereto, to enable them to accurately generate any additional documents that they may be required to complete in order to facilitate the movement of your cargo to your ultimate destination. * This is the term used by SITPRO in the UK. In South Africa, reference may simply be made to the "exporter's instructions". Transportation Transport or transportation is the movement of people and goods from one location to another. Throughout history, the economic wealth and military power of a people or a nation have been closely tied to efficient methods of transportation. Transportation provides access to natural resources and promotes trade, allowing a nation to accumulate wealth and power. Transportation systems and the routes they use have greatly influenced both how and where people live. Reliable transportation allows a population to expand throughout a countrys territory and to live comfortably in remote areas far from factories and farms. The growth and expansion of the United States were directly related to the means of transportation available at the time. The more compact cities of the U.S. eastern seaboard are the result of early human- and animal-based transportation systems that allowed only short trips. The more sprawling cities of the western United States are the result of an automobile-based transportation system that permits much longer travel distances.
MODES OF TRANSPORTATION Mode of transportation is a general term for the different kinds of transport facilities that are often used to transport people or cargo(see appendix5). Different modes of transportation include:
1. 2. 3. 4.
Airways Waterways Railways Roadways
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Airways Air transport being the most modern and the quickest mode of transport has been gaining popularity. However, the exorbitant rates have made it the mode of travel of the rich or of the business community for whom time is more expensive than air travel. But the entry of private Airlines and their various schemes have reduced airfare drastically. The recent tax relaxation on air fuel and such sops will further make air travel within the reach of a greater section of the Indian Populace.
Waterways More than 95 per cent of international trade is conducted by sea routes since ancient times, sea routes are being used for transportation of cargo from one continent or country to Coastal shipping is also used for transporting the cargo from one port within the country to another. For example in India the cargo can be transported from Chennai port to Visakhapatnam port using the costal shipping route. Sea routes are used mainly for carrying bulk commodities. Although slow, modern sea transport is a highly effective method of transporting large quantities of non-perishable goods. Transport by water is significantly less costly than air transport for trans-continental shipping.
Railways
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Rail transport is where a train runs along a set of two parallel steel rails, known as a railway or railroad. . Freight trains traditionally used box cars, requiring manual loading and unloading of the cargo. Since the 1960s, container trains have become the dominant solution for general freight, while large quantities of bulk are transported by dedicated trains.
Roadways The Indian Roadways play a crucial role in connecting the different parts of India. Road network of India is the largest road networks (3.314 million kilometers) in the world. India's road network consists of national highways, state highways, district roads and village roads. Today, alternative modes of transport are on the anvil. Yet, amidst all this, Road transport is still the dominant mode of transportation - both for moving goods and passengers. Roads are most preferred modes of transportation and considered as one of the cost effective modes of transportation. It provides linkages to other modes of transportation like railways, airways, and shipping, etc. An efficient and well-established network of roads is desired for promoting trade and commerce in any country and also fulfills the needs of a sound transportation system for sustained economic development.
Business Of NDEH
YEAR
SALES (Rs in Crore)
2005-2006 2006-2007 2007-2008 2008-2009 2009-2010 2010-2011
5989963 6047894 7631220 8035497 8236088 10552063
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Business of NDEH
12000000
10000000
8000000
6000000
Business of NDEH
4000000
2000000
0 2005-2006 2006-2007 2007-2008 2008-2009 2009-2010 2010-2011
COUNTRY WISE BUSINESS OF NDEH COUNTRY (BUYER) UK UAE France USA Canada South Africa Spain Italy Hong Kong 40% 20% 15% 10% 5% 2% 2% 2% 2% SALES
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Business Country Wise In %
UK UAE FRANCE USA CANADA SOUTH AFICA SPAIN ITALY HONGKONG NETHERLAND
LIMITATION OF THE STUDY 1. It takes into account only the practical implications of documentation 2. The study was not an exact tool for forecasting. 3. Disclosure of certain sensitive information was not done, like the commission to CHA. 4. There was difficulty in getting exact data. Due to the limitation of time could not receive the detailed knowledge about documentations.
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CONCLUSION The study was conducted to know the process involved in an Export House and to study about the various departmental functions which coordinates to complete the export cycle. The export procedure of the firm has been seen clearly and other related aspect has been known. From the analysis it is found that the performance of the company is satisfactory, but the company is facing problem regarding excess of documents which causes delay in transportation. Therefore necessary steps should be taken to limit the number of documents so that the company can make distribution at right for the company and it helps the company to have competitive advantage over its competitors. There are signs of good future for NEW DELHI EXPORT HOUSE because of growing demand for clothes due to change in fashion in the world market.
RECOMMENDATIONS
As only certain documents are put in use, the other documents have no power in the company which will be supportive to reduce the export procedures. As many of the documents are part in the use of documentation and procedures which may delay and tend to loss the customers. The company has to speed up the paper work. Update of available export incentives.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY:
Mrs. Neelima Goyal Merchandising Manager Mrs. Deepti Merchant Mr. Devendra Sir Mr. Manoj Sir
www.google.com www.ask.com www.slideshare.com
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Summer Training Report On GARMENT PRODUCTION & EXPORT DOCUMENTATION

Institute of Management Studies, Noida

Submitted To: Mr. Sarveshwar Dalai HR Manager NDEH

Submitted By Jay Prakash Mishra 9190030

Garment Production & Export documentation

Garment Production & Export documentation ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Garment Production & Export documentation

GUIDE CERTIFICATE TO WHOMESOEVER IT MAY CONCERN

This is to certify that the project report titled

Garment Production & Export documentation

Garment Production & Export documentation

Garment Production & Export documentation

Garment Production & Export documentation

Garment Production & Export documentation

Garment Production & Export documentation

Garment Production & Export documentation OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY

The main objectives of the research were:

To know about export import process.

To know different type of packing and shipment terms.

To know the work of merchandiser.

To know all about the production garment and export.

Garment Production & Export documentation

Collect data/information about garment production through:

Primary data collection: Management Telephone Employ Worker (daily basis)

Secondary data collection:

Invoice Packaging list Shipping bill Internet

Garment Production & Export documentation

CENTRE RESEARCH RESEARCH TECHNIQUE TOOL USED DATA SOURCE

Garment Production & Export documentation

Garment Production & Export documentation

In Netherlands, ISRAEL, GERMANY : In USA :

In Canada In SWEDEN In Spain

Garment Production & Export documentation

Garment Production & Export documentation

TO PRODUCE QUALITY MERCHANDISE:

Garment Production & Export documentation

Bleaching or Dyeing or Printing Finishing

Value Added (embroidery or needle work)

Checking / Packing & Forwarding

Garment Production & Export documentation

Checking and passing

Garment Production & Export documentation

Garment Production & Export documentation

Garment Production & Export documentation TOOLS USED IN GARMENT CONSTRUCTION

Garment Production & Export documentation Fig. 2a Thimble

trimming seams. Fig. 2c Scissors They

should be held so that the wider blade

Garment Production & Export documentation is above the narrower blade

Garment Production & Export documentation

Fig. 2i Hem or skirt marker

Garment Production & Export documentation

Garment Production & Export documentation

Garment Production & Export documentation

Garment Production & Export documentation Fig. 4.1 b Uneven basting

Garment Production & Export documentation

Fig. 5-1c Shell or Scalloped tucks

Garment Production & Export documentation

Garment Production & Export documentation a. Gathering by hand:

Garment Production & Export documentation

Fig. 5-4 Shirring

Garment Production & Export documentation

Garment Production & Export documentation

Fig. 5.6 Frills or Ruffles