LEVELING Introduction

Leveling is the general term applied to any of the various processes by which elevations of points or differences in elevation are determined. It is vital operation in producing necessary data for mapping, engineering design and construction. Leveling result are used to: 1. design high ways 2. railroads 3. canals 4. water supply system, 5. lay out construction projects according to planned elevation 6. calculate volumes of earthwork 7. investigate drainage characteristics of an area 8. study earth subsidence

curvature and refraction

from the definition of a level surface and a horizontal line, it is evidence that the horizontal departs from a level surface because of curvature of the earth. It is expressed by the formula: Cm = 0,0785 K2 where the departure of a level surface from a horizontal line is Cm in meters and K the distance in kilometers. Displacement resulting from refraction is variable. It depends on atmospheric conditions. It is expressed by the formula Rm = 0,011 K2 and the combined effect of curvature and refrection expressed by the formula: hm = 0,0675 K2 trigonometric leveling the difference in elevation between two points can be determined by measuring 1. the inclined or horizontal distance between them 2. the zenith angle or the vertical angle one point from the other the elevation differenc between two points is : V = S cos z V= S sin where : V = the elevation difference S = slope distance Z = zenith = vertical angle if horizontal distance H between two points is measured then V is : V = H cot Z V = H tan

the difference elevation between two points is given by : elev = hi + V r where : hi = the hight of the instrument r = the reading on the rod held. Precision precision in leveling is increased by repeating measurements, making frequent ties to established bench marks, using high-quality equipment, keeping it in good adjustment, and performing the measurement carefully. The Federal Geodetic Control System (FGCS) recommends the following formula to compute allowable misclosures C = m K1/2 where : C = the allowable loop or section misclosure in milimeter m = Is the constant K = the total length leveled in kilometers and the FGCS specifies constant 4,5,6,8, and 12 mm for the five classes of leveling, first order class I, first order class II, second order class I, secod order class II, third order Sources of error in leveling 1. instrumental errors: a. line of sight b. croos hair not exactly horizontal c. rod not correct length d. tripod leg loose 2. Natural errors: a. curvature of the earth b. refraction c. temperature variations d. wind e. settlement of the instrument f. settlement of a turning point 3. personal errors a. bubble not centered b. parallax c. faulty rod readings d. rod handling e. target setting

Mistakes -improper use of a long rod -holding the rod in different places for the plus and minus sights on a turning point -reading a foot to hight -waving a flat bottom rod while holding it on a flat surface -recording notes -touching tripods or instrument during reading process