Fundamentals of Surveying 1

Fundamentals Of
Surveying 1
Course Outline:
1. Introduction to Surveying
2. Types of Surveying
3. Measurement of Horizontal Distances
3.1 Distance by Pacing
3.2 Distance by Taping
4. Corrections, Errors in Distance Measurements
5. Stadia Theories in Measuring Distances
6. Measurement of Vertical Distances
7. Leveling Methods
8. Curvature and Refraction
Course Outline:
9. Measurement of Directions and Angles

10. Magnetic Declination
11. Bearing and Azimuth
12. Traverse Computation; Traverse Adjustments ; Balancing the Traverse
13. Omitted Measurements; Missing Data
14. Lot Area Computation
15. Topographic Surveys
SURVEYING
– is the art and science of
determining angular and linear
measurements to establish the
form, extent and relative precision
of points, lines and areas on or near
the surface of the earth through
applied mathematics and the use of
specialized equipments and
technique.
Two General Classification of Surveys
1. Plane Surveying
- is that type of surveying in
which the earth is considered to be a
flat surface. The distances and areas
involved are of limited extent. The
exact shape of the earth is
disregarded.
Two General Classification of Surveys
2. Geodetic Surveying
- are surveys of wide extent
which take into account the
spheroidal shape of the earth.
A survey that considers the exact
shape (elevation) of the ground.
Types of Surveys
1. Cadastral Surveys
- Are usually closed surveys which are
undertaken in urban and rural locations for the
purpose of determining and defining property
lines and boundaries, corners and areas. These
surveys are also made to fix the boundaries of
municipalities, towns and provincial jurisdictions.
Determining and defining property lines
and boundaries, corners and areas.
Types of Surveys
2. City Surveys
- are surveys of the areas in and near
a city for the purpose of planning expansions
or improvements, locating property lines,
fixing reference monuments and determining
the physical features and configuration of
the land and preparing maps.
Example of City Survey
locating property lines, fixing reference monuments

Types of Surveys
3. Construction Surveys
- these are surveys which are undertaken
at a construction site to provide data regarding
grades, reference lines, dimensions, ground
configuration and the location and elevation of
structures which are of concern to engineers,
architects and builders.
Example of Construction Survey
Types of Surveys
4. Forestry Surveys
- a type of survey executed in
connection with forest management and
mensuration, and the production and
conservation of forest lands.
Example of ForestrySurvey
Types of Surveys
5. Hydrographic Surveys
- refer to surveying of streams, lakes, harbors,
oceans and other bodies of water. These surveys are
made to map shorelines, chart the shape and areas
underlying water surfaces and measure the flow of
streams. They are of general importance in connection
with navigation, development of water supply and
resources, flood control, irrigation, production of
hydro-electric power, subaquaeus constructions and
recreation.
Example of Hydrographic Survey
Types of Surveys
6. Industrial Surveys
- sometimes known as optical tooling.
It refers to the use of surveying techniques
in ship building, construction and assembly of
aircraft, layout and installation of heavy and
complex machinery and in other industries
where very accurate dimensional layouts are
required.
Example of Industrial Survey
Types of Surveys
7. Mine Surveys
- are surveys which are performed to
determine the position of all underground
excavations and surface mine structures, to fix
surface boundaries of mining claims, determine
geological formations, to calculate excavated
volumes, and establish lines and grades for
other related mining work.
Example of Mine Survey
Types of Surveys
8. Photogrammetric Surveys
- a type of survey which makes use of
photographs taken with specially designed
cameras either from airplanes or ground
stations. Measurements are obtained from
the photographs which are used in
conjunction with limited ground surveys.
Example of Photogrammetric Survey
Types of Surveys
9. Route Surveys
- involves the determination of
alignment, grades, earthwork quantities,
location of natural and artificial objects in
connection with the planning, design, and
construction of highways, railroads,
pipelines, canals, transmission lines, and
other linear projects.
Example of Route Survey
Types of Surveys
10. Topographic Surveys

- are those surveys made for
determining the shape of the ground, and the
location and elevation of natural and artificial
features upon it.
Example of Topographic Survey
Basic Survey Measurements
Distance By Pacing.
Pacing consists of counting the number of steps or paces in
a required distance.
Pace is defined as the length of a step in walking. It may

be measured from toe to toe or heel to heel.
Pace Factor is the determination of a constant or getting the

number of mean step in a given distance.
Distance by Pacing
Pace Factor (PF)= Length of line/Mean number

of paces
PF=L/Mn
and
Mn= sum of no. of steps in every trial / no. of trials
Paced Distance (PD) = PF * Mn
Example 1.
Along a 100 m. length in a fairly level ground, an

Engineering Student walks five times and gathered the
number of steps as follows: 137, 135, 136, 135, 137.
Just after the activity, the student counted his paces at
two points A and B on the ground and recorded an average of
76.50 paces.
Find
a. Pace factor
b. Paced distance of line AB.
Solution.
Solving for the Pace Factor (PF)
PF = and Mn = = 136
PF =
PF= 0.735 m/p
Paced Distance (PD) = PF * Mn
PD = 0.735 m/p * 76.50 paces
PD = 56.23 meters.
Example 2.
A Surveyor counted his number of

steps in an unknown distance.
An average of 165.5 paces were
recorded.
If his pace factor is 0.73 m/p.,
find the unknown distance.
Solution.
Solve for the Paced Distance PD.

PD = PF * Mn
PD = 0.73 m/p * 165.50 paces
PD = 120.81 meters
Drill 1.
A farmer walks along his rectangular cornland, counted his
paces on its width to be 245 paces and it’s length to be 675
paces. Find estimated area of his cornland if his pace factor is
0.73 meters per pace.
a) 8,812 sq. m.
b) 80, 812 sq. m.
c) 80 ha
d) 8.8 ha
Answer: d. 8.8 ha
Drill 2.
A Surveyor checks the frontage of a residential lot from a
subdivision plan which measures 51.35 meters. Prior to this he
walked through a 50 meters course with the following paces:
69, 68, 69, 70, 71. From a reference corner, his number of paces
should be roughly
a) 73
b) 72
c) 70
d) 71
Answer: d. 71
Computation on Relative Precision (RP)
RP =
Example 1:
Taped Distance = 50 m.
Paced Distance = 49.15 m.
Solution:
RP = =
RP =
RP = (Not Allowed) (since at least is allowable)
Computation on Relative Precision (RP)
RP =
Example 2:
Taped Distance = 50 m.
Paced Distance = 49.85 m.
Solution:
RP = =
RP =
RP = (Allowable)
Distance by Tachymetry (or Tacheometry)
This is another procedure in obtaining horizontal distance.

It is based on the optical geometry of the instruments
employed and is an indirect method of measurement.
Stadia Method.
This method provides a rapid means of determining
horizontal distance.
The precision of this method depends upon the following
factors: refinement with which the instrument was
manufactured, the skill of the observer, the length of
measurement and the effects of refraction and parallax
Typical set up for Stadia Method
Stadia Method
D=Ks + C
Where:
D= the horizontal distance between the
instrument and the stadia rod
K=stadia interval factor
s= the difference between the upper and
lower stadia readings
C= instrument constant
Example 1.
A stadia rod held at a distant point B is

sighted by an instrument set up at A. The
upper and lower stadia hair readings were
observed as 1.300m and 0.900m respectively.
If the stadia interval factor (K) is 100 and the
instrument constant (C) is zero, determine the
length of line AB.
Solution.
Given:
Upper reading= 1.300 m.
Lower reading = 0.900 m.
s = 1.300 m. – 0 900 m. = 0.4 m.
K = 100
C=0
D = Ks + C
D = (100)(0.4 m.) + 0
D = 40 meters
Distance by Tachymetry (or Tacheometry)
Subtense Bar Method.

This method is a convenient and practical
device used for quick and accurate
measurement of horizontal distance. It is a 2
meters long rounded steel tube through which
runs a thin invar rod. At each end of the frame
the target marks are housed.
Subtense Bar Method
1
𝐷=
𝜃
Where:
D= horizontal distance between the
tan
instrument and the point
Tan Ø/2= angle subtended from the end of the
2
subtense bar to the center.
Example
The following subtended angles were read on a

2 m. long subtense bar using a theodolite: at point
A 000 54’ 13”, at point B 000 22’ 20”, at point C 000
32’ 06” and at point D 000 19’ 46”.
Compute the horizontal distance from the
theodolite to each position of the bar.
Solution.
At point A : = 126.80 m.
At point B : = 307.85 m.
At point C : = 214.18 m.
At point D : = 347.83 m.
Distance by Taping
Taping is the process of directly measuring distances with

the use of a graduated tape.
Composition of Taping Party
Head Tapeman -responsible for the accuracy and speed of
all linear measurements with the tape.
Recorder-keeps record of all measurements, sketches and
observations during the process of measurement.
Flagman- his duty is to hold the range pole (or flagpole) at
selected points.
Composition of Taping Party
Rear Tapeman-his duty is to assist the head tapeman during

taping operations.
Procedure of Taping
1. Aligning the Tape.
2. Stretching the Tape.
3. Plumbing
4. Marking Full Tape Lengths.
5. Tallying Taped Measurements.
6. Measuring Fractional Lengths.
Corrections in Taping
1. Slope Taping ( Slope Correction)

Slope Correction
d= s * Cos Ø (1)
d 2= s 2 – h 2 (2)
Where:
d= horizontal distance
s= inclined distance
h= difference in elevation
Example 1.
A line ABC is measured on the slope in two

segments. The first segment AB measures 824.45m. And
the second segment BC measures 1244.38m. If the
differences in elevation between points A and B is 14.25m
and that between B and C is 16.47m, find:
Horizontal distance of the line.
Angle of inclination at points A and B
Illustration.
Solution.
Solve for dAB and dBC

dAB2 = s2 – h2
dAB2 = (824.45)2 – (14.25)2
dAB = 824.33 m.
dBC = (1244.38)2 – (16.47)2
dBC = 1,244.27 m
Therefore; the horizontal distance = dAB +
d = 2,068.60 meters.
Solution.
Solve for the inclined angle at point A

and point B:
At point A: Sin =
= 00059’25”
At point B: Sin =
= 00 45’30”
0
Drill 1.
Two points, A and B are established along the same
direction from a theodolite station. If the subtended angle read
on the subtense bar held at A and B are 0055’20” and 0023’44”
respectively, the horizontal distance between the two points is
a) 124.25 m.
b) 165.45 m.
c) 206.98 m.
d) 289.70 m.
Answer: b. 165.45m.
Drill 2.
A slope distance of 465.82 m. is measured between two
points with a slope angle of 12035’. The corresponding
horizontal distance is
a) 101.48 m.
b) 454.63 m.
c) 103.98 m.
d) 358.70 m.
Answer: b. 454.63 m.
Drill 3.
A stadia rod held at a distant point X is sighted by an
instrument set up at Y. The upper and lower stadia hair readings
were observe as 1.275 m and 0.845 m respectively. If the stadia
interval factor (K) is 100, and the instrument constant (C) is
zero, the length of line XY is
a) 40.00 m.
b) 41.00 m.
c) 42.00 m.
d) 43.00 m.
Answer: d. 43.00 m.
Correction Due to Temperature
The tape lengthens as the temperature
rises and shortens as the temperature falls.
“ tape too long “ term when the tape has

lengthens, subtract the correction when
taping.
“ tape too short “ term when the tape has
shortens, add the correction when taping.
Correction Due to Temperature
The correction applied to the length of the tape due to

change in temperature is given by the formula
Ct = CL ( T – Ts )
Where: Ct = temperature correction
C = coefficient of linear expansion
( 0.0000116 per degree
centigrade )
L= length of the tape or length measured
T= observed temperature
0
Take Note:
When MEASURING, the

correction is ADDED when tape is TOO
LONG
When LAYING OUT, the
correction is SUBTRACTED when tape
is TOO LONG.
Example 1.
A 50 m. steel tape is used to measure a line

which was found to be 532.28 meters long when
the temperature was 35 0 centigrade. Determine
the following:
a). Temperature correction per tape length.

b). Temperature correction for the measured line
c). Correct length of the line.
Solution.
Given:
Measured Length of line = 532.28 m.
Temperature during measurement : 350C
Length of tape: 50 m.
Coefficient of Linear expansion= 0.0000116/ 0C
Ct = CL ( T – Ts )
a) Ct = (0.0000116/0C)(50m)(350C – 200C)
Ct = 0.0087 m.
Solution:
b). Ct = CL ( T – Ts )
Ct = (0.0000116/0C) (532.28m)(350C – 200C)
Ct = +0.093 m. (positive sign means tape too
long)
c). Correct length of line = Measured line Ct

Correct length of line = 532.28 0.093 m
Correct length of line = 532.373 m.
Solution Check (Using Ratio and Proportion)
=
Ct’ = (532.28)
Ct’ = (532.28) = 0.093 m.
Example 2.
A steel tape is used in laying out a

runway 2,500 meters long.
At that instant, the temperature is
42 C. Find the correct length to be laid
0
out.
Solution.
Using the formula

Ct = CL ( T – Ts )
Ct = (0.0000116/ 0 C)(2500m) ( 420 C – 200 C)
Ct = +0.638 m.
Length of Line = L Ct
Length of Line = 2500 m 0.638 m
Length of Line = 2,499.36 m.
Drill 1
Two points, A and B have an elevation of 24.35 meters and

27.50 meters respectively. If the inclined distance is 72.45
meters, the horizontal distance is
a) 72.38 m.
b) 72.72 m.
c) 72.27 m.
d) 72.83 m.
Answer: a) 72.38 m.
Drill 2
The difference in elevation of two points on the ground is

8.35 m. If the inclined angle of the points is 1045’, the horizontal
distance is
a) 237 m.
b) 372 m.
c) 273 m.
d) 327 m.
Answer: c) 273 m.
Drill 3.
During measurement, a 100 meter invar
tape was found to be 0.014 m too long. The
temperature at that instant is
a) 30 0C
b) 31 0C
c) 32 0C
d) 330 C
Answer: c) 320 C
Drill 4.
In laying out a 75 linear meter road
concreting project, the temperature during
the laying out is 37.50C. The lay out must be
a) 75.015m.
b) 75.150m.
c) 74.985m.
d) 74.850m.
Answer: c) 74.985m.
Correction Due to Sag (always subtract)
Sag- to bend or hang down in the middle especially

because of the weight.
Sag shortens the horizontal distance between end
graduations since the tapelength remains the same.
Thus, when a stretched tape sags, the actual
distance between the points is something less than the
reading on the tape.
The magnitude of error due to sag depends on the
weight of the tape, the unsupported length and the
tension applied.
Typical Set Up of Measurement for Sag
Continuation of correction due to Sag.
The correction due to sag is the difference in length

between the arc formed by the tape and the subtending
chord. In determining this correction, the arc is assumed
to be a parabola, and is computed with sufficient
precision by the formula:
Cs=w2L3/24P2 (1)
Since W=wL or W2=w2L2, and substituting this to
(1), we obtain:
Cs= W2L/24p2 (2)
Continuation of correction due to Sag.
Where:
Cs= correction due to sag or the difference
between the tape reading and the horizontal distance
between supports (m)
w= weight of tape per unit length (kg/m)
W= total weight of tape between supports
(kg)
L= interval between supports or the
unsupported length of tape (m)
P= tension or pull applied on the tape (kg)
Example 1.
A 30 m. tape is supported only at

its ends and under a steady pull of 8
kg. If the tape weighs 0.91 kg.,
determine the sag correction and the
correct distance between the ends of
the tape.
Solution
Given: 30 m (nominal length)

P= 8 kg (applied pull on ends of tape)
W = 0.91 kg. (total weight of tape)
Cs = =
Cs = 0.0162 m. (correction due to sag between
supports)
L’ = L – Cs = 30 – 0.0162
L’ = 29.9838 m.
Example 2.
A 50 –m steel tape weighing 0.035 kg/m is constantly
supported at mid-length and at it’s end points, and is
used to measure a line AB with a steady pull of 6.5 kg.. If
the measured length of AB is 1268.256 m., determine the
following:
a). Correction due to sag between supports and for
the whole tape length.
b) Total sag correction for the whole length
measured.
c) Correct length of line AB.
Solution
Given: L = 50 m. , L1 = 25 m. , L2 = 25 m. Length of AB = 1268.256 m.
P = 6.5 kg
w = 0.035 kg/m
a). Determining Sag Correction Between Supports
W = wL = (0.035)(50) = 1.75 kg. (total weight of tape)
W1 = wL1 = (0.035)(25) = 0.875 kg.
W2 = wL2 = (0.035)(25) = 0.875 kg.
Cs1 = = = 0.0189 m. (Correction due to 0m and 25 m marks)
Cs1 = Cs2 = 0.0189 m. (Correction due to 25 m and 50 m mark)
Cs = Cs1 + Cs2 = 0.0189 + 0.0189 = 0.0378 m.
Solution
b). Determining Sag Correction for Measured Line.
By Ratio and Proportion
=
Total Cs = (Length of AB)
Total Cs = (1268.256) = 0.9588 m.
Solution
c) Determining correct length of AB.
Correct Length of AB = Measured Length – Total Cs
Correct Length of AB = 1268.256 m. – 0.9588 m.
Correct Length of AB = 1267.2972 m.
MEASUREMENTS OF VERTICAL DISTANCES
Leveling-is the process of

directly or indirectly measuring
vertical distances to determine
the elevation of points or their
differences in elevation.
Definition of terms used in Leveling
1.Level Surface- is a curved surface which is

at any point perpendicular to the direction of gravity
or the plumb line.
2. Level Line- is a curved line in a level surface
all points of which are normal to the direction of
gravity and equidistant from the center of the earth.
3. Horizontal Surface- is a plane that is
tangent to a level surface at a particular point.
4. Horizontal Line-is a straight line in a
horizontal plane which is tangent to a level line at
one point.
5. Vertical Line- is a line parallel to the
direction of gravity.
6. Mean Sea Level- is an imaginary surface of
the sea which is midway between high and low
tides. It is taken as the reference surface to which
most ground elevations are referred.
7. Datum- is any convenient level surface
coincident or parallel with mean sea level to which
elevations of a particular point are referred.
8. Elevation- the vertical distance above or
below mean sea level or any other selected datum.
9. Difference in Elevation is the vertical
distance between the two level surfaces in which
the points lie.
Leveling Methods
1. Direct or Spirit Leveling-is the commonly

employed method of determining the elevation of
points some distant apart by a series of set ups of
a leveling instrument along a selected route.
2. Differential Leveling- is the process of
determining the difference in elevation two or more
points some distance apart.
Leveling Methods
3.Profile Leveling-is the process of

determining differences in elevation along a fixed line
at designated short measured intervals
4.Reciprocal Leveling- is employed to
determine the difference in elevation between two
points when it is difficult or impossible to keep back
sights and foresights short and equal.
Leveling Methods
5.Trigonometric Leveling-also called

indirect leveling, is defined as the
determination of difference in elevation from
observed vertical angles and either
horizontal or inclined distances
Definition of terms in Differential Leveling
1. Bench Mark (BM)- is a fixed point of reference

whose elevation is either known or assumed.
2. Backsight (BS)- is a rod reading taken on a rod
held on a point of known or assumed elevation.
3. Foresight (FS)- a reading taken on a rod held on
a point whose elevation is to be determined.
4. Backsight Distance (BSD)- is the distance
measured from the center of the instrument to the rod on
which the backsight is taken.
Definition of terms in Differential Leveling
5. Foresight Distance(FSD)- is the distance
measured from the center of the instrument to the rod on
which the foresight is taken.
6. Turning Point (TP)- is an intervening point
between two bench marks upon which point foresight and
backsight rod readings are taken to enable a leveling
operation to continue from a new instrument position.
7. Height of Instrument (HI)- is the elevation of
the line of sight of an instrument above or below a
selected reference datum.
Typical Instrument Set Up in Differential Leveling
Formula Used for Differential Leveling
HI= Elev BMa + BS

Elev TP1= HI – FS
Where:
HI= Height of Instrument
Elev BMa = Elevation of benchmark a
BS = Backsight
FS = Foresight
Elev TP1= Elevation of turning point 1
Example 1.
A back sight of 1.725 m. was taken at a

benchmark with an elevation of 20 m. At the ground
floor line of a proposed two storey residential
building, the fore sight reads 1.315 m.
Find:
a) height of instrument
b) elevation of the ground floor line.
Solution.
Given:
BS = 1.725 m.
FS = 1.315 m.
Elev of BM = 20 m.
a) HI = Elev BM + BS
= 20 m. + 1.725 m. = 21.725 m.
b) Elev of ground floor-line = HI – FS
= 21.725 m. – 1.315 m. = 20.41 m.
Example 2. Complete the differential level notes and show the arithmetic check.
Sta BS HI FS Elevation
BMa 2.08 35.75m
TP1 2.02 0.98
TP2 1.86 1.43
TP3 0.58 1.53
TP4 0.42 2.42
TP5 1.45 1.81
Project Site 1.73

Solution.
HI1 = Elev. BM + BS1 = 35.75 + 2.08 = 37.83

Elev. TP1 = HI1 – FS1 = 37.83 – 0.98 = 36.85
HI2 = Elev. TP1 + BS2 = 36.85 + 2.02 = 38.87
Elev. TP2 = HI2 – FS2 = 38.87 – 1.43 = 37.44
HI3 = Elev. TP2 + BS3 = 37.44 + 1.86 = 39.30
Elev. TP3 =HI3 – FS3 = 39.30 – 1.53 = 37.77
Solution.
HI4 = Elev. TP3 + BS4 = 37.77 + 0.58 = 38.35

Elev. TP4 = HI4 – FS4 = 38.35 – 2.42 = 35.93
HI5 = Elev. TP4 + BS5 = 35.93 + 0.42 = 36.35
Elev. TP5 = HI5 – FS5 = 36.35 – 1.81 = 34.54
HI6 = Elev. TP5 + BS6 = 34.54 + 1.45 = 35.99
Elev. Project Site = HI6 – FS6 = 35.99 – 1.73 = 34.26
Tabulated Solution.
BMa 2.08 37.83 35.75m
TP1 2.02 38.87 0.98 36.85
TP2 1.86 39.30 1.43 37.44
TP3 0.58 38.35 1.53 37.77
TP4 0.42 36.35 2.42 35.93
TP5 1.45 35.99 1.81 34.54
Project Site 1.73 34.26

Arithmetic Check:
Elev Project Site = Elev BM + ∑BS - ∑FS

∑BS = 2.08 + 2.02 + 1.86 + 0.58 + 0.42 + 1.45 =
8.41
∑FS = 0.98 + 1.43 + 1.53 + 2.42 + 1.81 + 1.73 =
9.90
34.26 35.75 + 8.41 – 9.90

34.26 34.26 (Check)
Seatwork. Complete the differential level notes and show the arithmetic check.
BMa 1.25 50.00 m
TP1 1.42 0.98
TP2 1.15 1.02
TP3 1.05 1.10
TP4 1.56 1.25
TP5 1.38 1.40
Project Site 1.51

Definition of terms used in Profile Leveling
1. Profile- is a curved line which graphically portrays the

intersection of a vertical plane with the surface of the earth.
2. Stationing (Sta)- a numerical designation given in terms of
horizontal distance any point along a profile line and is away from the
starting point.
3. Intermediate Foresights (IFS)- these sights, which are also
known as ground rod readings, are taken along the centerline of the
proposed project to provide an accurate representation of the ground
surface.
4. Full Stations- are points which are established along the
profile level route at uniformly measured distances.
Definition of terms used in Profile Leveling
5. Plus Stations- any other intermediate

point established along a profile level route
which is not designated as a full station.
6. Vertical Exaggeration- is a process of
drawing the vertical scale for a profile much
larger than the horizontal scale in order to
accentuate the differences in elevation.
Example 1. Complete the following set of profile level notes and do the arithmetic check.
Sta BS HI FS IFS Elevation

BMa 1.75 48.56m
15 + 000 1.64
15 + 020 1.58
15 + 040 1.69
15 + 060 1.72
TP1 1.88 1.60
15 + 080 1.55
15 + 100 1.58
15 + 120 1.62
TP2 1.56 1.71
15 + 140 1.74
15 + 160 1.72
15 + 180 1.80
Project End 1.83
Solution.
HI1 = Elev. BMa + BS1 = 48.56 + 1.75 = 50.31
Elev @ 15 + 000 = HI1 – IFS1 = 50.31 – 1.64 = 48.67
Elev. @ 15 + 020 = HI1 – IFS2 = 50.31 – 1.58 =48.73
Elev. @ 15 + 040 = HI1 – IFS3 = 50.31 – 1.69 = 48.62
Elev. @ 15 + 060 =HI1 – IFS4 = 50.31 – 1.72 = 48.59
Elev. TP1 = HI1 – FS1 = 50.31 – 1.60 = 48.71
Solution.
HI2 = Elev. TP1 + BS2 = 48.71 + 1.88 = 50.59
Elev @ 15 + 080 = HI2 – IFS5 = 50.59 – 1.55 = 49.04
Elev. @ 15 + 100 = HI2 – IFS6 = 50.59 – 1.58 =49.01
Elev. @ 15 + 120 = HI2 – IFS7 = 50.59 – 1.62 = 48.97
Elev. TP2 = HI2 – FS2 = 50.59 – 1.71 = 48.88
Solution.
HI3 = Elev. TP2 + BS3 = 48.71 + 1.56 = 50.44
Elev @ 15 + 140 = HI3 – IFS5 = 50.44 – 1.74 = 48.70
Elev. @ 15 + 160 = HI3 – IFS6 = 50.44 – 1.72 =48.72
Elev. @ 15 + 180 = HI3 – IFS7 = 50.44 – 1.80 = 48.64
Elev. Project End = HI3 – FS3 = 50.44 – 1.83 = 48.61
Tabulated Solution.

BMa 1.75 50.31 48.56m
15 + 000 1.64 48.67
15 + 020 1.58 48.73
15 + 040 1.69 48.62
15 + 060 1.72 48.59
TP1 1.88 50.59 1.60 48.71
15 + 080 1.55 49.04
15 + 100 1.58 49.01
15 + 120 1.62 48.97
TP2 1.56 50.44 1.71 48.88
15 + 140 1.74 48.70
15 + 160 1.72 48.72
15 + 180 1.80 48.64
Project End 1.83 48.61
Arithmetic Check:
Elev Project End = Elev BM + ∑BS - ∑FS

∑BS = 1.75 + 1.88 + 1.56 = 5.19
∑FS = 1.60 + 1.71 + 1.83 = 5.14
48.61 48.56 + 5.19 – 5.14

48.61 48.61 (Check)
Seatwork. Complete the following set of profile level notes and do the arithmetic check.

BMa 1.15 100.00 m
1 + 000 1.25
1 + 010 1.41
1 + 020 1.15
1 + 030 1.22
TP1 1.82 1.52
1+ 040 1.36
1 + 050 1.02
1 + 060 1.12
TP2 1.74 1.68
1+ 070 1.45
1 + 080 1.38
1 + 090 1.33
Project End 1.68
Leveling Methods
Reciprocal Leveling- is employed to determine the

difference in elevation between two points when it is difficult or
impossible to keep back sights and foresights short and equal.
Such a condition usually exists when running a line of levels
across wide rivers, lakes or in rugged terrain where deep
canyons and ravines are encountered.
The procedure of reciprocal leveling across a body of water
is illustrated in the figure.
Reciprocal Leveling
Typical Set up for Reciprocal Leveling
Formula
DE1 = (a – b )
DE 2 = ( a’ – b’ )
TDE = (DE1 + DE2) / 2

Where:
DE=Difference in Elevation
TDE = True Difference in Elevation
Example 1.
In leveling on both sides of a deep ravine,

rod readings were taken at points A and B as
shown in the tabulated field data. Find:
a).Difference in elevation between the two
points.
b). Elevation of B if the elevation of A is
72.50 meters above mean sea level.
Tabulated data:
Instrument Set-Up Near A Instrument Set-Up Near B

Sta BS FS Sta BS FS
a 1.283 b’ 1.478
1.284 1.480
1.286 1.476
1.283 1.478
b 0.675 a’ 2.143
0.674 2.140
0.677 2.145
0.674 2.142
0.677 2.143
0.678 2.146
Sum 5.136 4.056 Sum 12.859 5.912
Mean 1.284 0.676 Mean 2.143 1.478
Solution.
A) DE1 = (a – b )
DE 2 = ( a’ – b’ )
DE1 = (1.284 – 0.676 ) = 0.608
DE 2 = ( 2.143 – 1.478 ) = 0.665
TDE = (DE1 + DE2) / 2

TDE = (0.608 + 0.665) / 2 = 0.6365
B) Elev of B = Elev A + TDE
Elev of B = 72.50 m + 0.6365 m
Elev of B = 73.1365 m.
Problem Set 1.
In reciprocal leveling across a deep ravine the
following sets of rod readings were taken:
Instrument Near A: BS on A = 1.719m,
Average FS on B = 2.578 m
Instrument Near B: Average BS on A = 1.335
m.,
FS on B = 2.176 m.
Point A is on one side of the ravine and has a known
elevation of 197.428 m. Point B is on the other side.
Determine the elevation of point B.
Trigonometric Leveling
also called indirect leveling, is

defined as the determination of
difference in elevation from
observed vertical angles and
either horizontal or inclined
distances
Typical setup for Trigonometric Leveling
Basic formulas for Trigonometric Leveling
1) V= d*Tan Ø
2) V= s*Sin Ø
3) DEab= d*Tan Ø + HI – RR
4) DEab= s* Sin Ø + HI – RR
5) Elev B = Elev A + DEab
Example 1.
In a trigonometric levelling, a back sight of

1.85m was read at a benchmark with an elevation of
35.50 meters above mean sea level. A sight was
taken on a top of a cliff with a rod reading of 1.72m.
If the angle of elevation from the instrument to the
top is 390 35’ and the distance of the instrument to
the base of the cliff is 198.55m, find the elevation of
the point below the rod.
Typical setup for Trigonometric Leveling
Solution.
Given:
BS = 1.85 m.
Elev of BM = 35.50 m
FS = 1.72 m.
Vertical Angle = 39035’
Horizontal distance = 198.55 m.
Vertical Distance (VD) = ?
Elev of point below the rod = ?
Solution.
VD = HD * tan θ
VD = (198.55 m)(tan 39035’)
VD = 164.16 m.
Elev of pt. below the rod = Elev of BM + BS + VD – FS

Elev of pt. below the rod = 35.50 m + 1.85 m + 164.16 m – 1.72 m
Elev of pt. below the rod = 199.79 m.
Seatwork.
A vertical angle of -150 35’ is measured to the top of a

flagpole from an instrument set up on a rolling hill with an
inclined distance of 625.45 meters away from it. The
instrument is 1.45 m above the ground whose elevation is
520.15 m above mean sea level. If the height of the
flagpole is 8 meters, find:
a). Horizontal distance from the instrument to the base of
the pole
b).the elevation of the base.
Solution.
Given:
BS = 1.45 m.
Elev of BM = 520.15 m
Height of Flagpole = 8 m.
Vertical Angle = -15035’
Inclined distance = 625.45 m.
Horizontal Distance (HD) = ?
Elev of the base of flagpole = ?
Solution.
VD = s * sin θ
VD = (625.45 m)(sin 15035’)
VD = 168.02 m.
HD = s * cos θ
HD = (625.45)(cos 15035’)
HD = 602.46 m.
Solution.
Elev of base of flagpole = Elev of BM + BS –VD – Height of flagpole
Elev of base of flagpole = 520.15 m. + 1.45 m. - 168.02 m. – 8 m.
Elev of base of flagpole = 345.58 m.

CURVATURE AND REFRACTION
The effects of earth curvature and

atmospheric refraction are taken into
account in leveling work since the
measurements are made in vertical
planes and these effects all occur in
the same plane.
Figure of Curvature and Refraction
CURVATURE AND REFRACTION
The combination of the earth’s curvature and

atmospheric refraction causes the telescope’s line of
sight to vary from a level line.
This may be represented by a mathematical
equation, h = 0.0675 K2, where h is the departure
of a telescope line of sight from a level line ( in
meters) and K is the length of the line of sight ( in
kilometers. The value 0.0675 is called the
coefficient of refraction.
Example 1.
A Surveyor standing at the sea’s

water edge looks toward the direction of the
sea.
If his line of sight is 1.70 m above
the ground, how far out to sea is his visible
horizon, neglecting the effect of waves?
Solution.
Given:
h = 1.70 m.
K = ? (in km)
h = 0.0675K2
1.70 = 0.0675K2
K
K = 5.02 km.
Example 2.
A man standing on a beach of an

island can just see the top of a lighthouse
25.10 km away.
If his eye sight height is 1.72m,
determine the height of the lighthouse
above sea level.
Solution.
hm = 0.0675Km 2
1.72 = 0.0675Km 2
Km = 5.05km.
Since Km + KL = 25.10 km;
Solution.
5.05 km + KL = 25.10 km.

KL = 20.05 km.
Then
hL = 0.0675 KL 2
hL = 0.0675(20.05)2
MEASUREMENTS OF ANGLES AND DIRECTIONS
The Protractor
Units of Angular Measurements:

1. The Degree- units of measure in the
sexagesimal system, is used in which the
circumference of a circle is divided into 360 parts
called degrees.
2. The Grad- units of measure in the centesimal
system, is used in which the circumference is
divided into 400 parts called grads
3. The Mils- units of measure in which the

circumference of a circle is divided into 6400 parts called
Mils. It is commonly used in military operations as in fire
direction of artillery units.
4. The Radian- is another measure of angles used

frequently for a host of calculations. One radian is defined
as the angle subtended at the center of a circle by an arc
length exactly equal to radius of the circle. One radian
equals 180/л
To sum it up:
360 degrees = 400 grads
360 degrees = 6400 mils
360 degrees = 2 л rad = 180/ л
360 degrees = 1 revolution

Example 1. Convert the following:
A. 30 0 to
1. mils
Ans: 533.33 mils
2.grad
Ans:33.33 grad
3. rad
Ans: 0.52 rad
4. rev.
Ans: 0.08 rev
Seatwork
B. 3200 mils to degrees, grads, rad and rev
C. 150 grads to degrees, mils, rad and rev

DIRECTION OF LINES
- is defined as the horizontal

angle the line makes with an
established line of reference.
The Engineer’s Transit
Electronic Total Station
Interior Angles
are angles formed between the adjacent

sides of a closed figure.
It may be measured either in a clockwise or
counter-clockwise direction, however, the usual
practice is to measure these angles in a
clockwise direction.
Interior Angles these are the angles between adjacent lines in a closed polygon.
Deflection Angles
The angle between a line and the

prolongation of the preceding line is called the
deflection angles.
It may be turned to the right (clockwise) or
to the left (counter-clockwise) and it is always
necessary to append the letters R or L to the
numerical value to define the direction in which
the angle has been turned.
Deflection Angles the angle between a line and the prolongation of the preceding line.
BEARING AND AZIMUTH OF A LINE
The BEARING- of a line is the acute horizontal angle

between the reference meridian and the line.
Forward Bearing-of a line is observed in the direction
in which the survey progresses.
Example: N 30 0 45 ’ E
Back Bearing- if the bearing of the same line is
observed in an opposite direction.
Example : S 30 0 45 ’ W
Quadrantal System for defining BEARINGS
BEARING AND AZIMUTH OF A LINE
The Azimuth of a line is the horizontal

direction expressed as the angular
distance between the direction of a fixed
point (such as the observer’s heading) and
the direction of the object.
.
Example of Azimuth
Bearing to Azimuth Conversion
Convert the following bearing to

azimuth from North and South:
1. N 450 30’ E
2. S 550 15’ W
3. S 30 30’ E
0
4. N 650 45’ W
5. Due East
Solution.
1. N 450 30’ E
Solution
Azimuth from North = Bearing

Azimuth from North = 45030’
Azimuth from South = 1800 + 45030’

Azimuth from South = 225030’
Seatwork.
Convert the following bearing to

azimuth from North and South:
1. N 450 30’ E (Solved)
2. S 550 15’ W
3. S 30 30’ E
0
4. N 650 45’ W
5. Due East
Azimuth to Bearing Conversion
Convert the following azimuth to bearing:

Azimuth from North Azimuth from South
1. 1250 30’ 1. 110 0 00’
2. 3150 45’ 2. 225 0 30’
3. 450 25’ 3. 15 0 05’
4. 2700 4. 0000 15’
5. 3590 59’ 60” 5. 45 0 45’ 45”
Solution.

Azimuth from North
1. 1250 30’
Bearing = 1800 – Azimuth
Bearing = 1800 – 125030’
Bearing = 540 30’
Bearing = S 54030’ E
Seatwork

Azimuth from North Azimuth from South
1. 1250 30’ (Solved) 1. 1100 00’
2. 3150 45’ 2. 225 0 30’
3. 450 25’ 3. 15 0 05’
4. 2700 4. 0000 15’
5. 3590 59’ 60” 5. 45 0 45’ 45”
Instrument for determining angles
The COMPASS – is a hand-held instrument

for determining the horizontal direction of a
line with reference to the magnetic meridian.
Magnetic Declination- is the horizontal
angle and direction by which the needle of a
compass deflects from the true meridian at
any particular locality.
VARIATIONS IN MAGNETIC DECLINATION
1. Daily Variation- is an oscillation of the compass
needle through a cycle from its mean position
over a 24 hour period. It is also called diurnal
variation.
2. Annual Variation-another form of periodic swing
taken by the magnetic meridian with respect to
the true meridian. It usually amounts to only
less than 1 minute of arc and thus considered
negligible.
VARIATIONS IN MAGNETIC DECLINATION
3. Secular Variation-is a slow, gradual but

unexplainable shift in the position of the
earth’s magnetic meridian over a regular cycle.
4. Irregular Variation-is the type of variation
which is uncertain in character and cannot be
predicted as to amount or occurence.
Magnetic Declination
Example of Magnetic Declination
1. In a certain locality, the magnetic

declination is 1 45’ E. Determine the true
0
bearings of the following lines whose magnetic

bearings are given:
a.) AB, N 35 30’ E
0
b.) AC, S460 15’ E

c.) AD, S850 10’ W
Solution:
A) N 300 30’ E
True Bearing = Magnetic Bearing +

Magnetic Declination
True Bearing = 35030’ + 1045’
True Bearing = N 370 15’ E
COMPASS SURVEYING
Compass Surveying- is one of the

most basic and widely practiced methods
of determining the relative location of
points where a higher degree of precision
is not required.
TERMS IN COMPASS SURVEYS
1.Traverse- is a series of lines connecting
successive points whose lengths and directions
have been determined from field measurements.
2. Traversing- is the process of measuring the
lengths and directions of the lines of a traverse for
the purpose of locating the position of certain
points.
TERMS IN COMPASS SURVEYS
3. Traverse Station- is any temporary or

permanent point of reference over which the
instrument is set up. It is usually marked by peg or
hub driven flush with the ground and identified by
consecutive letters or numbers.
4. Traverse Lines- are lines connecting traverse
stations and whose lengths and directions are
determined.
TYPES OF COMPASS SURVEYS
1. Open Compass Traverse- consists of series of

lines of known lengths and magnetic bearings
which are continuous but do not return to the
starting point.
2. Closed Compass Traverse consists ofa series
of lines of known lengths and magnetic bearings
which forms a closed loop, or begin and end at
points whose positions have been fixed by other
surveys of higher precision.
TRAVERSE COMPUTATION
For any closed traverse, the

first step taken by the Surveyor
should always be to check if the
observed angles fulfil the
geometric conditions of the figure.
Latitude (Lat)-of a line is its

projection onto the reference meridian or
a north-south line.
Latab= dab x cos Øab
where d is the distance of the line and Ø is the
bearing
Departure (Dep)-of a line is its

projection onto the reference parallel or
the east-west line
Depab= dab x sin Øab

Latitude and Departure
d
Examples:
Find the latitudes and departures of the following:
1. N 380 30’ E, 150.23 m.

2. S 450 10’ W, 578.45 m.
3. Due North, 1250.75 m.
4. N 150 25’ W, 455.29 m.
5. S 850 10’ E, 236.87 m
Solution.
1. N 38030’E, 150.23 m.
Lat = d*cos θ
Lat = (150.23 m)(cos 38 30’)
0
Lat = 117.57 m.
Dep = d*sin θ
Dep = (150.23 m)(sin 38 30’)
0
Dep = 93.52 m.
Seatwork:
Find the latitudes and departures of the following:
1. N 380 30’ E, 150.23 m. (SOLVED)

2. S 450 10’ W, 578.45 m.
3. Due North, 1250.75 m.
4. N 150 25’ W, 455.29 m.
5. S 850 10’ E, 236.87 m
Linear Error of Closure (LEC)
Linear Error of Closure (LEC)-

is usually a short line of unknown
length and direction connecting the
initial and final stations of the
traverse.
An example of a closed traverse
The initial and final point of the traverse
The initial and final point (enlarged)
The Linear Error of Closure and Bearing
Linear Error of Closure (LEC)
LEC2=Cl2 + Cd2
and
Tan Ø= -Cd/-Cl
Where:
Cl=closure in latitude or the algebraic sum of north and south
latitude
Cd= closure in departure or the algebraic sum of the east and
west departure
Ø= bearing angle of the side of error
Relative Precision (RP)
This is usually expressed as a fraction whose numerator is

unity and the denominator rounded off to the nearest multiple
of 100,
i.e. 1/5000
meaning, that the error of the survey is one part in 5000
parts,
thus,
RP=LEC/D
where D= total length or perimeter of the traverse
Example 1. Find the Linear Error of Closure, Bearing of the side
of error and the Relative Precision of the traverse.
Solution:
Solving for Latitudes: Lat= d * cos (bearing)
Departures: Dep= d * sin (bearing)
Solving for Linear Error of Closure (LEC)
LEC2=Cl2 + Cd2
and
Tan Ø= -Cd/-Cl
Tabulated Solution:
Line Length/ Bearing Latitude Departure
Distance
North(+) South (-) East (+) West
(-)
1-2 732.72m N 000 42’ E 732.66 8.95
2-3 324.78m S 850 57’ E 22.94 323.97
3-4 477.24m S 030 04’ W 476.56 25.53
4-1 388.08m S 520 51’ W 234.36 309.32

Solving for LEC:
ƩNL = +732.66m (summation of north latitudes)

ƩSL = 22.94 m + 476.56 m + 234.36 m
ƩSL = - 733.86 m (summation of south latitudes)
ƩED = 8.95 m + 323.97 m
ƩED = +332.92 m (summation of east departures)
ƩWD = 25.53 m + 309.32 m
ƩWD = -334.85 m (summation of west departures)
Solving for LEC:
CL = ƩNL + ƩSL CL = (732.66) + (-733.86)
CL = -1.20 m (closure in latitude or the algebraic sum
of north and south latitudes)
CD = ƩED + ƩWD CD = (332.92 m) + (-334.85 m)
CD = -1.93m (closure in departure or the algebraic
sum of east and west departures)
LEC = LEC =
LEC = 2.27 m (linear error of closure)

Solving for the Bearing of the side of error:
Tan𝜙 = Tan𝜙 = Tan 𝜙 =
𝜙 =58008’ (therefore, the bearing of the side of error is N 58008’ E)
Note that the CD above is positive 1.93 which means East while CL is positive 1.20
which means North
Solving for the Relative Precision R.P.
RP=LEC/D

D= 732.72 m + 324.78 m + 477.24 m + 388.08 m
D= 1,922.82 m.
RP = LEC/D = 2.27/1,922.82
RP = 1/ 847 say, 1/800

Seatwork. Find the Linear Error of Closure, Bearing of the side of
error and the Relative Precision of the traverse.
Lines Length Bearing Latitude Departure

1-2 427.00 m N 590 33 ‘E
2-3 301.95 m S 390 18’ E
3-4 445.66 m S 060 35’ W
4-5 326.73 m N 170 48’ W
5-1 434.50 m N 700 59’ W
Sum 1,935.84 m
Solution:
Solving for Latitudes: Lat= d * cos (bearing)
Departures: Dep= d * sin (bearing)
Solving for Linear Error of Closure (LEC)
LEC2=Cl2 + Cd2
and
Tan Ø= -Cd/-Cl
Tabulated Solution:
Distance
(-)
1-2 427.00 m N 590 33 ‘E 216.40 368.10
2-3 301.95 m S 390 18’ E 233.66 191.25
3-4 445.66 m S 060 35’ W 442.72 51.09
4-5 326.73 m N 170 48’ W 311.09 99.88
5-1 434.50 m N 700 59’ W 141.58 410.79

Solving for LEC:
ƩNL = 216.40 m + 311.09 m + 141.58 m
ƩSL = 233.66 m + 442.72 m
ƩED = 368.10 m + 191.25 m
ƩWD = 51.09 m + 99.88 m + 410.79 m
Solving for LEC:
CL = ƩNL + ƩSL CL = (669.07 m) + (-676.38 m)
CL = -7.31 m (closure in latitude or the algebraic sum
of north and south latitudes)
CD = ƩED + ƩWD CD = (559.35 m) + (-561.76 m)
CD = -2.41 m (closure in departure or the algebraic
sum of east and west departures)
LEC = LEC =
LEC = 7.70 m (linear error of closure)

Solving for the Bearing of the side of error:
Tan𝜙 = Tan𝜙 = Tan𝜙 =
𝜙 =18015’ (therefore, the bearing of the side of error is N

18015’ E)
Note that the CD above is positive 2.41 which means East while CL is
positive 7.31 which means North
Solving for the Relative Precision R.P.
RP=LEC/D

D= 427.00 m + 301.95 m + 445.66 m + 326.73 m
+ 434.50 m
D= 1,935.84 m.
RP = LEC/D = 7.70/1,935.84
RP = 1/ 251 say, 1/300

A S S I G N M E N T S
1. Find the LEC, BEARING of side of error and R.P. of the following:
Line Distance Azimuth from North
1-2 161.46 m 2280 20’
2-3 180.49 m 2670 43’
3-4 171.83 m 3520 01’
4-5 229.70 m 820 12’
5-1 130.55 1310 48’
Line Distance Azimuth from South

A-B 357.20 m 99045’
B-C 183.18 m 1540 00’
C-D 430.05 m 2420 30’
D-A 425.18 m 3530 15’
TRAVERSE ADJUSTMENTS
Before the area of a parcel of land can be
computed, it is necessary to have a closed traverse
where all angles and distances are in precise
agreement. We have also known that all field
measurements will have errors.
Making adjustments to angles to obtain angular
closure is only part of the problem because distances
will still have errors. Thus, distances must be adjusted
as well.
Traverse Adjustments
By Compass Rule-
is based on the assumption that all
lengths were measured with equal care
and all the angles taken with
approximately the same precision.
The general steps for performing compass rule
traverse adjustments are:
1. Balancing field measured angles.
2. Calculate bearings or azimuths from corrected angles.
3. Calculate unbalanced latitudes and departures.
4. Calculate error of closure and precision.
5. Compute balanced latitudes and departures
6. Compute balanced angles and distances.
Compass Rule
cl=Cl (d/D)
and
cd=Cd (d/D)
Where:
cl= correction to be applied to the latitude of any course
cd= correction to be applied to the departure of any course
Cl=total closure in latitude or the algebraic sum of the N & S latitudes
Cd=total closure in departure or the algebraic sum of the E & W
departures
d=length of any course
D=perimeter of the traverse
Ex. 1) Traverse Adjustment using Compass Rule.
Given the following tabulation, adjust the traverse.
Lines Length Bearing

1-2 732.72m N 000 42’ E
2-3 324.78m S 850 57’ E
3-4 477.24m S 030 04’ W
4-1 388.08m S 520 51’ W
Sum 1922.82m
Tabulated Solution:
Distance
(-)
1-2 732.72m N 000 42’ E 732.66 8.95
2-3 324.78m S 850 57’ E 22.94 323.97
3-4 477.24m S 030 04’ W 476.56 25.53
4-1 388.08m S 520 51’ W 234.36 309.32

Compass Rule
cl=Cl (d/D)
and
cd=Cd (d/D)
Where:
cl= correction to be applied to the latitude of any course
cd= correction to be applied to the departure of any course
Cl=total closure in latitude or the algebraic sum of the N & S latitudes
Cd=total closure in departure or the algebraic sum of the E & W
departures
d=length of any course
D=perimeter of the traverse
Solving for Closure in Latitudes and Departures
CL = ƩNL + ƩSL CL = (732.66) + (-733.86)
CL = -1.20 m (closure in latitude or the
algebraic sum of north and south latitudes)
CD = ƩED + ƩWD CD = (332.92 m) + (-334.85 m)
CD = -1.93m (closure in departure
or the algebraic sum of east and west departures)
Determining Corrections for Latitude
K l = CL / D
and
cl = dKl
Where:
Kl = constant in every line
d = distance in every line
cl = corrections in every line
D = perimeter of the traverse
K 1 = CL / D and cl = dK1
K1 = 1.20 / 1922.82 = 6.24 x 10 -04
c1-2 = (732.72)(6.24 x 10-04) = 0.46

c2-3 = (324.78)(6.24 x 10-04) = 0.20
c3-4 = (477.24)(6.24 x 10-04) = 0.30
c4-1 = (388.08)(6.24 x 10-04) = 0.24
Solution Check: Sum of latitude Corrections = CL

0.46 + 0.20 + 0.30 + 0.24 = 1.20
Determining Corrections for Departure
K d = CD / D and cd = dKd
Kd = 1.93 / 1922.82 = 1.004 x 10 -03
c1-2 = (732.72)(1.004 x 10-03) = 0.73

c2-3 = (324.78)(1.004 x 10-03) = 0.33
c3-4 = (477.24)(1.004 x 10-03) = 0.48
c4-1 = (388.08)(1.004 x 10-03) = 0.39
Solution Check: Sum of departure Corrections = CD

0.73 + 0.33 + 0.48 + 0.39 = 1.93
Adjusting the Latitudes:
Adj. Lat = Computed Lat cl
Adj. Lat1-2 = +(732.66 + 0.46) = +733.12
Adj. Lat2-3 = -(22.94 – 0.20 ) = -22.74
Adj. Lat3-4 = -(476.56 – 0.30) = -476.26
Adj. Lat4-1 = -(234.36 – 0.24)= -234.12
Note: Since the sum of the North latitude is less than the south latitudes, the
corrections are added to the north latitudes and subtracted from the south
latitudes.
Solution Check: Algebraic Sum of Adjusted Latitudes = 0.00
(+733.12) + (-22.74) + (-476.26) + (-234.12) = 0.00
0.00 = 0.00 (Check)
Adjusting the Departures:
Adj. Dep = Computed Dep cd
Adj. Dep1-2 = +(8.95 + 0.73) = +9.68
Adj. Dep2-3 = +(323.97 + 0.33 ) = +324.30
Adj. Dep3-4 = -(25.53 – 0.48) = -25.05
Adj. Dep4-1 = -(309.32 – 0.39)= -308.93
Note: Since the sum of the East departure is less than the west departure,
the corrections are added to the East departures and subtracted from the
West departures.
Solution Check: Algebraic Sum of Adjusted Departures = 0.00
(+9.68) + (324.30) + (-25.05) + (-308.93) = 0.00
0.00 = 0.00 (Check)
Tabulated Solution
Line Correction Adjusted Latitude Adjusted Departure
Lat Dep +N -S +E -W
1-2 0.46 0.73 733.12 9.68
2-3 0.20 0.33 22.74 324.30
3-4 0.30 0.48 476.26 25.05
4-1 0.24 0.39 234.12 308.93
Sums 1.20 1.93 +733.12 -733.12 +333.98 -333.98

SEATWORK:Traverse Adjustment using Compass Rule.

1-2 427.00 m N 590 33 ‘E
2-3 301.95 m S 390 18’ E
3-4 445.66 m S 060 35’ W
4-5 326.73 m N 170 48’ W
5-1 434.50 m N 700 59’ W
Sum 1,935.84 m
ƩNL = 216.40 m + 311.09 m + 141.58 m
ƩSL = 233.66 m + 442.72 m
ƩED = 368.10 m + 191.25 m
ƩWD = 51.09 m + 99.88 m + 410.79 m
CL = ƩNL + ƩSL CL = (669.07 m) + (-676.38 m)
CD = ƩED + ƩWD CD = (559.35 m) + (-561.76 m)
CD = -2.41 m (closure in departure
Tabulated Solution:
Distance
(-)
1-2 427.00 m N 590 33 ‘E 216.40 368.10
2-3 301.95 m S 390 18’ E 233.66 191.25
3-4 445.66 m S 060 35’ W 442.72 51.09
4-5 326.73 m N 170 48’ W 311.09 99.88
5-1 434.50 m N 700 59’ W 141.58 410.79
Sum 1,935.84 m 669.07 676.38 559.35 561.76

K 1 = CL / D and cl = dK1
K1 = 7.31 / 1935.84 = 3.776 x 10 -03
c1-2 = (427.00)(3.776 x 10-03) = 1.612

c2-3 = -(301.95)(3.776 x 10-03) = 1.140
c3-4 = -(445.66)(3.776 x 10-03) = 1.683
c4-5 = (326.73)(3.776 x 10-03) = 1.234
c5-1 = (434.50)(3.776 x 10 ) = 1.641
-03

1.612 + 1.14 + 1.683 + 1.234 + 1.641 = 7.31
Determining Corrections for Departure
K 2 = CD / D and cd = dK2
K2 = 2.41 / 1935.84 = 1.245 x 10 -03
c1-2 = (427.00)(1.245 x 10-03) = 0.53

c2-3 = (301.95)(1.245 x 10-03) = 0.38
c3-4 = (445.66)(1.245 x 10-03) = 0.55
c4-5 = (326.73)(1.245 x 10-03) = 0.41
c5-1 = (434.50)(1.245 x 10 ) = 0.54
-03

0.53 + 0.38 + 0.55 + 0.41 + 0.54 = 2.41
Adj. Lat1-2 = +(216.40 + 1.612) = 218.012
Adj. Lat2-3 = -(233.66– 1.14 ) = -232.52
Adj. Lat3-4 = -(442.72 – 1.683) = -441.037
Adj. Lat4-5 = (311.09 +1.234) = 312.324
Adj. Lat5-1 = (141.58 +1.641) = 143.221
corrections are added to the north latitudes and subtracted from the south latitudes.
(+218.012) + (-232.52) + (-441.037) + (312.324) + (143.221) = 0.00
0.00 = 0.00 (Check)
Adj. Dep1-2 = +(368.10 + 0.53) = +368.63
Adj. Dep2-3 = +(191.25 + 0.38 ) = +191.63
Adj. Dep3-4 = -(51.09 – 0.55) = - 50.54
Adj. Dep4-5 = -(99.88 – 0.41)= -99.47
Adj. Dep5-1 = -(410.79 – 0.54) = -410.25
Note: Since the sum of the East departure is less than the west departure, the
corrections are added to the East departures and subtracted from the West
departures.
(+368.63) + (191.63) + (-50.54) + (-99.47) + (-410.25) = 0.00
0.00 = 0.00 (Check)
Tabulated Solution
Lat Dep +N -S +E -W
1-2 1.612 0.53 218.012 368.63
2-3 1.14 0.38 232.52 191.63
3-4 1.683 0.55 441.037 50.54
4-5 1.234 0.41 312.324 99.47
5-1 1.641 0.54 143.221 410.25
Sum 7.31 2.41 673.557 -673.557 560.26 -560.26

Transit Rule
This method of adjusting a traverse is similar to the
Compass Rule. The main difference is that with the transit rule,
the latitude and departure corrections depend on the length of
the latitude and departure of the course respectively instead of
both depending on the length of the course.
It may be stated as follows: The correction to be applied to
the latitude (or departure) of any course is equal to the latitude
(or departure) of the course multiplied by the ratio of the total
closure in latitude (or departure) to the arithmetical sum of all
the latitudes (or departures) of the traverse.
Transit Rule
cl=Lat(Cl)/𝚺 NL - 𝚺 SL
And
cd= Dep (Cd)/ 𝚺 ED - 𝚺 WD
Where:
cl=correction to be applied to the latitude of any course
cd=correction to be applied to the departure of any course
Cl=total closure in latitude or the algebraic sum of the N & S
latitudes
Cd=total closure in departure or the algebraic sum of the E &
W departures
And also
𝚺 NL=summation of north latitudes
𝚺 SL=summation of south latitudes
𝚺 ED=summation of east departures
𝚺 WD=summation of west departures

Traverse Adjustment using Transit Rule.

1-2 732.72m N 000 42’ E
2-3 324.78m S 850 57’ E
3-4 477.24m S 030 04’ W
4-1 388.08m S 520 51’ W

Tabulated Solution:
Distance
(-)
1-2 732.72m N 000 42’ E 732.66 8.95
2-3 324.78m S 850 57’ E 22.94 323.97
3-4 477.24m S 030 04’ W 476.56 25.53
4-1 388.08m S 520 51’ W 234.36 309.32
+732.66 -733.86 +332.92 -334.85

Applying Transit Rule:
cl=Lat(Cl) / 𝚺 NL - 𝚺 SL
And
cd= Dep (Cd) / 𝚺 ED - 𝚺 WD

CL = ƩNL + ƩSL CL = (732.66) + (-733.86)
CD = ƩED + ƩWD CD = (332.92 m) + (-334.85 m)
CD = -1.93m (closure in departure
K1 = CL /𝚺 NL - 𝚺 SL
and
cl = Lat(K1)
Where:
K1 = constant in every line
Lat = latitude in every line
𝚺 NL - 𝚺 SL = difference between North and
South latitudes
Determining Corrections for Latitudes
K1 = CL / 𝚺 NL - 𝚺 SL and cl = Lat(K1)
K1 = 1.20 / (732.66 – (-733.86)
K1 = 1.20 / 1,466.52 = 8.18 x 10-04
c1-2 = (732.66)(8.18 x 10-04) = 0.60
c2-3 = (-22.94)(8.18 x 10-04) = 0.02
c3-4 = (476.56)(8.18 x 10-04) = 0.39
c4-1 = (234.36)(8.18 x 10-04) = 0.19
0.60 + 0.02 + 0.39 + 0.19 = 1.20
Determining Corrections for Departures
K2 = CD / 𝚺 ED - 𝚺 WD and cd = Dep(K2)
K2 = 1.93 / (332.92 – (-334.85)
K2 = 1.93 / 667.77 = 2.89 x 10-03
c1-2 = (8.95)(2.89 x 10-03) = 0.03
c2-3 = (323.97)(2.89 x 10-03) = 0.94
c3-4 = (-25.53)(2.89 x 10-03) = 0.07
c4-1 = (-309.32)(2.89 x 10-03) = 0.89
0.03 + 0.94 + 0.07 + 0.89 = 1.93
Adj. Lat1-2 = +(732.66 + 0.60) = +733.26
Adj. Lat2-3 = -(22.94 – 0.02) = -22.92
Adj. Lat3-4 = -(476.56 – 0.39) = -476.17
Adj. Lat4-1 = -(234.36 – 0.19)= -234.17
corrections are added to the north latitudes and subtracted from the south
latitudes.
(+733.26) + (-22.92) + (-476.17) + (-234.17) = 0.00
0.00 = 0.00 (Check)
Adj. Dep1-2 = +(8.95 + 0.03) = +8.98
Adj. Dep2-3 = +(323.97 + 0.94 ) = +324.91
Adj. Dep3-4 = -(25.53 – 0.07) = -25.46
Adj. Dep4-1 = -(309.32 – 0.89)= -308.43
Note: Since the sum of the East departure is less than the west departure,
the corrections are added to the East departures and subtracted from the
West departures.
(+8.98) + (324.91) + (-25.46) + (-308.43) = 0.00
0.00 = 0.00 (Check)
Tabulated Solution
Lat Dep +N -S +E -W
1-2 0.60 0.03 733.26 8.98
2-3 0.02 0.94 22.92 324.91
3-4 0.39 0.07 476.17 25.46
4-1 0.19 0.89 234.17 308.43
Sums 1.20 1.93 +733.26 -733.26 +333.89 -333.89

Seatwork.Traverse Adjustment using Transit Rule.
1-2 427.00 m N 590 33 ‘E
2-3 301.95 m S 390 18’ E
3-4 445.66 m S 060 35’ W
4-5 326.73 m N 170 48’ W
5-1 434.50 m N 700 59’ W

Tabulated Solution:
Distance
(-)
1-2 427.00 m N 590 33 ‘E 216.40 368.10
2-3 301.95 m S 390 18’ E 233.66 191.25
3-4 445.66 m S 060 35’ W 442.72 51.09
4-5 326.73 m N 170 48’ W 311.09 99.88
5-1 434.50 m N 700 59’ W 141.58 410.79
+669.07 -676.38 +559.35 -561.76

Applying Transit Rule:
cl=Lat(Cl) / 𝚺 NL - 𝚺 SL
And
cd= Dep (Cd) / 𝚺 ED - 𝚺 WD

CL = ƩNL + ƩSL CL = (669.07 m) + (-676.38 m)
CD = ƩED + ƩWD CD = (559.35 m) + (-561.76 m)
CD = -2.41 m (closure in departure
K1 = CL / 𝚺 NL - 𝚺 SL
and
cl = Lat(K1)
Where:
K1 = constant in every line
Lat = latitude in every line
𝚺 NL - 𝚺 SL = difference between North and
South latitudes
Determining Corrections for Latitudes
K1 = CL / 𝚺 NL - 𝚺 SL and cl = Lat(K1)
K1 = 7.31 / (669.07 – (-676.38)
K1 = 7.31 / 1,345.45 = 5.43 x 10-03
c1-2 = (216.40)(5.43x 10-03) = 1.18
c2-3 = (-233.66)(5.43 x 10-03) = 1.27
c3-4 = (-442.72)(5.43 x 10-03) = 2.40
c4-5 = (311.09)(5.43 x 10-03) = 1.69
c5-1 = (141.58)(5.43 x 10 -03
) = 0.77
Determining Corrections for Departures
K2 = CD / 𝚺 ED - 𝚺 WD and cd = Dep(K2)
K2 = 2.41 / (559.35 – (-561.76)
K2 = 2.41 / 1,121.11 = 2.15 x 10-03
c1-2 = (368.10)(2.15x 10-03) = 0.80
c2-3 = (191.25)(2.15 x 10-03) = 0.41
c3-4 = (-51.09)(2.15 x 10-03) = 0.11
c4-5 = (-99.88)(2.15 x 10-03) = 0.21
c5-1 = (-410.79)(2.15 x 10 -03
) = 0.88
Adj. Lat1-2 = +(216.40 + 1.18) = +217.58
Adj. Lat2-3 = -(233.66 – 1.27) = -232.39
Adj. Lat3-4 = -(442.72 – 2.40) = -440.32
Adj. Lat4-5 = (311.09 + 1.69)= 312.78
Adj. Lat5-1 = (141.58 + 0.77) = 142.35
corrections are added to the north latitudes and subtracted from the south latitudes.
(+217.58) + (-232.39) + (-440.32) + (312.78) + (142.35) = 0.00
0.00 = 0.00 (Check)
Adj. Dep1-2 = +(368.10 + 0.80) = 368.90
Adj. Dep2-3 = +(191.25 + 0.41) = 191.66
Adj. Dep3-4 = -(51.09– 0.11) = -50.98
Adj. Dep4-5 = -(99.88 – 0.21)= -99.67
Adj. Dep5-1 = (410. 79 – 0.88) = -409.91
Note: Since the sum of the East departure is less than the west departure, the
corrections are added to the East departures and subtracted from the West
departures.
(+368.90) + (191.66) + (-50.98) + (-99.67) + (-409.01) = 0.00
0.00 = 0.00 (Check)
Tabulated Solution
Lat Dep +N -S +E -W
1-2 1.18 0.80 217.58 368.90
2-3 1.27 0.41 232.39 191.66
3-4 2.40 0.11 440.32 50.98
4-5 1.69 0.21 312.78 99.67
5-1 0.77 0.88 142.35 409.91
Sum 7.31 2.41 672.71 672.71 560.56 560.56

THAT’S ALL FOR NOW FOLKS!!!
Omitted Measurements (Missing Data)
Sometimes, it is not possible or practical to

determine by field observation the length or
direction of a line (or lines) within a closed
traverse.
These missing quantities may be determined
analytically to obtain a complete set of notes for
the traverse.
1. Omitted Measurements Are In

One Side
1 Case: Length and Bearing of
st
One Side Unknown

1st Case: Length and Bearing of One Side Unknown
Figure 1
Illustrated in figure 1 is a closed traverse in which the

lengths and bearings of sides AB, BC, DE, EF and FA are known
but the length and bearing of side CD are unknown.
If the measurements for the five known sides are presumed
to be correct and without error, it is acceptable to compute the
missing quantities of side CD (considered the CLOSING LINE)
The problem of determining the length and direction of one
side of a closed traverse is primarily the same as that of
computing the length and direction of the side of error in any
closed traverse.
In solving this particular problem, it is necessary to first compute the

latitudes and directions of lines having known directions and lengths. Since
only one latitude and one departures are unknown, the algebraic sum of
the north and south latitudes (taken with opposite sign) will yield the
latitude of side CD; also, the algebraic sum of the east and west
departures (also taken with opposite sign) will be the departure of side
CD.
If the algebraic sum of the latitudes and departures of the known
sides are designated by CL and CD respectively, then the length of the
unknown side CD is
LCD =
The tangent of the bearing angle, Ø, which

is taken with due regard to sign, is
Tan Ø= -Cd/-Cl
Example of Omitted Measurements:
Length and bearing of one side unknown or missing.
Line Distance (m) Bearing

1-2 297.66m. S 400 58’E
2-3 286.60m S 150 45’ W
3-4 Unknown Unknown
4-5 386.25m N 210 05’ W
5-1 258.37m N 480 13’ E
Tabulated Solution:
Distance
North(+) South (-) East (+) West (-)
1-2 297.66 m S 400 58 ‘E -224.76 195.15
2-3 286.60 m S 150 45’ W -275.84 -77.79
3-4 Unknown Unknown _______ ________ ______ _____
4-5 386.25 m N 210 05’ W 360.39 -138.94
5-1 258.37 m N 480 13’ E 172.16 192.66
+532.55 -500.60 +387.81 -216.73

Illustration of the problem.
1st Solution:
CL = ƩNL + ƩSL CL = (532.55) + (-500.60)
CL = 31.95 m (closure in latitude or the
CD = ƩED + ƩWD CD = (387.81) + (-216.73)
CD = 171.08 (closure in departure or the
algebraic sum of east and west departures)
1st Solution:
L3-4 =
L3-4 =
L3-4 = 174.04 m
Tan Ø= -Cd/-Cl
Tan Ø= -(171.08)/-(31.95)
Ø3-4= 790 25’
Therefore, the Bearing is S 790 25’ W
2nd Solution:
𝚺 Lat = 0
Lat1-2 + Lat2-3 + Lat3-4 + Lat4-5 + Lat5-1 = 0

(-224.76) + (-275.84) + Lat3-4 + (360.39) + (172.16)=0
(-500.60) + Lat3-4 + (532.55) = 0
Lat3-4 + 31.95 = 0
Lat3-4 = -31.95
2nd Solution:
𝚺 Dep = 0
Dep1-2 + Dep2-3 + Dep3-4 + Dep4-5 +Dep5-1 = 0

(195.15) + (-77.79) + Dep3-4 + (-138.94) + (192.66)=0
(387.81) + Dep3-4 + (-216.73) = 0
Dep3-4 + 171.08 = 0
Dep3-4 = -171.08
2nd Solution:
L3-4 =
L3-4 =
L3-4 = 174.04 m
Tan Ø= Cd/Cl
Tan Ø= (-171.08)/(-31.95)
Ø3-4= 790 25’
Therefore, the Bearing is S 790 25’ W
ASSIGNMENT
Length and bearing of one side unknown or missing.
Line Distance Azimuth Latitude Departure

(m) from
North
1-2 453.73m. 1120 06’
2-3 486.08m 1780 50’
3-4 398.27m 2900 30’
4-5 Unknown Unknown
5-1 400.15m 750 42’
2. Omitted Measurements Involving Two Adjoining Sides
1st Case :Length of One Side and Bearing of Another

Side Unknown
2nd Case :Lengths of Two Sides Unknown
3rd Case :Bearings of Two Sides Unknown

2. Omitted Measurements Involving Two Adjoining Sides
1st Case :Length of One Side and Bearing of Another Side Unknown
Redrawn from the first figure is the triangle CDE which contains the missing quantites.
By simple geometry, the angle at station C can be computed from the known bearings of
sides CD and CE. And since one angle and the lengths of two sides of the triangle are already
known, the sine law may be used to find the angle at D. Thus
By Sine Law
and
Sin D =
With the above equation the angle at D can be determined,
thus giving two of the three angles of triangle CDE. Angle E
equals 1800 – (⪦C + ⪦ D) and the length of side CD can be
determined by sine law or
=
and
CD =
Omitted Measurements Involving Two Adjoining Sides
For this particular case, however, if the angle

between the side of unknown bearing and the side of
unknown length is close to 90 0 the solution may be very
weak and will yield unsatisfactory answers. This is
because the value of the sine near 900 changes very
slowly and a small variation in the calculated values can
cause a relatively large error in the angle calculated by
the sine law.
Example of Omitted Measurements:
Length of one side and bearing of another side unknown or missing.
Line Length Bearing Latitudes Departures
+N -S +E -S
AB 1,084.32 m S75048’E 265.99 1,051.19
BC 1,590.51 m S15018’W 1,534.14 419.69
CD 1,294.74 m S68006’W 482.92 1,201.31
DE Unknown N28039’W -------------- -----------
EA 1,738.96 m Unknown --------------
Sums 0.00 -2,283.05 1,051.19 -1,621.00

Solution.
Determining Length and Bearing of the Closing Line
CL = ƩNL + ƩSL CL = 0.00 + (-2,283.05) = -2,283.05 m

CD = ƩED + ƩWD CD = +1,051.19 + (-1,621.00) = -569.81 m
LD-A =
LD-A =
LD-A =2,353.08 m
Tan Ø= -Cd/-Cl
Tan Ø= -(-569.81)/-(-2,283.05)
ØD-A= 140 01’
Therefore, the Bearing is N 140 01’ E
Determining Bearing of Line DE and Length of Line EA
⪦D = 28039’ + 14001’ = 42040’
By Sine Law:
=
and
Sin E =
Sin E = ⪦E = 66030’
Since the sum of the interior angle of ADE should be equal to 1800
⪦A = 1800 – ( ⪦D + ⪦E ) = 1800 – (42040’ + 66030’)
⪦A = 70050’
About station E:
𝜙 = 1800 – (⪦E + 28039’) = 1800 – (66030’ + 28039’)
𝜙 = 84051’ (Therefore, the bearing of

Line EA is N 840 51’E) Answer
By Sine Law:
=
DE =
DE =
DE = 2,423.62 m (Length of Line DE) Answer

THAT’S ALL FOR NOW FOLKS!!!
2nd Case :Lengths of Two Sides Unknown
In the figure below, the lengths of sides BC and CD are unknown quantities. Since the latitudes and
departures of sides AB,DE, EF and FA can be computed and summed, the length and bearing of the closing line BD
may in turn be determined. It can be seen in triangle BCD that the bearings of all three sides are known as is the
length of line BD, thus, the unknown quantities may then be determined by the sine law,
Isolate triangle BCD
By Sine Law
= = and BC = CD =
PROBLEM SET 1. Example of Omitted Measurements:
Line Distance Bearing Latitude Departure

(m)
1-2 413.60 m. N 090 30’ W
2-3 304.38 m. N 550 06’ E
3-4 407.21 m. S 570 35’ E
4-5 Unknown S 040 05’ E
5-1 649.63 m. Unknown
PROBLEM SET 2. Example of Omitted Measurements:
Bearings of two sides Unknown
Line Distance Bearing Latitude Departure

(m)
1-2 1081.35 S 730 47’ E
2-3 1589.50 S 150 14’ W
3-4 1293.72 S 670 07’ W
4-5 2506.94 Unknown
5-1 1737.98 Unknown
QUIZ No. 4. Given the following data for a closed traverse in which the lengths of BC and CD have not been measured in the field.
Plot the traverse and determine these unknown quantities.
Line Length Bearing
AB 639.32 m N09030’W
BC Unknown N56055’W
CD Unknown S56013’W
DE 570.53 m S02002’E
EA 1,082.71 m S89031’E
Tabulation:
Line Length Bearing Latitudes Departures
+N -S +E -S
AB 639.32 m N09030’W 630.55 105.52
BC Unknown N56055’W
CD Unknown S56013’W
DE 570.53 m S02002’E 570.17 20.24
EA 1,082.71 S89031’E 9.13 1,082.67

m
Sums 630.55 -579.30 +1,102.91 -105.52
Example: Given the following sketch and tabulated data for a closed traverse in which the lengths
of BC and CD have not been measured in the field. Determine these unknown quantities.
Solution.
Determining Length and Bearing of the Closing Line
CL = ƩNL + ƩSL CL = 630.55 + (-579.30) = 51.25 m

CD = ƩED + ƩWD CD = 1,102.91 + (-105.52) = 997.39 m
LD-B = LD-B = LD-B =998.71 m

Tan Ø= -Cd/-Cl
Tan Ø= -(997.39)/-(51.25)
ØD-B= 870 04’
Therefore, the Bearing of the Closing Line D-B is S 870 04’ W
Determining the Length of Lines BC and CD
Solution:
⪦B = 1800 – (87004’ + 56055’) = 36001’

⪦C = 56013’ + 56055’ = 113008’
⪦D = 87004’ – 56013’ = 30051’
Sum = 180000’
(Checks)
By Sine Law
= =
= =
BC = CD =
BC = = 556.91 m (Length of BC) Answer
CD = = 638.61 m (Length of CD) Answer

This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under
CC BY-NC-ND
Lot Data / Area Computations
Different methods in Lot

Area Computations
Lot Area Computations
Area by Triangles.
The triangle method is a useful and fairly
accurate method of computing the area of traverses
that have only a few sides.
This method is well suited for determining areas
of small tracts of land and was popularly used
before the engineer’s transit was invented.
Area By Triangles
1.Known Base and Altitude. The area of
a triangle whose base and altitude are
known or measured may be computed by
the following formula
A = ½ (b)(h)
1.Known Base and Altitude
Where:
A = area of the tract of land (sq. m)
b = base or any side of the triangle (m)
h = altitude or the perpendicular distance from the corner
opposite the base (m)
2.Two Sides and included Angle Measured
When the lengths of two sides and the included angle of
any triangle are known, it’s area is given by the following
formula
A = ½ (a)(b) Sin 𝜙
3.Three Sides Measured.
The area of a triangle whose three sides are

known can be computed by the formula
A=
3.Three Sides Measured.
Where :
A = area of the tract of land (sq. m)
S = one half of the perimeter or (1/2)(a + b + c)
The area of any field in the shape of a geometric figure can be found
by dividing it into a series of triangles. When the sides or diagonals are
measured, the area of the triangles are computed separately by the usual
mathematical formulas given above. The area of the field is then taken as
the sum of the areas of the triangles into which the field is divided.
However, this method is limited to figures that are bounded by straight
lines.
Example 1.
The sides of triangle ABC were
measured as follows: AB= 129.26 m.,
BC= 258.73 m., and AC= 211.25 m.
Find the area in Square meters and in
Hectares
Solution.
1st solution: (Using Hero’s Formula)
S = (1/2)(AB + BC + AC)
S = (1/2)(129.26 + 258.73 + 211.25) = 299.62 m.
A=
A=
A= 13,580.95 sq. m or 1.358 Ha.

Solution.
2nd Solution (By Applying the Cosine Law)
(AB)2 = (AC)2 + (BC)2 – 2(AC)(BC)Cos C
Cos C =
Cos C = = 0.8677765
C = 290 47’ 55”
Solution
A = ½ (AC)(BC) Sin C
A = ½ (211.25)(258.73) Sin 290 47’ 55”
A = 13,580.95 sq. m or 1.358 Ha
Example 2.
Area by Triangles. Given in the accompanying tabulation are quantities which were measured for a five-sided
field. If the length of AB is 268.70 m, determine the area of the field in square meters.
Angle Observed
Value
𝜙1 960 30’
𝜙2 300 30’
𝜙3 530 00’
𝜙4 570 15’
𝜙5 780 23’
𝜙6 440 22’
𝜙7 640 40’
𝜙8 870 10’
Figure:
Solution:
a.Determining Length of sides by Sine Law.

=
BE = =
BE = 334.29 m ( Length of line BE)
=
CE = =
CE = 287.03 m (Length of line CE)
=
DE = =
DE = 259.74 m ( Length of line DE)
b.Calculating Area by Triangles.
Aabe = (1/2) (AB) (BE) Sin 𝜙2 = (1/2)(268.70)(334.29) Sin (30030’)

Aabe = 22,794.49 sq. m. (Area of triangle ABE)
Abce = (1/2) (BE) (CE) Sin 𝜙6 = (1/2)(334.29)(287.03) Sin (44022’)

Abce = 33,546.84 sq. m. (Area of triangle BCE)
Acde = (1/2) (CE) (DE) Sin 𝜙9 =(1/2)287.03)(259.74) Sin(28010’)

Acde = 17,595.96 sq. m (Area of triangle CDE)
c.Determining the Total Area.
AT = Aabe + Abce + Acde
AT = 22,794.49 + 33,546.84 + 17,595.96
AT = 73,937.29 sq m. Total area of the five sided field

ABCDE) Answer.
Seatwork.
A Field Engineer sets up the Engineer’s Transit
at Point P which is located in the middle portion of
a four-sided tract of land and gathered the following
field data: Line Bearing Distance
PA N 410 30’ W 410.52 m.
PB N 380 10’ E 532.18 m.
PC S 700 20’ E 450.75 m.
PD S 600 15’ W 590.08 m.
Find the area of the tract of land in square meters.

Area Computations
2. Area by coordinates:
Area of ABCD= │ │
where x1 x2 x3 etc. are the x-coordinates

y1 y2 y3 etc. are the y-coordinates
Example. Area by Coordinates
Given the following adjusted latitudes and departures of a closed traverse,
determine the area by coordinate method. Assume that the origin of the coordinate
system passes thru station 1.
Line Adjusted Latitude Adjusted Departure

N(+) S(-) E(+) W(-)
1-2 490.71 47.27
2-3 587.12 608.89
3-4 327.41 786.78
4-5 1002.76 218.32
5-6 122.67 1116.62
6-1 375.01 544.64
Sum 1452.84 1452.84 1661.26 1661.26
Solution.
A) Determining Coordinates of each station.
Total Latitudes (Y)
0.00 (Sta 1)
+ 490.71 (Lat of Line 1-2)
490.71 (Sta 2)
+587.12 (Lat of Line 2-3)
1077.83 (Sta 3)
- 327.41 (Lat of line 3-4)
750.42 (Sta 4)
-1002.76 (Lat of line 4-5)
- 252.34 (Sta 5)
- 122.67 (Lat of line 5-6)
-375.01 (Sta 6)
+375.01 (Lat of line 6-1)
0.00 (Sta 1)
Solution.
A) Determining Coordinates of each station.
Total Departures (X)
0.00 (Sta 1)
+ 47.27 (Dep of Line 1-2)
47.27 (Sta 2)
+608.89 (Dep of Line 2-3)
656.16 (Sta 3)
+ 786.78 (Dep of line 3-4)
+ 1442.94 (Sta 4)
+ 218.32 (Dep of line 4-5)
1661.26 (Sta 5)
- 1116.62 (Dep of line 5-6)
544.64 (Sta 6)
-544.64 (Dep of line 6-1)
0.00 (Sta 1)
Solution
B)Calculating the Double Areas:
Plus Double Areas
0.00 ( 490.71) = 0.00
47.27 ( 1077.83) = 50,949.02
656.16 ( 750.42 ) = 492,395.59
544.64 (0.00) = 0.00
252.34 ( 544.64) = 137,434.46
Total Plus Double Areas = + 680,779.07
Solution
Minus Double Areas
1442.94 ( 252.34) = 364,111.48
1661.26 (375.01) = 622,989.11
0.00 ( 47.27) = 0.00
490.71 ( 656.16) = 321,984.27
1077.83 ( 1442.94) = 1,555,244.02
750.42 ( 1661.26) = 1,246,642.73
375.01 ( 0.00) = 0.00
Total Minus Double Areas = -4,110,971.61
Tabulated Solution
Sta Coordinates Double Areas
Total Lat (y) Total Dep (x) Plus Areas Minus Areas
(+) (-)
1 0.00 0.00 0.00 364,111.48
2 490.71 47.27 50,949.02 622,989.11
3 1077.83 656.16 492,395.59 0.00
4 750.42 1442.94 0.00 321,984.27
5 -252.34 1661.26 137,434.46 1,555,244.02
6 -375.01 544.64 1,246,642.73
1 0.00 0.00 0.00
Sum +680,779.07 -4,110,971.61
Calculating the Area of the Traverse
Sum of Double Areas= Total Plus Double Areas + Total Minus Double Areas
2A = +680,779.07 + (-4,110,971.61)
2A = -3,430,192.54
A = -3,430,192.54/2
A = -1,715,096.27 sq. m. (The negative sign is
disregarded)
Seatwork
Given the following notes for a closed traverse.
Coordinates of station A = 250m total latitude; 300.00 total departure. Compute the
Area by Coordinate Method.
Line Adjusted Latitude Adjusted Departure
N (+) S (-) E (+) W (-)
AB 352.00 395.60
BC 23.40 591.60
CD 558.20 78.30
DE 102.50 746.30
EA 285.30 319.20
Sum +660.70 -660.70 + 1065.50 - 1065.50

Land Area Computations
AREA BY DOUBLE MERIDIAN DISTANCE(DMD)

Area by Double Meridian Distance (DMD)
The meridian distance of a line is defined as the shortest

distance from the midpoint of the line to the reference meridian.
Meridian distances east of the reference meridian are
considered to be positive, and those west of the meridian,
negative.
The double meridian distance of a line is the meridian
distance of the line multiplied by two.
Double Meridian Distance (DMD) are used in computing the
area of a field enclosed by a traverse
Rules for the Computation of Areas by DMD.
Rule 1. The DMD of the first course is equal to the departure of

the course.
Rule 2. The DMD of any other course is equal to the DMD of
the preceding course, plus the departure of the preceding
course, plus the departure of the course itself.
Rule 3. The DMD of the last course is numerically equal to

the departure of that course, but with opposite sign
Compute the Area by DMD
Course Adjusted Latitude Adjusted Departure
North(+) South(-) East(+) West(-)
A-B 558.25 78.34
B-C 102.58 746.38
C-D 285.33 319.24
D-E 352.05 395.68
E-A 23.45 591.60
Sum +660.83 -660.83 +1065.62 -1065.62

Solution.
DMD of Line AB = Dep of Line AB = +78.34
DMD of Line BC = DMD of AB + Dep of AB + Dep of BC
DMD of Line BC = 78.34 + 78.34 + (-746.38) = -589.70
DMD of Line CD = DMD of BC + Dep of BC + Dep of CD
DMD of Line CD = (-589.70) + (-746.38) + (-319.24) = -1,655.32
DMD of Line DE = DMD of CD + Dep of CD + Dep of DE
DMD of Line DE = (-1,655.32) + (-319.24) + 395.68 = - 1,578.88
DMD of Line EA = DMD of DE + Dep of DE + Dep of EA
DMD of Line EA = (- 1,578.88) + 395.68 + 591.60 = -591.60
Solution
Computation of Double Area
Double Area = DMD of Line x Latitude of Line
2A= [(78.34) x (- 558.25)] + [(-589.70) x (-102.58)]
+ [(-1,655.32) x (285.33)] + [(-1,578.88) x (352.05)]
+ [(-591.60) x (23.45)]
2A = - 1,025,272.06
A = - 1,025,272.06/2
A = -512,636.03 sq. m. (disregard the negative
Tabulated Solution
Cours Adjusted Latitude DMD Double Area
e
North(+) South(-)
A-B 558.25 78.34 -43,733.31
B-C 102.58 -589.70 60,491.43
C-D 285.33 -1,655.32 -472,312.46
D-E 352.05 -1,578.88 -555,844.70
E-A 23.45 -951.60 -13,873.02
Sum -1,025,272.06
Area Computations
4. Area by Double Parallel Distance (DPD)
Rule 1. The DPD of the first course is equal to the

latitude of the course.
Rule 2. The DPD of any other course is equal to
the DPD of the preceding course, plus the latitude of
the preceding course, plus the latitude of the course
itself.
Rule 3. The DPD of the last course is numerically
equal to the latitude of that course, but with opposite
sign
Assignment:
In the accompanying tabulations are the adjusted latitudes
and departures of a field traverse. Find the area by DMD and DPD
Course Adjusted Latitude Adjusted Departure
North ( + ) South ( - ) East ( + ) West ( - )
1-2 281.28 281.06
2-3 168.75 449.32
3-4 337.56 281.22
4-5 112.50 450.66
5-6 450.03 225.08
6-1 450.06 335.86
Sum +900.09 -900.09 +1,011.60 - 1,011.60
Area Computations
Methods of Determining Area:
1. Area by Triangles
i. A= ½ bh (known base & altitude)
ii. A= ½ bc Sine Ø (two sides & included angle
known)
iii. A=
where s=1/2 (a + b + c)
( three sides known)
Compute the Area by DPD
Course Adjusted Latitude Adjusted Departure DPD 2A
(DPD x Dep)
North(+) South(-) East(+) West(-)
A-B 558.25 78.34
B-C 102.58 746.38
C-D 285.33 319.24
D-E 352.05 395.68
E-A 23.45 591.60
Sum +660.83 -660.83 +1065.62 -1065.62

Stadia Interval Factor
The stadia interval factor (K) of surveying

instruments is usually 100. Should there be a
need, however, to determine the stadia interval
factor, a straight line about 100 to 120 meters
long is laid off on the ground. The selected site
should be preferably be nearly level as
practicable. The instrument is set up on one end
of this line.
Typical Instrument Set up for Stadia Interval
Factor
Example 1. Determine the stadia interval factor of
the instrument. Assume that the stadia constant is
zero
Point Distance from Stadia Hair Readings d=Ks + C, K=d/s where C=0
instrument to
Upper (m) Lower (m)
Rod (m)
a 30 0.96 0.66
b 45 1.10 0.64
c 60 1.21 0.60
d 75 1.35 0.58
e 90 1.47 0.56
f 105 1.57 0.53

TOPOGRAPHIC SURVEYS
-The configuration or shape and

roughness of the ground.
-A survey executed to show the

exact shape or elevation of
different points on the ground.
Example of Topographic Survey Output
TOPOGRAPHIC SURVEYS
Topographic Map- is a representation of
the earth’s surface in the three
dimensions.
-same features as a planimetric map
and in addition indicates relief, usually
by means of contours which is its
distinguishing characteristics
Example of Topographic Map
CONTOUR
-An outline especially of a curving
or irregular shape of the ground.
- Contours are shown on maps as

the traces of level surfaces of
different elevations
CONTOUR LINES
method of quantitatively
-
representing hills, mountains,

depressions and ground surface
undulations on a two-dimensional
sheet of paper
An example of Contour Lines
Contour Interval for Different Map
Scales
Scale Interval Scale Interval
1/500 0.5 m 1/25000 10 m
1/2000 1m 1/50000 20 m
1/5000 2m 1/100000 25 m
1/10000 5 m or 10 1/250000 50 m
m
CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTOURS
1. All points on any one

contour have the same
elevation.
2.Every contour closes on

itself, either within or
beyond the limits of the
map.
3. A contour which closes

within the limits of the map
indicates either a summit or
depression.
4. Contours on the ground cannot

cross one another except where an
overhanging cliff, a vertical ledge or
wall is represented on the map.
5. Contours are spaced evenly

on a uniform slope.
6. Contours are straight and

parallel to each other on a
plane surface.
7. Irregular contours signify

rough, rugged terrain.
8. The horizontal distance between

adjacent contours indicates the
steepness of the slope of the ground.
Where contours are relatively close
together, the slope is comparatively
steep; where the contours are far apart,
the slope is gentle.
9. Contours cross curbs and a

crowned sloping street in
typical U-shaped curves.
10. As a contour approaches a stream, the

contour turns upstream until it intersects the
shoreline. It then crosses the stream at right
angles to the center of the bed, and turns
back along the opposite bank of the stream.
If the stream has an appreciable width, the
contours are not drawn across the stream but
are discontinued at the shore, with which it
merges.
Plotting of Contour lines
The following tabulation gives elevations of points over the area of a 100 m by 100 m
agricultural lot. The elevations were obtained by the checkerboard method using 20 m
squares. Point A-1 is at the southwest corner of the lot while F-1 is at northwest corner.
Plot the contours using any convenient scale having a contour interval of 2 m.
Points Elevation in meters
1 2 3 4 5 6
A 343.9 348 348.5 349.4 347.3 342.2
B 347.6 352 354.3 353.2 348.2 339.3
C 348.4 354.3 356.7 354.5 348.7 338.3
D 347.6 355.6 358 355.2 351 349.5
E 348.5 354 358.4 358.7 358.1 357.9
F 349.2 354.6 359.3 362.2 363.3 362.8

Horizontal Control Surveys
These are surveys over

extensive areas of generally
established latitudes and
longitudes of stations.
Procedures in Establishing Horizontal
Control
1. Control by traversing- series of
horizontal distances and directions
observed to connect points whose
positions are to be determined.
Control
2. Control by triangulation-consists of
networks of geometric figures with
almost all of the angles measured
directly in the field with relatively few
sides measured.
Control
3. Control by trilateration- the lengths
of the sides of a series of triangles are
measured and the angles are computed
from the lengths.
Horizontal Curves (Circular Curve)
KINDS OF CIRCULAR CURVES
1. Simple Curve-to have or take a turn, change
or deviation from a straight line or plane
surface without sharp breaks or angularity in
a road construction
ELEMENTS OF A SIMPLE CURVE
1. V (vertex)- the point

of intersection of two
intersecting tangents
Elements of a Simple Curve
2.PC (Point of Curvature)- the

point of tangency where the curve
leaves the tangent.
3.PT (Point of Tangency)-the point

where the curve meets the other
tangent
4.T (Tangent distance)- the

distance from the vertex to the PC
or from the vertex to the PT
4.1Back tangent- where the PC
is located
4.2Forward tangent-where the
PT is located
5. I (angle of Intersection)- either the

deflection angle of the forward tangent
or the central angle subtending the
simple curve.
6.R –radius of the curve
7.E (External distance)- the

distance from the vertex to the
midpoint of the circular curve
8.C (Chord distance)-the long chord

drawn from the PC to PT
9.M (Middle ordinate)-the distance

from the midpoint of the long chord
to the midpoint of the circular curve
Horizontal Curves (Circular Curve)
10.D (Degree of curve)

10.1 By Arc basis- the central angle
subtending a standard arc (a) of 20 meters
10.2 By Chord basis-the central angle
subtending a standard chord of 20 meters
11. LCu (Length of Curve)-the

length of the circular curve
from the PC to the PT
Common formula of Simple Curve
1.) T = R tan I/2 5.) R= 1145.916 / D
2.) E = R ( sec I/2 – 1 ) 6.) Lcu = 20 I / D
3.) M = R ( 1 – cos I/2 )
4.) C = 2 R sin I/2

Ex 1 . It is required to lay a simple curve along the
stretch of a road construction. An Engineers transit
was set at Sta. V and an azimuth from south was
sighted at Sta PC which reads 570 35’. Another sight
was taken at Sta PT with a reading of 275 0+ 30’. If the
distance from PC to V is 126.50 m, find:
a. intersection angle f. Sta of PC, if V is at 10 + 525
b. radius of the curve g. Sta. of PT
c. external distance
d. middle ordinate
e. length of the curve
Miscellaneous Points on the Simple Curve
1.) Deflection angle of a point- the angle formed

by the chord drawn from a point of tangency to
the point
Deflection angle of a point
2.Compound Curve- a curve

formed by two simple curves
following one another and
lying upon the same side of a
common tangent.
Compound Curve
All the elements of a compound
curve is the same as that of a
simple curve. The only additional
element is the PCC (Point of
Compound Curve)
3.Reversed Curve- is formed

by two circular simple curves
having a common tangent but
lies on opposite sides.
4. Spiral Curve- a simple circular

path of a point in a plane moving
around a central point while
continuously receding from or
approaching it.

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Fundamentals of Surveying 1

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Fundamentals Of

9. Measurement of Directions and Angles

locating property lines, fixing reference monuments

10. Topographic Surveys

Pace is defined as the length of a step in walking. It may

Pace Factor is the determination of a constant or getting the

Pace Factor (PF)= Length of line/Mean number

Along a 100 m. length in a fairly level ground, an

Solving for the Pace Factor (PF)

PD = 0.735 m/p * 76.50 paces

A Surveyor counted his number of

Solve for the Paced Distance PD.

This is another procedure in obtaining horizontal distance.

A stadia rod held at a distant point B is

Subtense Bar Method.

The following subtended angles were read on a

Taping is the process of directly measuring distances with

Rear Tapeman-his duty is to assist the head tapeman during

1. Slope Taping ( Slope Correction)

A line ABC is measured on the slope in two

Solve for dAB and dBC

Solve for the inclined angle at point A

“ tape too long “ term when the tape has

The correction applied to the length of the tape due to

When MEASURING, the

A 50 m. steel tape is used to measure a line

a). Temperature correction per tape length.

c). Correct length of line = Measured line Ct

A steel tape is used in laying out a

Using the formula

Two points, A and B have an elevation of 24.35 meters and

The difference in elevation of two points on the ground is

Sag- to bend or hang down in the middle especially

The correction due to sag is the difference in length

A 30 m. tape is supported only at

Given: 30 m (nominal length)

Leveling-is the process of

1.Level Surface- is a curved surface which is

1. Direct or Spirit Leveling-is the commonly

3.Profile Leveling-is the process of

5.Trigonometric Leveling-also called

1. Bench Mark (BM)- is a fixed point of reference

HI= Elev BMa + BS

A back sight of 1.725 m. was taken at a

BMa 2.08 35.75m

TP1 2.02 0.98

TP2 1.86 1.43

TP3 0.58 1.53

TP4 0.42 2.42

TP5 1.45 1.81

Project Site 1.73

HI1 = Elev. BM + BS1 = 35.75 + 2.08 = 37.83

HI4 = Elev. TP3 + BS4 = 37.77 + 0.58 = 38.35

BMa 2.08 37.83 35.75m

TP1 2.02 38.87 0.98 36.85

TP2 1.86 39.30 1.43 37.44

TP3 0.58 38.35 1.53 37.77

TP4 0.42 36.35 2.42 35.93

TP5 1.45 35.99 1.81 34.54

Project Site 1.73 34.26

Elev Project Site = Elev BM + ∑BS - ∑FS

34.26 35.75 + 8.41 – 9.90

BMa 1.25 50.00 m

TP1 1.42 0.98