Gravity Flow Water Supply System

Training Manual
On
Gravity Flow Water Supply
System Designing
Bhamo, Kachin
Myanmar
Prepared by: Dhruva Majagaiyan

September, 2015
Table of Content
Gravity Flow Water Supply System 1
1. Understanding to gravity water supply system 1
2. Components of gravity water supply system 2
3. Engineering survey for water supply system 14

3.1. Methods of leveling 14
3.2. Leveling instruments 15
3.3. Leveling with the abney level and recording the survey data 17
3.4. Close check and accuracy limits 17
3.5. Survey data plotting and presentation 18
4. Hydraulic Theory and Pipe Line design 18

4.1. Some Definitions 18
i. Static Pressure Head 18
ii. Head Loss 18
iii. Frictional head loss Factor 19
iv. Residual Head 19
v. Hydraulic Grade Line (HGL) 19
5. Engineering design, estimate and system optimization 21

5.1. Engineering design and estimate 21
5.2. System optimization among alternate options 21
6. Design Example: 23
Step -1: Population forecasting: 23
Step -2: Demand Calculation: 23
Step -3: Capacity of Reservoir tank determination: 24
Step -4: Hydraulic design (Pipe line design): 25
Annexes 30
Annex 1. Head loss Charts for HDPE Pipe
Annex 2. Head Loss Charts for GI pipes
Annex 3. Design Calculation using pre-designed calculation format in Excel
Gravity Flow Water Supply System
1. Understanding to gravity water supply system

It is the system of water supply in which water flow under gravity without use of any external energy
to deliver water from source to the tap stand. The system is most appropriate for the rural sloppy terrain
of Myanmar where the source is usually situated at the uphill and community is at far down. In gravity
water supply system, the water could be supplied to community with the use of reservoir tanks or
without it, technically we call these as: CLOSED system and OPEN system respectively.
A system is designated as an open system when the total design demand (tap flow) of community could
be met by the safe yield of the source confirming no need of further storage. So an open type water
supply system runs for twenty-four hours without use of any faucets at the tap stand. These systems
could be designed for the maximum dynamic pressure on the system.
When the safe yield of the source/s for a system is insufficient (or less than the required design demand
tap flow) to meet the peak water demand showing the need of storage, then the system is called a closed
system. The storage tank is provided to store the supply from source in no use period of taps. In this
kind of system the available water is kept back from going waste by provision of faucets. These systems
need to be designed for the maximum static pressure on the system.
Comparision of the Open and Closed Systems:
S.N. Open System Closed System
1. Q Source ≥ Peak daily design demand (l/d) Q Source ≥ average daily design demand (l/d)
2. Q Source = 45 lt/capita Q Source = 45 lt/capita
3. No reservoir required. Reservoir required.
4. No faucet and values. Required faucet and valves.
5. Greater Environmental Impacts and drainage Less Environmental Impacts and no
problem. drainage problem.
- deny water to previous users
- water logging
- soil erosion
6. Less wear/tear of valves & fittings and Probably more wear & tear of valves &
fittings and more operation cost.
less operation cost.
Based on the operating system, the closed system can be divided in i) continuous and ii) intermittent
type. The water supply system which is designed to supply the water throughout the day (24 hrs) is
known as continuous type system. Whereas, if the system has been designed to supply the water in the
interval of time, like morning/day/evening shifts, that is known as intermittent type system. It is most
preferred to adopt the continuous type system design as it has the advantage of 24 hrs water accessibility
to the community and no chances of back pressure formation in the pipeline pipes which tends to
prevent from the contamination of water in the pipeline. The uses of excess water, leakage in pipeline
and open faucet are strictly prohibited in continuous type supply.
Dhruva Majagaiyan September 2015

WASH sub cluster Kachin and NSS
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GFWSS
Open Closed
system System
Continuous
System
Intermittent
2. Components of gravity water supply system

a. Intake:
In a gravity flow water supply system, an intake is the structure which collects water from the water
source and feeds to transmission pipe. The sources could be springs, spring fed stream, stream or river.
However, the more common water sources are spring, spring fed stream and stream. The type of intake
depends upon the types of source from which water is tapped. For example if the source is spring the
intake constructed (to tap water) is called spring intake.
The intakes are site specific in designs. Several alternate designs are possible for the intake. Further,
special care should be taken while selecting the site for intake construction few among which are:
Intake should be:
built on stable soil (i.e., resistance to erosion and landslides).
built so that no possibility of contamination of the source.
easily accessible for regular inspection, cleaning, operation and maintenance.
built at the section of maximum water availability from the source.
built as site specific.
Spring Intake:
The intake constructed to capture the spring water is called spring intake. The following considerations
should be taken while locating spring intake:
Spring intake location should be:
• close to the source as far as possible
• above the community settlement or farming area so as to reduce contamination.

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• far from and above foot path, cattle watering and laundry washing places so that the spring
is not easily accessible to people and livestock.
• at the places free from ponding possibility.
• at such geography that surface runoff water can be prevented from entering into it.
• at the geologically stable areas.

Following factors should be considered while constructing the intake;
• Actual water spout of spring should be identified before the intake construction is started.
• Flow should be measured before constructing the intake.
• Spring should not be disturbed much to give long life to spring so do not exacavate more.
• To prevent the leakage, no pervious soling should be provided at the base.
• There should be the provision of overflow weir/pipe and washout pipe.
• The intake out let should have provision of strainer
• Proper drainage should be provided around the source to prevent the source contamination
and intake physical damage by the runoff water.
Stream and River Intake:
The intake constructed to capture the stream/river water is called stream/river intake. The following
considerations should be taken while locating such intake.
Stream intake should be located:
• on the stable base extending to some distance in upstream and the down stream.
• far from landslides and other geologically unstable zones.
• free from contamination and preferably upstream of community, farming areas, foot path,
bridge, cattle watering and laundry washing places.
• Such that if the intake location is below community and, farming and grazing lands, the
contaminants produced there should not enter to the intake constructed.
• preferably behind the big rock to prevent damage from the flood.
• at the outer side of a river bend for minimum sediment concentration.
In addition, the following points should be kept in mind while designing and constructing a stream
intake:
• Intake should be surmerged, under the riverbed, perpendicular to the river axis not
extending to whole width of river as far as possible. This stops surface flow entering into
the transmission line.
• Height of intake dam should be low as far as possible not to disturb main flow and for long
life of the intake dam.
• There should be provision of strainer and other filter medias just upstream of the intake dam
• Pipe diameter between intake and collection chamber shall be at least of 50 mm or two size
greater than transmission line size whichever is larger. This prevent clogging of pipe with
sediment during monsoon.
• There should be the provision of multiple inflow points to permit flexible intake operation
if the stream water level varies considerably,

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• There should be provision of openings facing downstream or parallel to the stream flow to
minimize entry of floating debris during floods.
Infiltration Galleries:
The underground tunnels or single and double row of perforated pipes or dry masonry channels used
for tapping underground water near streams or rivers are called "Infiltration Galleries". Such galleries
could extend horizontally such as in the form of perforated tunnel or vertically such as in the form of
sump wells. In rural water supply projects, the infiltration galleries are used for tapping subsurface flow
in river beds having a minimum of 3 m aquifer below the minimum water level. The galleries are
suitable mostly along the foothills and it's location should be at a point where stream does not change
direction and water is available throughout the year. In hills of Myanmar, the infiltration galleries are
least recommended as most streams are steep and with thin sandy bank. Infiltration galleries should be
supported with leakproof chamber from which water directs to collection chamber or nearby another
structure. Nowadays, joint infiltration galleries and submerged stream intakes are constructed to tap
water from seasonal type streams.
b. Collection Chamber (CC):
The purposes of collection chamber (CC) are to: collect water from more than one water sources, settle
course materials and remove floating matter like leaves as well. Also in case, if the intake could not be
constructed at the safe place, CC is provided at the safe place for long life of itself and collection
downward system components. Construction of CC with provision of minimum of 5 m static head can
avoid backflow if multiple sources are tapped. The outlet capacity (i.e. drainage capacity) of CC must
be equal to or greater than the maximum flow capacity of the pipe line between intake and CC to avoid
overflow from it. It should be have provision for inlet, outlet, overflow and washout mechanisms.
c. Interruption Chamber (IC) and Break Pressure Tank (BPT):
The function of interruption chamber is to break the static pressure if pipeline exceeds its maximum
pressure rating to save the pipe from a brust. Generally ICs are provided in a transmission line and is
always without a float valve. The function of break pressure tank (BPT) is similar to that of IC but is
provided in distribution line. Both of these components allow the flow to discharge into the open
atmosphere thereby reducing its hydrostatic pressure to zero, and establishing a new static level.
Strategic placing of IC/BPTs can minimize the quantity of higher class HDPE pipe (PN 16) & GI pipes.
These are provided usually if maximum static pressure at pipe end exceeds pressure rating of pipe to
be provided down stream. For example if the inlet pipe is HDPE PN 10 (10 kg/cm2) then after 100 m
of vertical down IC/BPT should be provided. Alternatively, GI pipe (medium class) could also be used.
But if the static head exceeds 160 m then IC/BPT is required. However If there is U profiles zones in
the water system, IC or BPT could not be used.
While providing IC/BPT, due consideration should be given to maintain the desired residual pressures
at inlet of the dowstream structures. BPT has the provision of float valve to stop the wastage of water
through it which allow the water to be collected at upstream structure (for eg: at RVTs). Any open
vessel like storage tank, collection chamber, distribution chamber may act as BPT besides their original
purpose.
d. Distribution Chamber (DC):
Distribution chambers (DC) are provided to divide the flow. From the hydraulic point of view, it
provides an environment to distribute water with reasonable accuracy. Generally these chambers work
satisfactory up to a flow rate of 2 to 3 lps. By use of DC, designed separate average flows could be
supplied to multiple branches heading towards decentralized reservoirs (RVTs). For more accurate
distribution of flow, mouth Piece and gate valves are used at outlet of DC.

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e. Reservoir Tank (RVT):
The reservoir tanks are constructed to balance the variations of water demand in a day. The reservoir
tank serves to store water that is provided by the source during low demand periods, such as over night
period, for use during high demand periods such as in the early morning. In gravity flow water supply
schemes, the reservoirs are usually constructed either of stone masonry or ferrocement or RCC.
In case of difficulty in finding the stone and, if the sand and other construction materials are available
easily, a ferrocement reservoir tank would be proposed. It is cheaper than stone masonry reservoirs and
also it requires less contribution from community. Some important points related to RVT are:
• A scheme would be cheaper on providing RVT if there is long transmission main
(designed to carry the average flow).
• RVT should be located in average not more than 15 m above the community and not more
than 10 m above the top most tap.
• RVT site should be located on the lower edge of a terrace (near to community) to avoid
long pipelines carrying peak flows in flat terrain.
• RVT should be accessible at any time and should not be located within rice fields.
• RVT should be decentralized as far as possible (For eg: instead of building one big
reservoir, construction of several small reservoirs would be sustainable).
• RVT could be used as IC/BPTs whenever needed by slight modification in the construction.
The design reservoir size should be re-checked such that it gets just filled during the non-supply hours
(i.e. overnight within 10 hours). If the safe yield of the source cannot fill the reservoir during the non-
supply hours then it can not fulfill peakhour demand. In such case, adjustments to the water demand is
required.
Similarly, if the source is closer and the yield permits, it may be desirable to tap more flow than the
required average design demand. This will reduce the storage and hence lower the scheme cost without
much increase in transmission line cost. However care should be taken while tapping more water from
source.
The design should be looked for the economical aspect as follows.
If tapped flow > Design demand flow, then reservoir size is small and transmission pipe dia. is bigger.
It would be economical when transmission pipe line is shorter.
If flow tapped = Design demand flow, reservoir size is bigger. It would be economical if transmission
line is long.
f. Air valves :
Air valves serve three main purposes namely:
i. to release air from the pipeline during the pipeline filling process
ii. to release air from the pipeline during the normal operation of water supply
system.
iii. to prevent the development of vacuum in case a valve is closed upstream of
the air valve
These are placed usually at high point in the pipe line. For pipe diameter upto 110 mm, automatic
“orifice” type air valves with a minimum orifice opening of 2 mm diameter will be suitable. Orifice
type airvalves are either small orifice type or large orifice type. The small type allows to release air
slowly when pipeline is in its operating pressure. But large type is designed to release air rapidly at
beginning when pipeline is in filling process and to enter air during evacuating process. Since the main
function of air release valve is for start up process, large orifice air release valve is used in general. Air

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release valves are prone to malfunction and or water leakages. For this reason, air release valves must
be equipped with an isolating valve, preferably.
Air release could be obtained alternatively by following means as well:
by use of manual operated gate valves.
By connection of tapstands at high points
However it should be born in mind that such alternative devices are not “automatically” releasing the
air, but need to be operated manually on a routine basis.
Air release valves connected to pipelines with low velocities are not very efficient for the draw off
effect created by the air valve is too small.
g. Washouts:
In the course of operation of water supply system, suspended particles carried in the flow will tend to
settle down, particularly at low points in the pipeline or where the flows velocity drops below 0.6 m/s.
Such settled suspended particles should be washed out time to time for smooth operation of the system.
Though the CC, DC and RVTs usually allow most of these particles to settle, pipeline sections upstream
of the IC, DC and RVT do not benefit from these provisions. Further, IC do not allow any sedimentation
to occur, since flow through these are extremely turbulent. Therefore, in case of high sediment load,
sedimentation tank should be provided to reduce sediment load in the pipeline.
However, washout is provided additionally in the transmission main as a means of safety to clearoff
the pipeline with sediments regularly.
When opening a washout valve a sufficient flow velocity must be created to overcome the bond (shear
stress) between pipe wall and sediment. For this reason washout should have minimum available head
of 10 to 20 m without creating a vacuum at a high point. Washout is provided at the lowermost points
in the pipeline between two ups. Thus, in general a point 10 – 20 m below adjacent two high points
should be equipped with a washout. It is important not to forget to place a washout at the first lowest
point after the collection chamber.
The number of washouts in a system depends upon the type of source. Naturally a stream will have
more suspended particles than a spring, so the numbers of washouts.
The washout pipes should be of the same size as the pipeline at that point. Gate valves are most suitable
for washouts rather than the end caps.
h. Sectional valve chambers:
Sectional valve chamber is a simple chamber with flow controlling devices like gate/glove valves.
These are installed for two different reasons as:
• For repair: to enble the maintenance worker to shut off a part of a water supply system
• For rationing of water: in case of a severe drought or other operational problems which
necessitate water rationing
Generally, these structure are provided for dividing the flow into branches in the distribution main,
when there is more tapstands in the system. The sectional valve should be provided with glove valve to
stop emptying of down stream pipe.
In a long gravity pipelines, the sectional valve should be located at the interval of 2 to 3 km. Another
thumb rule for placing the sectional valve is to provide it for 3 to 5 tapstands. However, care should be
taken to ventilate the shut off part with air valves or tapstands to avoid the build up of vacuum. Thus,
whenever possible sectional valves should be combined with an air release valve or washout but the
sectional valve must be located upstream of these valves.

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i. Valve chamber :
It is the chamber constructed to safeguard the valves points. For example: tank inlet/outlets, air release
valve, washout valve,…etc should be kept inside chamber called valve chamber. So the valve chamber
could be air valve chamber, washout valve chamber, sectional valve chamber or valve chamber
concealing tank inlet/outlets. If more than one valves are required to be installed in the same valve
chamber, the chamber size should be increased accordingly. The minimum dimension of the valve
chamber is determined by the size of tools required to install or repair such a valve. Valve chambers for
sectional valves or washouts or air valve or chamber behind tap stand should have a permeable chamber
floor, which permit condensed or leakage water to percolate into the ground. They do not necessarily
require drainage although such a drainage may prove to be of advantage when repairing a valve. By all
means air valve chamber must be avoided to fill with water as, such water may enter the pipeline during
times of low pressure.
j. Sedimentation tanks:
Water from stream sources and large springs generally contains suspended particles, as the turbulence
of large flows can churn up clay, silt and even small piece of gravel. Such particles carried in the flow
can give the water a dirty and unhealthy taste and also scour the pipe surface. If water is allowed to stay
relatively quietly in tank for some time, most of these suspended particles sink and settledown to the
bottom of the tank. This process is called sedimentation accomplished in a specially designed tank
called sedimentation tank.
The sedimentation tanks should be provided for all systems using stream sources and for those spring
sources where the water is visibility dirty (high turbidity level). However, it should be well understood
that plain sedimentation is not able to remove all contaminations.
Standard ferrocement RVT can be appropriately modified to use as a sedimentation tank. However,
these tanks do not follow the design principle of plain sedimentation and do not have high efficiency
factor.
Depending on the catchment area (farming, forest) the river will have different level of turbidity. Further
turbidity varies with the seasons. Thus in addition to physical measurement of turbidity at the
river/stream should be supported by the villager’s interview.
Design of Sedimentation Tank:
Design Parameters
• Detention time assumed,
• Flow velocity in the pipeline and
• Type and size of particles in the water.
Detention Time (DT)
Duration that the water spends in the sedimentation tank to allow setting is called "Detention time".
This primarily depends upon the settling velocity of particle which further depend on type of the
particles in the water.
Settling velocity at the temperature of 10 degree centigrade
Particle type Particle size Settling velocity (cm/min)
Sand 2.5-.005 >15.6
Silt 0.05-0.005 15.6-.04
Clay 0.01-0.001 0.15-0.0015

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However, the recommended detention time (DT) are:
• 2 hours for rivers which carry coarse materials only and for pipe systems where the
computed flow velocities in the main pipes is above 1 m/s.
• 4 to 6 hours for rivers, which carry fine materials and for distribution systems where the
computed flow velocities in the main pipes is below 1 m/s.
However in general the 15-20 minute is taken as DT for system with RVT and 60 minute for system
without RVT.
Flow Velocity
The water velocity flowing through the tank should not exceed 0.50 cm/sec. Greater velocity may create
turbulent currents which hinder sedimentation process.
The velocity can calculated as follows,
V = (1000 * Q) / W * D
Where;
V = Velocity (cm/sec)
Q = Flow (lps)
W = Width of water path (cm)
D = Depth of water (cm)
Capacity :
The capacity of sedimentation tanks can be calculated as given below:
C=Q*T
Where,
C = Capacity in liters
Q = Flow in lps
T = Detention time in seconds
Tank Specification:
L/W ratio >= 4
Water depth = 0.75 to 1 m
Inlet and outlet configuration:
Flow should be distributed evenly across the tank through perforated pipe, which should be placed
between half the tank depth to surface of water. Out let should be at near to the surface of water. Gutter
type outlet would be better (half cut pipe). Wash out and overflow should be of at least 2” diameter GI
pipe.
Things to be kept in mind:
• Though these structures are rarely constructed in GFWSS schemes, sometimes are
unavoidable for river/stream sources where the turbidity level is quite high.
• It should be well understood that plain sedimentation is not able to remove all the
contaminants.
• Not all river intakes need to be equipped with a sedimentation tank.
• Depending on the catchment area (farming, forest) and season the river water acquire
different level of turbidity. Thus, villager’s interview in this regards is important.

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• Furthermore, in case of a water supply scheme utilizing more than one source, it would be
better to shut off the dirty source during the rainy season as the flow rate of the clean source
might be sufficient to meet the water demand during that time of a year.
k. Pipeline:
Pipe line is a medium to transfer the water from source to tapstand. Pipeline acquires the major part in
gravity flow rural water supply systems. Therefore special care should be taken while choosing pipeline
alignment, pipe size, materials and it's design. There are various types and sizes of pipes but mostly
high density polyethylene (HDPE) pipes are used in community water supply scheme in rural areas. In
rocky terrains, gully crossing and at high pressure, GI pipes and sometimes steel pipes are used.
The pipeline can be classified as :
a. Transmission main: The section of pipe line from source to reservoir.
b. Distribution main: The section of pipe line from reservoir to tapstands.
l. Pipe Crossing:
It is sometimes unavoidable to pipelines run through undesirable terrain such as across land slides, over
gullies or streams. In such case, a separate structure is constructed called pipe crossing.
If such crossing are short such as less than 12 meters in span, suitably anchored GI pipes will suffice.
These are Non suspended crossing. Narrow, deep gullies can be crossed by using above mechanism. GI
pipes in these case should be anchored in the banks of the gully. Narrow streams can be also crossed
similarly. However, additional attention must be paid to ensure that thestream banks directly below the
crossing point should be stable. For this, dry stone and gabion embankments are recommended.
For longer spans, where alternate layout of the pipeline is not possible and where water depth is
sufficiently high, it may be necessary to hang the pipe with the use of cables called suspended crossing.
The anchor points of such crossing must be on stable ground and the suspended pipeline must be high
enough to avoid possible damage by sliding or falling debris.
If the flow dies or goes minimum during the dry season HDPE pipeline could be buried sufficiently
below the ground/bed and anchored down using stone masonry or gabions or with any other means. We
call it as underbed crossing. Broader gullies should be crossed by HDPE pipe buried sufficiently below
the gully bed and anchored using stone masonry or gabions or with any other means.
Design of Suspended crossing:

Although there are many possible designs for a particular situation, there are certain fundamental
principles, which must be used, and each possible design contains several common characteristics:
• The suspended pipeline must be high enough not to be snagged by debris floating down the
stream at its maximum flood level, or by landslide rocks and boulders.
• The cable supporting the pipeline must be adequately anchored on stable ground at both
ends
• The suspended crossing must be nearly level (i.e., at the same elevations on either end)
• The cable supporting the pipeline must be strong enough to support the weight of itself, the
pipe, water in the pipe as well as the forces generated by wind and swaying;
• The pipe is securely fastened to the suspending cable, either by wire or clamps of some
sort.
The suspended pipe may be either of GI or HDPE, depending upon costs and availability of materials.
A HDPE pipe, however, will require a protective covering wrapped around it, as this pipe will
deteriorate quickly under exposure to sunlight, and within a few years would be likely to break.
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Typical drawing of suspended crossing is shown in the figure.
T T
S
β
θ θ Y
GL t t GL
Basic Calculation:
The main calculation described below lead to determination of the tension in the suspension, which
governs the size of the suspending cable, and design of the anchors at each end. It is generally assumed
that the weight in cable due to wind pressure is 25% of the total weight.
Wc = Weight of Cable per meter length (Kg/m)
Wp = Weight of Pipe per meter length (Kg/m)
Ww = Weight of Water in Pipe per meter length (Kg/m)
Wt = Total weight per meter length of crossing = Wc+Wp+Ww
W = Designed weight per meter length of crossing (including wind forces) =
Wt+25% of Wt
S = Length of Span (between two support in meter)
Y = Vertical sag of cable, generally 10% of the Span (S) in meters
L = Total length of cable including anchoring & sag in meters
t = Horizontal tension in cable at mid span (Kg)
T = Total tension in cable at support (Kg)
β = Angle of total tension (degrees)
Design of Cable
Step 1:
Determine Wc (from wire rope handbook or Table 1)
Determine Wp (from pipe specification table or Table 2, Use Highest Pressure pipe)
Determine Ww (from pipe specification table or Table 2, Use Lowest Pressure pipe)
Calculate W = 1.25Wt

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Step 2: Calculate the horizontal tension, t:
t = WS2 Kg.
8Y
Step 3: Calculate angle of tension β:
β = 4Y Degree
Tanβ
S
Step 4: Calculate the total tension, T:
T = 4t Kg (including safety factor 4)
Cosβ
Step 5: Compare the total tension, T, with the allowable tension of the selected cable. If the total
tension, T, is greater than allowable tension selected cable (refer Table 1) then repeat from step 1.
Step 6: Calculate the required length of cable, L:
L = S (1+8Y2) + Extra Length for Anchoring (m)
3S2
Design of Masonry Anchor Block
The weight of anchorage block should be sufficient to stop drag on it by tension in the cable. This is
possible only when the angle of suspended cable and anchor cable to the horizontal be equal.
β + TSinβ
P = TCosβ β (Kg)
µ
with above, calculate the weight of anchor required, P:
Where, µ is Soil Frictional Characteristics (Refer: Table 3, for Different value of µ)
Provide weight of anchor block of equal to 'P'. The required weight of anchor block can provided either
of fully masonry only or combination of standard masonry block (L = 0.8m, W = 0.8m & H = 0.4m)
with additional dry stone masonry.
Design of Masonry Supports
The masonry supports are subjected to compression. Therefore these supports are checked against
compression failure.
Calculate the compression, C:
β (Kg)
C = WS + T Sinβ
2
Allowable stress on cement stone masonry is 5 kg/Cm2 and for concrete block with 40% boulder is 15
kg/Cm2.

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T
β β
Dry Stone Masonry
T
h
Cable
Support x
Anchor Block
TABLE 1: Cable Characteristic:

S. Nominal Area of Approximate Approx. Permissible Nominal
SN Diameter Cable Unit Weight Weight Stress Breaking
(mm) (Sq. mm) (Kg/Cu m.) (Kg/m) (Kg/Sq. mm) Strength (Kg)
1 8 50.27 4850.00 0.24 67.00 3,368.0
2 10 78.54 4850.00 0.38 67.00 5,262.0
3 12 113.10 4850.00 0.55 67.00 7,578.0
4 13 132.73 4850.00 0.64 67.00 8,893.0
5 16 201.06 4850.00 0.98 67.00 13,471.0
6 26 530.93 4850.00 2.58 67.00 35,572.0
Source: SURVEY DESIGN & CONSTRUCTION OF TRAIL SUSPENDED BRIDGES (HELVETAS)

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TABLE 2: HDPE Pipe (available in market) Characteristic
SN Pipe size Weight of Lowest Inner Area of Weight Total
(mm) weight
Pipe Pressure diameter Water of Water
Flow (kg/m)
(Kg/m.) Available of pipe in Pipe
in Pipe
(Kg/Sq. (mm) (Kg/m.)
cm.) (Sq mm)
1 16 0.08 16 12.7 126.68 0.13 0.21
2 20 0.11 12.5 16.7 219.04 0.22 0.33
3 25 0.17 10 21.7 369.84 0.37 0.54
4 32 0.28 10 28.1 620.16 0.62 0.90
5 40 0.44 10 35.0 962.11 0.96 1.40
6 50 0.69 10 43.9 1513.63 1.51 2.20
7 63 1.10 10 55.2 2393.14 2.39 3.49
8 75 1.50 10 65.8 3400.49 3.40 4.90
9 90 2.20 10 79.0 4901.67 4.90 7.10
10 110 3.30 10 96.5 7313.82 7.31 10.61
11 125 4.30 10 109.9 9486.05 9.49 13.79
Source: LINK HDPE pipe and Fittings Pvt. Ltd. (Myanmar)
TABLE 3: Coefficient of Friction - µ

S. No. Surface of friction Coefficient of Friction
1 Masonry on moist clay 0.330
2 Masonry on dry clay 0.500
3 Masonry on sand 0.400
4 Masonry on gravel 0.600
5 Masonry on good rock 0.750
6 Cement Block on dry clay 0.200
7 Cement Block on sand 0.400
8 Cement Block on gravel 0.400
Source: CIVIL ENGINEERING HANDBOOK by P.N. Khanna (7/36)
TABLE 4: Unit Weight of Materials

S. No. Material Unit Wt. (Kg/Cu. M)
1 Brick Masonry 2120.0
2 Stone Masonry 2450.0
3 Dry Stone Masonry 2000.0
4 Plain Cement Concrete 2409.0
Source: HANDBOOK OF GRAVITY FLOW WATER SYSTEMS-UNICEF, Nepal

13 | P a g e
Tapstand :
The public tapstand post is the last component in water supply systems. It is the point from where people
collect water to their households. A tapstand post has greater significance in the community. It is not
only just a physical structure but it is a new socializing point for the villagers. Women will be washing
clothes and bathing and they can make informal discussion in the course. Therefore the tapstand must
be properly designed and built. It must be aesthetically pleasant, clean and inviting place. The waste
water should be properly disposed by building a small soak pit, pond or should be used in kitchen
garden. Tapstands locations must be chosen by the villagers themselves specially with the interest of
women. To avoid the often observed heated discussions on tapstand location, the following rules shall
be applied:
• No tapstand should be located within a house or courtyard.
• If a certain tap location is prone to create the internal dispute within a community, the
designer must use his discretion to persuade the villagers to choose an alternative tap
location.
• All the people served by the tap must have free access to the tap at any time.
• The often observed “abduction” of tapstands by certain social groups must be avoided by
selecting “neutral” tapstand locations.
3. Engineering survey for water supply system

Technical survey in the gravity flow water supply system means the leveling and length measurement
along the selected pipeline alignment. Leveling is a branch of surveying which deals with measurement
in vertical plane. Its major objectives are:
i. To find elevations of given points with respect to a given or assumed datum,
and
ii. To establish points at a given elevation or at different elevations with respect
to a given or assumed datum.
The first operation is required to enable the works to be designed, while the second operation is required
in the setting out of all kinds of engineering works.
Leveling in the water supply system is done to produce the longitudinal profile based on which the
hydraulic design of pipeline should be done.
3.1. Methods of leveling

Three principal methods are used for determining difference in elevation, namely:
i. Barometric leveling: This is the method in which barometer is used to find out
altitude of different places. Leveling using the altimeter is also a barometric
leveling.
ii. GPS: GPS is also used to determine the elevation of different points along the
pipeline alignment.
iii. Trigonometric leveling: This is the method in which properties of triangle is
used to determine the altitude of different points. Angle and distance
measurement is done by use of instrument like theodolite and auto level.
iv. Spirit leveling: This is method in which, the relative elevation between two
points is observed by use of spirit level.

14 | P a g e
3.2. Leveling instruments
Among the various available leveling instruments available, the more commonly used are:
I. Altimeter
II. Abney level
III. Automatic level and
IV. Theodolite
Altimeter is most handy instrument. It works in the principle that the in altitude is proportional to the
change in atmospheric pressure. It is used during the pre-feasibility study and for cross checking the
relative elevation along the long stretch in short time. Mechanical altimeter with least-count 10 m and
digital altimeter with 1 m least-count are available in the market. For profile leveling and other more
accurate works it should be used as a supporting instrument only.
Analog Altimeter Digital Altimeter
Abney level is most popular instrument among the rural water system surveyors, technically known as
clinometer. It works based on the principle of spirit leveling. It is handy, fast and compact hand
instrument for measuring relative elevation. It can measure up to minimum of 20 minute. It is used in
case of relatively steep alignments. It has four parts: square tube with half silvered mirror, eyepiece,
cross hair as objective and bubble tube.
Abney Level Surveying with Abney Level

15 | P a g e
Automatic level is most accurate instrument used in the case of critical slopes. The automatic level have
main four parts: telescope to provide line of sight, level tube to make line of sight horizontal, leveling
head to bring bubble center and tripod to support the instrument.
Auto Level Auto Level with Tripod and staff
Theodolite is faster but less accurate than the automatic level. It is normally used based on principle of
trigonometric leveling. However it can also be used as automatic level. It also have main four parts:
telescope to provide line of sight, level tube to make line of sight horizontal, leveling head to bring
bubble center and tripod to support the instrument.
Digital Theodolite
As the schemes are located mostly in highly inaccessible locations, carrying of the
Theodolite/Automatic Levels and its accessories can be a problem. These types of instruments are
necessary only at those places where precise elevation difference is required. For example, if the
transmission pipeline alignment passes through a fairly long valley and through a ridge. In such cases,
profiling with an auto level is required for precision. Also in segments of the transmission pipelines
where the relative difference is less such auto levels is required. In contrast, for the systems having
fairly visible undulations in the topography, the Abney Level is the ideal instrument.
16 | P a g e
3.3. Leveling with the abney level and recording the survey data
To use the Abney, the instrument is held to the eye and sighted to a target, centering the crosshair
against the target (usually the top point of stick of height equal to eye height of instrument man held
vertical at some distance by stick man). The index arm is then adjusted until the bubble (visible in the
right half of the field-of-view) is centered against the target and the crosshair. When the bubble aligns
with target point and cross hair, the angle of view (technically known as the vertical angle) is read on
the arc.
There are three different ways of proceeding along the chosen alignment with an Abney Level
• Fix the traverse points along the pipe alignment and set instrument and target stick at every
point of alignment except one and go on taking the fore sight only.
• Fix the traverse points along the pipe alignment and set instrument and target stick at every
point of alignment except one and go on taking the back sight only.
• Fix the traverse points along the pipe alignment and set instrument and target stick at
alternate points along the alignment and go on taking both back sight and fore sights.
If the index is pre-set at exactly 0 degree, then the level may be used as a rough carpenter’s level for
construction of wall, beam and other.
Abney surveying requires following: Abney level, twin stick of equal height equal to the eye height of
the instrument man, 30- 50 meter tape, enamel paint and brush, 6 persons (two person in the tape and
paint, one person at target, and one person at instrument and two person for route clearing).
Survey data recording is done as shown in the format below:
Abney Level Survey format

Name of Project: Surveyed by:
Location:
Page:……. of …….
Station No. Ground Cumulative Vertical ∆H Reduced Level Remarks
Distance distance Angle
(D*Sinθ) (m)
(D) (θ)
From To (m) (m) (deg.) (m) From To
S 1 50 50 -20020’ -17.37 500.00 482.63 RL1 Assumed as 500
0
1 2 45 95 +15 30’ +12.02 482.63 494.64 Ridge
2 3 75 170 -10040’ -13.87 494.64 480.77 Reservoir location
3 4
3.4. Close check and accuracy limits

For Abney Level survey:
10% elevation difference between two consecutive surveying along the same alignment
For Auto Level survey:
6% elevation difference between two consecutive surveying along the same alignment

17 | P a g e
3.5. Survey data plotting and presentation
The survey record should be plotted in the form of longitudinal profile in the A4 size paper (either graph
or plain) with the vertical scale much larger than the horizontal scale. The longitudinal profile should
include following:
a. Reduced-level,
b. Hydraulic Grade Line (HGL)
c. Partial distance,
d. Total distance,
e. Flow (lps),
f. Pipe size and soil type.
Reduced level should be in Y- axis and rest should be in x-axis. Scale for the L-profile are H 1: 1000
and V 1: 100 but the scale could be changed if needed. In the later case, ratio of Vertical to horizontal
scale should be 10. A sample plotting after pipe line design is given on next page.
4. Hydraulic Theory and Pipe Line design
4.1. Some Definitions

i. Static Pressure Head
Static Pressure head is the water pressure at any point of pipe when water is in static condition (i.e.
not flowing condition). It is denoted by depth of water column in meter.
ii. Head Loss

When water is allowed to flow in the pipes flow is resisted by different reasons and it cannot attain the
static level. In other words, the energy of water is reduced or lost. This loss of energy is called Head
loss.
There are 2 types of Head loss in pipe flow:
a. Minor Head loss

b. Major Head Loss
Minor losses are caused by different fittings, valves, bends etc. used in the pipe line. Since, it has
very minimum effect and not much significant. For different fittings, we have different head losses.
In practice, it is compensated by adding 10% extra length of pipe as design length and considered
with major head loss only.
Major head loss is the head loss due to the frictional resistance caused by inner wall of the pipe.
Sometime, also called frictional head loss. Major Head Loss (HL) can be calculated as:
ࢌࡸ࢜૛
HL = Where, f = Frictional Head loss factor,
૛ࢍࢊ
L = Length of pipe (m)
v = Velocity of flow (m/sec)
d = inner diameter of pipe (m)
2
g = Acceleration due to gravity (m/sec )
18 | P a g e
iii. Frictional head loss Factor
Frictional Head loss factors are based on roughness coefficient of pipe material, velocity of flow,
density and viscosity of water. Different scientists have developed different formula to calculate
frictional factor. Most widely used is Colebrook - White equation. Which is:
ଵ ௞ ଶ.ହଵ
= −2݈‫ ݃݋‬൜ଷ.଻஽ + ൠ Where, f = frictional factor
ඥ௙ ோ௘ඥ௙
k= roughness coeff. (m)
D = Diameter of pipe (inside)
Re = Reynolds Number = ρ v D/µ
It is a bit complicated to calculate the value of f , which needs several iteration. However, with the
help of computer programming we can calculate f.
To simplify the design process to the designers, Head loss charts for different size of pipes and design
flow has been developed and can be used very easily. The chart gives Head Loss per 100 m for
different pipe size and flow discharge. (See hand out)
௙ ௩ଶ
HL = 100 x m/100 m
ଶ௚஽
଼଴଴ ௙ ொమ
or, HL = ቂ గమ ௚ ቃ X ஽ఱ
m/100 m
iv. Residual Head
Residual Head is the remaining pressure head after deduction of Head loss from Static level at any
point. So,
Residual Head = Static Head – Head loss
v. Hydraulic Grade Line (HGL)
HGL is a line representing the head available to the Fluid at any point after deducting the head loss for
particular discharge. If discharge is increased, slope of HGL will also increase.
Source
Static Head
HGL Head Loss HGL

GL
Residual
Head
Valve Partially
opened
Dhruva Majagaiyan
September 2015 GL
19 | P a g e
20 | P a g e
5. Engineering design, estimate and system optimization
5.1. Engineering design and estimate
Water supply system design means determining the flows for different taps and pipelines, size of
reservoir and size of pipe in the different stretch of alignment. Design should be started after plotting
the longitudinal profile. Designing of a typical gravity water supply system primarily involves the
following major steps.
1. Layout finalization with optimum system components, (intake, CC/DC, air valve/washout,
BPT/IC/Storage tank and their types).
2. Population projection, estimation of total water demand and tap flow determination,
3. Flow diagram preparation,
4. Reservoir size estimation and
5. Pipeline design.
Estimating means finding out the quantity of construction items of structures (number of structures)
and the materials required for each structures. Material quantity and rates are put into the standard
formats and cost of scheme is found out. Major steps for this are:
• Quantity estimation, material breakdown and BOQ,
• Putting the pipe, other-material and fitting, skilled/unskilled labor and local material
quantity in the design estimate report format and
• Finding the cost of a scheme and compiling the design/estimate report.
To fulfill these primary steps it is necessary to collect information on basic parameters necessary to
proceed with the design steps. Design parameters that need to be established are as follows:
• Source data and safe yield (lps)
• Community data like present population, household and tapstand location.
• Population Growth Rate and Design Period
• Per capita water demand (institution and Domestic) and peak factor
• Consumption pattern
• Longitudinal profile along the pipe alignment
• Rate of skilled and unskilled labor, construction materials, tools, norms for local
material production and porting, ERR calculation data
• Material brekdown norms.
5.2. System optimization among alternate options
The term optimization indicates the optimum use of the available construction materials and other
resources such that the required level of services are obtained maintaining the engineering standards.
Therefore, optimization of Gravity Flow Water Supply systems implies to proper design of various
system components so that unnecessary increase in pipe class/diameter, reservoir size, pipe fittings cost
could be avoided.
Thus, during optimization, alternate designs, use of local construction materials and appropriate rural
technology should be investigated so that the most optimum system can be obtained saving the scheme
cost. Some Pertinent/important issues/aspects related to optimization of rural water supply schemes are
given below.

21 | P a g e
• Different alternate scheme layout plan should be prepared and their cost and sustainability
factor should be analyzed. It includes the choice of structures and their types, pipe line size
and series, structure locations and maintenance cost.
• The implication of adopting an "open" system over a "closed" system should also be
explored.
• In the closed system, the system should be broken into sub-systems with seperate smaller
reservoir tanks as far possible.
• The class of the pipe to be used should be governed by the maximum static pressure at that
point or node.
For example, If the maximum static pressure, at a point is 100 meters then
PN10 HDPE pipe would be needed. Unnecessary use of pipes of higher
working pressure (e.g. G. I. pipes and PN16 HDPE pipes) should be avoided;
• While designing the transmission mains, if the source safe yield is more than the required
design demand and source is far from community then pipe line should be designed for
required design demand only. However if transmission pipeline is short then may be
tapping the more source flow would be cost effective which decreases the RVT size.
• Use of BPTs as far as possible should be avoided because of maintenance reasons.
However, if the use of IC or other pressure breaking/reducing means can decrease the
scheme cost by avoiding the use of higher series pipes in a significant manner, use of such
mechanisms should also be explored.
• Use of ferrocement technology for reservoir tanks should be encouraged, as these are
cheaper than traditional stone masonry reservoirs (especially for sizes bigger than 6000
liters capacity);
• Alternate design of tapstands and its cost implications should also be explored.
• Use of excessive residual head (more than 15 m) at tapstands and other structures should
be avoided. It will decrease the size of pipe thus the cost.

22 | P a g e
6. Design Example:
Step -1: Population forecasting:
Calculate design population with design period of 20 yrs. for a rural community in Myanmar,
where present population is 500. Myanmar’s average annual population growth rate is
1.03%.
Solution:
Given, Present Population (P0) = 500 people

Design Period (n) = 20 yrs.
Avg. annual pop. growth rate (r) = 1.03%
Future Population (Pn) =?
We know,
Pn = P0 (1+ r/100)n
= 500 (1+ 1.03/100)20
= 500 x 1.227
= 614 people
Step -2: Demand Calculation:

a. Calculate the total water demand in a day for above population with per capita demand
of 45 lpcd.
Given, Pn = 614
Per capita demand = 45 L/day
Total water demand = 45 x 614 L/day
= 27,630 L/day
b. Compare above demand with source yield which has 1 lps discharge and assess
feasibility.
Source Discharge (Q) = 1.00 lps

Total quantity available (Supply) = 1.0 x 86400 L/day = 86,400 l/day
Total Demand = 614 x 45 L/day = 27,630 L/day

Here, supply >> demand Hence , source is feasible.

23 | P a g e
Step -3: Capacity of Reservoir tank determination:
Determine size of Reservoir tank (RVT) for above population and source discharge having 9
tap stands in the community.
Reservoir Tank No. : 1
Tap stands : 9 nos

Total Water Demand to be Supplied through
Reservoir = 0.320lps = 27,630Ltr./day
Available Minimum flow from the Source (Safe
Yield) = 1.000lps = 86,400Ltr./day
Adjusted/Optimized supply to Reservoir from Source
= 0.4 lps = 34,560Ltr./day
Total Design Flows for all Stand posts = 1.80 lps
Time Period
Water Cumulative
Consump Supply Cumulative Surplus Deficit
From To Hours tion (Ltr) Demand (Ltr) (Ltr) (Ltr) Remarks
05:00 07:00 2.00 25.0% 2880.00 6907.50 4027.50
07:00 12:00 5.00 35.0% 10080.00 16578.00 6498.00
12:00 17:00 5.00 20.0% 17280.00 22104.00 4824.00
17:00 19:00 2.00 20.0% 20160.00 27630.00 7470.00
19:00 05:00 10.00 0.0% 34560.00 27630.00 6930.00
Maximum difference between cumulative supply & cumulative

demand = 7470.00 Ltr.
Storage Tank Capacity Provided = 8.00 m³
Check time to fill up the tank volume at night= 5.56 hrs < 10 hrs. OK
Now, we can provide 8.0 m3 reservoir tank, with suitable design such as RCC, Stone masonry, Brick
masonry, Ferro-cement etc. depending on availability of materials

24 | P a g e
Step -4: Hydraulic design (Pipe line design):
i. Example -1
Determine a pipe size for a stretch of 60 m from Source to point 1 with design discharge of
0.40 lps. Elevation at source is 1792 m and at point 1 is 1767 m.
Elevation at source = 1792 m
Elevation at Point 1 = 1767 m
Total available head = 25 m
Actual Length of pipe = 60 m
Design Length of pipe (L) = 1.1x60 = 66 m
Design discharge (Q) = 0.40 lps
Now, try with the pipe size with 32 mmφ pipe of PN 10 series,
Corresponding, Head loss for 32 mm (PN10) pipe for 0.40 lps = 1.95 m / 100m
(see. Head loss chart)
Total Head Loss = 1.95 x 66 /100 = 1.29 m (Although this head loss is too low in
comparison to available head i.e. 25 m, but
considering downstream pipeline this is the most
suitable)
Residual Head = 25 – 1.29 = 23.71 m
Check for velocity it should be in between 0.5 – 3.0 m/sec.
Velocity (V) = Q/A Q = 0.40 /1000 = 0.0004 m3 /sec
A= π x 28.12/4 (28.1 is inside dia for 32mm PN10 pipe)
= 620.158 mm2 = 0.00062 m2
Now, V = 0.0004/0.00062 = 0.64 m/sec ok
Now, elevation of HGL at source = 1792.00 m
Elevation of HGL at point 1 = 1792 -1.29 = 1990.71 m

25 | P a g e
ii. Example -2
Determine a pipe size for a stretch of 210 m from Reservoir tank to Junction 1 with design
discharge of 1.80 lps. Elevation at Reservoir is 1557 m and at Junction 1 is 1525 m.
Elevation at Reservoir = 1557 m
Elevation at Junction 1 = 1525 m
Total available head = 32 m
Actual Length of pipe = 210 m
Design Length of pipe (L) = 1.1x210 = 231 m
Design discharge (Q) = 1.80 lps
Now, try with the pipe size with 32 mmφ pipe of PN 10 series,
Corresponding, Head loss for 32 mm (PN10) pipe for 1.80 lps = 28.42 m / 100m
(see. Head loss chart)
Total Head Loss = 28.42 x 231 /100 = 65.65 m which is more than available head 32 m.
Try with pipe size 40 mm φ pipe of PN10 series,
Corresponding , Head loss for 40 mm (PN10) pipe for 1.80 lps = 9.89 m / 100m
Total Head Loss = 9.89 x 231 /100 = 22.85 m
Residual Head = 32.0 – 22.85 = 9.15 m
Check for velocity it should be in between 0.5 – 3.0 m/sec.
Velocity (V) = Q/A Q = 1.8 /1000 = 0.0018 m3 /sec
A= π x 352/4 (35 is inside dia for 40 mm PN10 pipe)
= 962.112 mm2 = 0.000962 m2
Now, V = 0.0018/0.000962 = 1.87 m/sec ok
Now, elevation of HGL at Reservoir = 1557.00 m
Elevation of HGL at point 1 = 1557 – 22.85 = 1534.15 m
The design can be summarized for all stretch of pipelines from source to all distribution
points as given in the excel sheet as given in following pages.

26 | P a g e
Schematic diagram of water supply scheme: (Example)
Source
Elv.1792 m
Reservoir
Elv. 1557 m
Tap #5
Junction -1 Elv. 1494 m Tap #6
Elv. 1525 Tap #7
Tap #1 Elv. 1474 m Tap #8
Elv. 1475 m
Elv. 1507 m Elv. 1458 m
Tap #4
Elv. 1485 m Tap #9
Tap #2
Elv. 1497 m Elv. 1460 m
Junction -2
Tap #3 Elv. 1488 m
Elv. 1482 m

27 | P a g e
Example Data for design:
Point Reduced level (m) Ground Distance (m) Remarks
Transmission Main
Source 1792 0 Ordinary soil
P1 1767 60 Ordinary soil
RVT 1557 180 Rocky area
Distribution Line
Branch line -1
RVT 1557 0 Ordinary soil
Junction-1 1525 210 Ordinary soil
Tap # 1 1507 90 Ordinary soil
Branch line -2
Branch line -3
Branch line -4

28 | P a g e
29 | P a g e
Annexes
Annex 1. Head loss Charts for HDPE Pipe
Annex 2. Head Loss Charts for GI pipes
Annex 3. Design Calculation using pre-designed calculation format in Excel

30 | P a g e

Gravity Flow Water Supply System

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Gravity Flow Water Supply System

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Training Manual

Prepared by: Dhruva Majagaiyan

1. Understanding to gravity water supply system 1

2. Components of gravity water supply system 2

3. Engineering survey for water supply system 14

4. Hydraulic Theory and Pipe Line design 18

5. Engineering design, estimate and system optimization 21

1. Understanding to gravity water supply system

Dhruva Majagaiyan September 2015

2. Components of gravity water supply system

Dhruva Majagaiyan September 2015

• at the geologically stable areas.

Dhruva Majagaiyan September 2015

Dhruva Majagaiyan September 2015

Dhruva Majagaiyan September 2015

Dhruva Majagaiyan September 2015

Dhruva Majagaiyan September 2015

Dhruva Majagaiyan September 2015

Design of Suspended crossing:

Dhruva Majagaiyan September 2015

Dhruva Majagaiyan September 2015

TABLE 1: Cable Characteristic:

Dhruva Majagaiyan September 2015

TABLE 3: Coefficient of Friction - µ

TABLE 4: Unit Weight of Materials

Dhruva Majagaiyan September 2015

3. Engineering survey for water supply system

3.1. Methods of leveling

Dhruva Majagaiyan September 2015

Analog Altimeter Digital Altimeter

Abney Level Surveying with Abney Level

Dhruva Majagaiyan September 2015

Auto Level Auto Level with Tripod and staff

Abney Level Survey format

3.4. Close check and accuracy limits

Dhruva Majagaiyan September 2015

4. Hydraulic Theory and Pipe Line design

4.1. Some Definitions

ii. Head Loss

a. Minor Head loss

D = Diameter of pipe (inside)

Re = Reynolds Number = ρ v D/µ

iv. Residual Head

Residual Head = Static Head – Head loss

v. Hydraulic Grade Line (HGL)

HGL Head Loss HGL

Dhruva Majagaiyan September 2015

Dhruva Majagaiyan September 2015

Given, Present Population (P0) = 500 people

Step -2: Demand Calculation:

Per capita demand = 45 L/day

Total water demand = 45 x 614 L/day

Source Discharge (Q) = 1.00 lps

Total Demand = 614 x 45 L/day = 27,630 L/day

Dhruva Majagaiyan September 2015

Reservoir Tank No. : 1

Tap stands : 9 nos

Total Design Flows for all Stand posts = 1.80 lps

05:00 07:00 2.00 25.0% 2880.00 6907.50 4027.50

07:00 12:00 5.00 35.0% 10080.00 16578.00 6498.00

12:00 17:00 5.00 20.0% 17280.00 22104.00 4824.00

17:00 19:00 2.00 20.0% 20160.00 27630.00 7470.00

19:00 05:00 10.00 0.0% 34560.00 27630.00 6930.00

Maximum difference between cumulative supply & cumulative