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Introduction
Water is one of the necessities for human being and for all living things. Water
means nothing but just life as it constitutes the major part of the core of the cell,
the protoplasm which is about 70% in content of the cell , even though water is a
critical necessity for life , it has on adverse effect to life unless and other wise
properly handled.
Water was an important factor in the location of the earliest settled communities,
and the evolution of public water supply systems is tied directly to the growth of
cities. In the development of water resources beyond their natural condition in
rivers, lakes, and springs, the digging of shallow wells was probably the earliest
innovation. As the need for water increased and tools were developed, wells were
made deeper.
In the world clean water that can be used for domestic purpose is not more than
2% of the natural water resources of the earth. (Source; WHO, 2009).This is very
small in amount of wholesome water comparing with the saline water body. As
the result of this the world is faced to the shortage of sufficient access of safe
drinking water. The developing countries of the world are specially affected by
the problem of safe access of drinking water supply. This is because of the lack of
technologies and financial supports to utilize their water resources.
1.2. Literature on water supply system design
Water distribution systems consist of pipeline networks and associated
components, most of which is underground and exposed to soil corrosion and
mechanical stress from the surrounding soil, surface traffic, and internal water
pressure. Pipe failure in water distribution systems disrupts the water supply to
consumers and reduces the reliability of the system. It is found that about 35% to
60% of the supplied volume is wasted due to pipe leakages .Therefore, inspection,
control and planned maintenance and rehabilitation programs are necessary to
properly operate existing water distribution systems.
A water distribution network must be designed so that it can supply the desired
quantity of water to the consumers at sufficient pressure. The design involves
specifying the sizes of different elements of the distribution network and checking
the adequacy of this network. Significant effort has been placed in developing
approaches to solve for optimal designs of water distribution systems.
Design Steps:
a) Maps and Surveys: The topographical map of the area in which the
distribution is to be done is studied. The location of the components is
marked and the possible ways/routes are determined. The way of serving
water i.e. either through pumping or gravity flow is made. The technical
survey includes the survey by the use of instruments as Abney level,
theodolite. It also includes the study of the contour maps. The cross section
of streets, roads. Lanes are prepared and the soil type, hard rock areas, and
landslide prone areas are also studied. The social survey includes the data
collection regarding the total water demand, the population growth. A
number of commercial, institutional, industrial establishments are also
recorded. The dispute that may arise during the planning and
implementation should be solved.
b) Tentative Layout: It includes the adjustments of mains, sub mains, and the
branches. It too includes the position of the proposed water supply
components and the route that may be followed.
c) Discharge in Pipelines: On the basis of data collected (number of
households, water demand for domestic and livestock purposes, the
number of industrial, commercial and institutional establishments) the
discharge desired is calculated. The transmission line is designed for
maximum daily demand and the distribution system is designed for
maximum hourly demand with the variation in peak factor from 2 to 4.
d) Calculation of Pipe Diameters: For known discharge through the pipes, the
diameter of the pipes can be computed by using DarcyWeisbach or Hazen-
Williams formula. The commercially available pipe diameter equal to or
greater than the computed pipe size should be used for the distribution
system. Size of pipes can be determined using:
Continuity Equation: Q = A * V = ((Pi)*d2 )/4
e) Computation of residual pressure and velocity: The residual pressure in the
distribution system is computed using
The pressure available in the upstream
Ground levels
Design discharge
Head loss in the pipe
When the diameter of the pipe is known, the velocity for the design discharge
is computed. The residual pressure and velocity need to conform the design
criteria. If they don’t conform the criteria new diameter of the pipe is selected .
Design of Pipe Networks:
a) Branched System:
Steps to design the branched system are listed as follows:
1. The population to be served by each section is determined.
2. The discharge to be carried by each section is determined.
3. The allowable head loss in the pipe which depends upon ground levels, residual
head pressure available in the upstream and minimum head pressure to be
maintained in the pipe is to be determined.
4. Using Darcy-Weisbach or Hazen-Williams equation, the diameter of the pipe in
each section is determined.
5. Head loss in each pipe section is determined.
6. Velocity, as well as residual heads, are checked. If they are within the limit, the
calculation is completed else change the pipe diameter so as to make velocity and
residual heads within the limit
b) Looped System:
Hardy Cross method is one of the widely used methods to analyze and design the
looped system.
1. ΣQ = 0, at any joint.
2. ΣHf = 0, at any loop.
3. For any closed circuit pipe section Hf α Q.Hf = k1Q1 n = k2Q2 n , n = 1.852 in the
case of Hazen-Williams Coefficient
Flow correction formula Steps:
1. Assume the discharge and its direction.
2. Calculation of head loss of each branch.
3. Correction to flow is computed until reduced to an acceptable limit using
QA = Assumed Flow
Q = Actual flow
Δ = Q – QA
4. If Δ is positive. Add it to the flow which is in the clockwise direction and
subtract it to the flow in the anticlockwise direction. If Δ is negative. Add it to the
flow in the anticlockwise direction and subtract it to the flow in the clockwise
direction. For common pipes or networks: correction should be applied in both
loops. 5. Find the corrected discharges. 6. Repeat the steps until Δ ≠ 0.
Chapter 3
3. POPULATION FORECASTING & DESIGN PERI
3.1. Introduction
Table 3.1.
3.3. Methods of forecasting population
By considering growth rate of the town we use the following different methods
of population forecasting to asses and estimate the future population of the
town:
A. Arithmetic increase method
This method is based on the assumption that the population is increasing at
constant rate, that is the rate of change of population with a time is
constant. Generally, the method is applicable to large and old cities.
Pn=Po + Kn
Where; Pn=population at n decade
n =decade or year
k =arithmetic increase
B. Geometric increase method
The method is based on the assumption that the percentage increase in
population remains constant. It also known as uniform increase method. The
increase is compounded over the existing population. This method is mostly
applicable for growing towns and cities having vast scope of expansion.
P1=P0+K*P0=P (1+K) Pn=P0 (1+K) n
Where P0=initial population.
Pn=Population at n decades or year.
n=decade or year
K=percentage or geometric increase.
C. Method used by Ethiopian statistics authority
The Ethiopian statistic authority uses the formula pn = po*e kn
for most water supply project in the country to project population at the end of
required decade/year.
Pn=po*e kn Where Pn=population at n decades or year
Po=initial population (from census) K=growth rate n =decade or year
Table3.2. Given population of x town
year 1998 1999 2000 2001
Population 53073 55657 58337 61705
Table 3.3. Median variant population growth rate
year 2005- 2011- 2016- 2021- 2026- 2031- 2036-
2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 2040
Growth 5.3 4.8 4.6 4.3 4.1 3.9 3.7
rate (%)
Table 3.4. Population increase
increasing increasing
rate(K) rate(K)
arithmetic geometric
year population method method
1998 53073
1999 55657 2584 0.049
2000 58337 2680 0.048
2001 61705 3368 0.058
total 8632 0.155
averag
e 2877.3 0.52
The population of this town is 88357. it is between 80,000 and 250,000. Since the
town is in category two.
Climate condition is the main factor that affects water demand of the population
under consideration. Therefore, the water demand should be adjust for climatic
condition.
Table 3.8. Adjustment due to climatic condition
The socio economic adjustment factor is determined based on the degree of the
development of the particular town under study as the socio economic conditions
play great role on the amount of water consumption.
Assume Town having a very high potential for development but lower living
standards at present. Therefore, categorized as a Group B town and was given
an adjustment factor of 1.05.
After considering changes in population and changes in the mode of service, per-
capita demand and applying the adjustment factors, the domestic demands were
calculated and are presented in table below.
Table 3.10. Domestic water demand
Total domestic demand 1574 1896.3 2206.1 2565 2988.5 3302.2 3630.5
Socio-economic 1.05 1.05 1.05 1.05 1.05 1.05 1.05
Climatic Factor 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Total domestic demand 1654.7 1991.14 2316.4 2693.2 3137.9 3467.4 3812.1
6. Public bathes and recreation: The future water demand is projected with
the assumption that 0.1% of the population visit public bath every day with
consumption of 100lit/visitor, 2% of the population visit stadium and parks
every day with consumption of 5lit/visitor and 0.3% of the population visits
the cinema halls every day with consumption 5lit/visitor
year 2010 2020 2030 2040
total population 68537 75292 81890 88357
%of the
population visit
public bath 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
population 69 76 82 89
populatio consumption of
n visit lit/visitor 100 100 100 100
public demand(m3/
bath day) 6.9 7.6 8.2 8.9
populatio %visit stadium
n visit and parks 2 2 2 2
stadium population 1371 1506 1638 1768
and parks consumption of
lit/visitor 5 5 5 5
demand(m3/ 6.855 7.53 8.19 8.84
day)
%visits the
cinema 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3
population 206 226 246 266
populatio consumption of
n visits lit/visitor 5 5 5 5
the demand(m3/
cinema day) 1.03 1.13 1.23 1.33
total demand(m3/day) 14.785 16.26 17.62 19.07
8. Bus terminal: The total population in the bus terminal is 2% of the total
population of the town throughout design period
year 2010 2020 2030 2040
total
population 68537 75292 81890 88357
%population 2 2 2 2
population 1371 1506 1638 1768
percapita 10 10 10 10
demand
(lit/pupil/day)
demand(m3/
day) 13.71 15.06 16.38 17.68
demand(m3/
day)
n
o description year 2010 2020 2030 2040
1 industry 251.6 251.6 251.6 251.6
2 Day school 114.33 138.72 153.53 173.79
Public and
government
3 offices 24.47 26.88 29.235 31.545
4 Prisons 10.29 11.31 12.3 13.26
Churches and
5 mosques 11.3 12.61 14.07 15.7
Public bathes
6 and recreation 14.785 16.26 17.62 19.07
7 Abattoirs 2.992 2.998 3.004 3.01
8 Bus terminal 13.71 15.06 16.38 17.68
Commercial
9 demand 99.3 100.83 102.34 103.47
total 542.777 576.268 600.079 629.125
1400
1300
1200
1100
1000
non domostic demand graph
900 Unaccounted deman
800
700
600
500
2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 2040 2045
450
400
350
300
250 un-served demand
200 Fire Fighting Demand
150
100
50
0
2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 2040 2045
total demand graph
7000
6500
6000
5500
total demand graph
5000
4500
4000
3500
3000
2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 2040 2045
14000
Demand variation
12000
ADD(m3/d)
MDD(m3/d)
10000
PHD(m3/d)
8000
6000
4000
2000
2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 2040 2045
Year variation
3.6. SERVICE RESERVOIR
3.6.1. General
Reservoirs are the tanks which are used to store water for various purposes.
Larger the reservoir size more would be the reliability and high would be the cost.
Distribution reservoir is also called service reservoir, which are mainly provided
for storing the treated water, for supplying water to the town or city.
Service Reservoir is constructed after clear water reservoir where clear water is
not kept. They are used to provide storage to meet fluctuation in demand of
water. It has three main functions as:
Balancing or equalizing flow
Break down reserve
Firefighting reserve
Types of service reservoir
Surface Reservoir
Elevated Reservoir
Depth of Reservoir
There is an economical depth of service reservoir for any given site. For a given
quantity of water either a shallow reservoir having long walls and a large floor
area may be constructed or, alternatively Depths most usually used are as
follows: