Sources of water supply:

Ground water hydraulics

What is groundwater?

Equivalent terminologies: subsurface water, ground water

Definitions
 Water occupying all the voids within a geologic stratum
 All the water found beneath the surface of the ground
 Practically, all the water beneath the water table (i.e., in the
saturated zone) and above the water table (i.e., in the
unsaturated zone, vadose zone, zone of aeration) are called
groundwater.

Groundwater velocity is very small and depends on local
hydrogeologic conditions: 2 m/year to 2 m/day are normal
2
 1. Definitions of aquifers

Aquifer, Aquitards, Aquicludes, and Aquifuges are a geological
formation or a group of formations that can/cannot contain water,
and that water can/cannot move within the formation

Formation nature Store water? Transmit water?

Aquifer Pervious Yes Yes
Aquitard Semi pervious Yes Yes but slower than
that in an aquifer
Aquiclude Semi pervious Yes No
Aquifuge Impervious No No

Latin: Aqui  water; -fer  “to bear”, aquifer  “water bearer”

-tard  “slow”;
-clude  “to shut or close”;
-fuge  “to drive away”

3
Schematic of aquifers
Aquifer B

Phreatic

Confined

Leaky

Leaky
Artesian Confined

Rain/excess irrigation Recharge

Perched
Aquifer

Aquifer A Lake
Leakage Lake
Aquifer B Leakage
Water
Aquifer C


Depending on the hydrogeologic conditions at different
locations, a single aquifer (e.g. Aquifer B) can be unconfined,
confined, artesian and leaky aquifer
5
 Darcy’s Law
Q l
Q h
Q is proportional to Dh = h2 – h1 1

Dh h2

Q
Q is proportional to crossDatum (z = 0)
sectional area, Axs
A

l Q is inversely proportional
h1 to sample length, l

Q h2
Dh= h2 – h1
l
Datum (z = 0)
6
 Darcy’s Law

Combine and insert a constant of proportionality
Q = –KAxc [h/l]

Axc = sample cross-sectional area [m2]
Measured perpendicular to flow direction


K = hydraulic conductivity [m/s]

h/l = hydraulic gradient [-]
l is measured along the flow direction

Often written as a differential, dh/dl


Darcy law sometimes written as
Q/A = q = –K[h/l]
xc
Where q = specific discharge a.k.a. “Darcy velocity”

7
 Example of the use of Darcy's Law
Q = –KAxs(h/L)

w =50 m
h = 25 m
L = 100 m

Pool b=2m
h = 20 m

K = 10–4 cm/sec
River
How much water is flowing from the pool into the river per second
over a 50 m stretch? Use K = 10–4 cm/sec
h = 20 – 25 = –5 m (head decreases in the direction of flow)
l = 100 m; h/l = –0.05
PERPENDICULAR to the
A
 xc = b x w = 2 m x 50 m = 100 m 2
direction of flow!

Q = –10–4 cm/sec x 100 m2 x 1002 cm2/m2 x (–0.05) = 5 cm3/s

8
Other Ways to Express Flow
Flow per Unit Width

What is the flow through the aquifer per unit width (per
cm)?
 Q = –KAxs(h/l) Axs = b x w
 Q = –K(b x w)x(h/l) divide both sides by w
Q/w = –Kb(h/l)



Q/w = –10–4 cm/sec x 2 m x 100 cm/m x (–.05)=
= 0.001 [cm3 s–1 cm–1]

9
Other Ways to Express Flow
Flow per Unit Width per Unit Gradient

What is the flow through the aquifer per unit width (per cm)
per unit hydraulic gradient?
This is a measure often used to compare aquifers.
Q = –K(b x w)(h/l) divide both sides by w
Q/w = –Kb(h/l) divide both sides by (h/l)
(Q/w)/(h/l) = –Kb



(Q/w )/(h/l) = –10–4 cm/sec x 2 m x 100 cm/m =
= 0.02 [cm2 s–1]

10
Aquifer Characteristics

Transmissivity (T = Kb) is the rate of flow through a vertical
strip of aquifer (thickness b) of unit width under a unit
hydraulic gradient

Radius of Influence (R) for a well is the maximum
horizontal extent of the cone of depression when the well is
in equilibrium with inflows
 Specific storage (specific storativity), S (1/L) is the amount
s
of water released from (or added to) storage per unit decline
(or unit rise) in hydraulic head from unit volume of saturated
aquifer .
 Storativity (Storage coefficient), , where b is the saturated

thickness

11
 Aquifer Characteristics

It is customarily to approximate the storativity of an unconfined
aquifer by its specific yield.
 Specific yield, Sy: The ratio of the volume of water that drains
from a saturated aquifer due to the attraction of gravity to the
total volume of the aquifer. This is also called gravity drainage.
 Specific retention (Sr): the volume of water retained in an
aquifer per unit area per unit drop of the water table after
drainage has stopped, which is hold between soil particles by
surface tension. Hence, the smaller the particle size, the larger
the surface tension and the larger the specific retention
Specific retention is responsible for the volume of water a

soil can retain against gravity drainage.

12
 Well Hydraulics
A water well is a hydraulic structure 
that is designed and constructed to
permit economic withdrawal of
water from an aquifer
Q
s 
ho
h of water pumped per unit time
Static Water Level [SWL]
(ho) is the equilibrium water
level before pumping
commences

Pumping Water Level [PWL]
(h) is the water level during
pumping
Drawdown (s = ho - h) is the
difference between SWL and
PWL

Well Yield (Q) is the volume

Specific Capacity (Q/s) is the
yield per unit drawdown

13
Cone of Depression

High Kh aquifer

Low Kh aquifer
Kh  Kv


A zone of low pressure is created centered on the pumping well

Drawdown is maximum at the well and reduces radially

Head gradient decreases away from the well and the pattern
resembles an inverted cone called the cone of depression

The cone expands over time until the inflows (from various
boundaries) match the well extraction

The shape of the equilibrium cone is controlled by hydraulic
conductivity (See Figures above)

14
Unsteady Radial Confined Flow
Q 
Assumptions
Isotropic, homogeneous, infinite
aquifer, 2-D radial flow
r s 
Initial Conditions
h(r,0) = ho for all r
h ho

Boundary Conditions
b h(,t) = ho for all t

• PDE: • The ultimate solution is:

• Where
• Change the dependent • where the integral is called
variable by letting: the well function W(u)
This is the Theis Equation

15
Example - Theis Equation
Q
Q = 1500 m3/day
T = 600 m2/day
S = 4 x 10-4 s
r
Find: Drawdown (s) at r = 1 km from well after 1
year
Well Function
 Theis Plot : 1/u vs W(u)
10.0

1.0
W(u)

0.1

0.0
1.E-01 1.E+00 1.E+01 1.E+02 1.E+03
1/u

18
 Theis Analysis
1. Overlay type-curve on data-curve keeping axes parallel
2. Select a point on the type-curve (any will do but [1,1] is
simplest)
3. Read off the corresponding co-ordinates on the data-curve
[td, sd]
4. For [1,1] on the type curve corresponding to [td, sd],
5. For the example, Q = 0.032 m3/s; r = 120 m; td = 51 s and sd
= 0.17 m
6. T = (0.032)/(12.56 x 0.17) = 0.015 m2/s = 1300 m2/d
7. S = (0.032 x 51)/(3.14 x 120 x 120 x 0.17) = 2.1 x 10-4

19
 Example - Theis Method
Q

Pumping test in a sandy aquifer
 ho = 20 m, Q = 1000 m3/hr
r s

Find: S and T for the following pumping test data
(h) observed at r = 1000 m from pumping well
Time (min) h (m) s (m) h ho= 20m
0 20.00 0.00
3 19.92 0.08 b
4 19.85 0.15
5 19.78 0.22
6 19.70 0.30
7 19.64 0.36
8 19.57 0.43
10 19.45 0.55
…
60 18.00 2.00
70 17.87 2.13
…
100 17.50 2.50
…
1000 15.25 4.75
…
4000 13.80 6.20
Theis Method

Time r2/t s u W(u)

(min) (m2/min) (m)
s vs r2/t
0 0.00 1.0E-04 8.63
3 333333 0.08 2.0E-04 7.94
4 250000 0.15 3.0E-04 7.53
5 200000 0.22 4.0E-04 7.25
6 166667 0.30 5.0E-04 7.02
7 142857 0.36 6.0E-04 6.84
8 125000 0.43 7.0E-04 6.69
10 100000 0.55 8.0E-04 6.55
…
3000 333 5.85 8.0E-01 0.31
4000 250 6.20 9.0E-01 0.26
W(u) vs u
Theis Method
10 100 1000
r2/t 10000 100000 1000000
10 10

1 1

W(u)
Match Point
s

W(u) = 1, u = 0.10
s = 1, r2/t = 20000
0.1 0.1

0.01 0.01
0.0001 0.0010 0.0100 0.1000 1.0000 10.0000

u
Theis Method

Match Point

W(u) = 1, u = 0.10

s = 1, r2/t = 20000
Copper Jacob

NOTE: the Theis well function W(u) is plotted vs. 1/u on

semi-log paper.
24
 Cooper-Jacob

The above figure shows that, for large values of 1/u, the Theis
well function exhibits a straight-line segment.

The Jacob method is based on this phenomenon. Cooper and
Jacob (1946) showed that, for the straight-line segment, s can
be approximated by


The Cooper-Jacob simplification expresses drawdown (s) as a
linear function of ln(t) or log(t).

25
 Cooper-Jacob Plot : Log(t) vs s

to = 84s
0.0

0.1

0.2

0.3
Drawdown (m)

0.4

0.5

0.6
Ds =0.39 m
0.7

0.8

0.9

1.0
1.E+01 1.E+02 1.E+03 1.E+04 1.E+05
Time since pump started (s)

26
Cooper-Jacob Analysis

Fit straight-line to data (excluding early and late times if
necessary):

Note: at early times the Cooper-Jacob approximation may
not be valid and at late times boundaries may significantly
influence drawdown

Determine intercept on the time axis for s=0

Determine drawdown increment (Ds) for one log-cycle

For straight-line fit,


For the example, Q = 0.032 m3/s; r = 120 m; to = 84 s and Ds
= 0.39 m

T = (2.3 x 0.032)/(12.56 x 0.39) = 0.015 m2/s = 1300 m2/d

S = (2.3 x 0.032 x 84)/(1.78 x 3.14 x 120 x 120 x 0.39)
= 1.9 x 10-4

27
Jacob Approximation

 At s = 0 t become t0

t0
Jacob Approximation

s2
Ds

s1
1 LOG CYCLE

t1 t2

t0
Jacob Approximation for the example
t0 = 8 min

s2 = 5 m s2
s1 = 2.6 m
Ds
Ds = 2.4 m
s1
1 LOG-CYCLE

t1 t2

t0