Electrical Machines: References

P a g e |1
Electiical Nachines Notes Bi. AF BATI Page 1
ELECTRICALMACHINES
REFERENCES:
1. D.BROWN&E.P.HAMILTONELECTROMECHANICALENERGYCONVERSIONMACMILLAN,
NY1984.
2. H.COTTONADVANCEDELECTRICALTECHNOLOGYPITMAN,LONDON1967.
3. A.R.DANIELSINTRODUCTIONTOELECTRICALMACHINESMACMILLAN,LONDON1976.
4. A.DRAPERELECTRICALCIRCUITSINCLUDINGMACHINESLONGMAN,LONDON1972.
5. A.DRAPERELECTRICALMACHINES2
ND
EDITION,LONGMAN,LONDON.
6. A.E.FITZGERALD,D.E.HIGGINBOTTOM,&A.GABRIELBASICELECTRICALENGINEERING
5
TH
ED.MCGRAWHILL,NY1981.
7. A.E.FITZGERALD,C.KINGSLEY,&S.D.UMANSELECTRICALMACHINERY,4
TH
ED.
MCGRAWHILL,TOKYO1983.
8. J.HINDMARSHELECTRICALMACHINESANDTHEIRAPPLICATIONS4
TH
ED.PERGAMON,
OXFORD1984.
9. E.HUGHESELECTRICALTECHNOLOGYLONGMANS,LONDON.
10. G.MCPHERSONANINTRODUCTIONTOELECTRICALMACHINESANDTRANSFORMERS
WILEY,NY1981.
11. S.A.NASARELECTRICMACHINESANDELECTROMECHANICSMCGRAWHILL(SCHAUM),
NY1981.
12. S.A.NASAR&L.E.UNNEWEHRELECTROMECHANICSANDELECTRICMACHINES,2
ND
ED.
WILEY,NY1983.
13. J.ROSENBLATT&M.H.FRIEDMANDIRECTANDALTERNATINGCURRENTMACHINERY2
ND
ED.MERRILL,COLOMBUSOHIO1984.
14. Theraja Bl, Theraja Ak ELECTRICALTECHNOLOGY.
15. A.S.LANGSDORFTHEORYOFALTERNATINGCURRENTMACHINERY2
ND
ED.MCGRAW
HILL,NY1955.DCMACHINESONLY:
16. A.E.CLAYTON&N.M.HANCOCKTHEPERFORMANCEANDDESIGNOFDIRECTCURRENT
MACHINES3
RD
ED.PITMAN,LONDON1959.
17. M.G.SAY&E.O.TAYLORDIRECTCURRENTMACHINESPITMAN,LONDON1980.
P a g e |2
CHAPTER1:PRINCIPLEOFOPERATION
1.1SOMEBASICRULES
Righthandscrewrule(crossproductoperationinvectoralgebra)
A
1
XA
2
=A
3
A
1
,A
2
,andA
3
arevectors.RotateRHfingersfromthedirectionofthefirstvector,A
1
,tothe
directionofthesecondvector,A
2,
throughthesmallangle(<180
o
)betweenthem;thedirection
ofA
3
isthengivenbytheextendedRHthumb.Inourapplications,themagneticfieldBisalways
thesecondvector.
Givenastraightconductorlyinginamagneticfield,andorientedperpendiculartothedirection
ofthefield.Let
B=magneticfluxdensity(alsocalledmagneticinduction),[T=tesla=weber/m
2
];
L=activelengthofconductor,[m].u

Inducedvoltage(emf):E=B.L.u.sinvolts
u=speedofconductorperpendiculartoitslength[m/s];
=smallanglefromutoB.
DirectionofE:RHscrewrulefromutoB.
Developedforce:F
d
=B.I.Lnewtons[N]
I=currentthroughconductor,[A].
DirectionofF
d
:RHscrewrulefromItoB.
P a g e |3
Electiical Nachines Notes Bi. AF BATI Page S
1.2Singleconductor
ConsiderastraightconductormovingatauniformspeeduinauniformmagneticfieldB,and
carryingacurrentI.Let
L=activelength(i.e.lengthofconductorsegmentimmersedinthefield);
F
m
=appliedmechanicalforce,[N].
u&BgiveE=B.L.uandI&BgiveF
d
=B.I.L
E.I=(B.L.u).I=(B.I.L).u=F
d
.uE.I=F
d
.u=P
c
=conversionpower
Note:Becausethespeeduisconstant,F
d
andF
m
mustbeequalandopposite(otherwisethere
wouldbeaccelerationordeceleration).
E.Iiselectricalpower,andF
d
.u(F
m
.u)ismechanicalpower.
IindirectionofE;F
d
oppositetou.IoppositetoE;F
d
inDirectionofu.
Generationaction.Motoraction
P a g e |4
V=EI.RV=E+I.R
t
S F
t
W
P
m m
in
= P
in
=V.I=(E+I.R).I
=F
d
.u=P
c
=E.I+I
2
.R=P
c
+P
cu
P
cu
=copperlosses
P
out
=V.I=(EI.R).IP
out
=
t
S F
t
W
m m

=E.II
2
.R=P
c
P
cu
=F
d
.u=P
c
=P
in
P
cu
P
in
=P
out
+P
cu
P
in
P
out
=P
cu
P
in
P
out
=P
cu
1.3Wireloop
ConsidernowawirelooprotatingatauniformspeedinamagneticfieldB.Conductorsa
andbaretheactivepartsoftheloop;theremainingpartsareendconnectionsandleads.
P a g e |5
Electiical Nachines Notes Bi. AF BATI Page S
F
da
=F
db
zeroresultantforceT
d
=developedtorque
iindirectionofe;T
d
opposesrotationiopposese;T
d
aidsrotation
Generatoraction.Motoraction.
KVL:e=e
a
+e
b
=loopemf
1.4Sliprings
Slipringsandbrushesmaybeusedtomakeelectricalcontactwitharotatingloop.Sliprings
rotatewithloop,whilebrushesarestationarytogiveslidingcontact.Aslipringandabrushfor
eachterminal.
P a g e |6
Theinducedemfisalternating,andthedevelopedtorqueoscillates(aboutthevertical
position).Clearly,slipringsarenotsuitablefordcmachines(theyareusedinacmachines).
1.5Commutator
Acommutatorisaconductingringsplitintosegments;eachsegmentiselectricallyconnected
tooneterminaloftheloop.Itismountedontheshaft,butiselectricallyinsulatedfromit.The
brushesarestationaryandmakeslidingcontactwiththesegments.
A
2
isalwayspositive;A
1
isalwaysnegative:>>>e
t
isalwayspositive,&T
d
isalways
CW(whendirectcurrentsuppliedtobrushes),butemf&currentwithinlooposcillate.
Althoughe
t
andT
d
arenowunidirectional(i.e.remaininthesamedirectionorsense),theydo
notrepresentsteadydcoperationbecausetheyfluctuate:eachismaximumwhentheloopis
inposion0,andzerowhenitisinposion2.
1.6Multipleloops
Moreuniformdcoperationisachievedbyusinganumberofloopsdisplacedfromeachother
inspace.Theemfsadd(seriesconnection),andthedevelopedtorquesaideachother.Asthe
numberofloopsisincreased,idealdcoperationisapproached.
P a g e |7

2loops4loops
1.7Magneticcircuit
Themagneticfieldmaybeobtainedbymeansofpermanentmagnets(PM),or,more
commonly,bymeansofelectromagnets(fieldcoilswithironcores).
Permanentmagnetelectromagnetpracticalconstruction
(withsoftironextension)
Thevalueoftheresultingfluxisdeterminedbythemmf(magneticmotiveforce)(ofthePMor
electromagnet)andthemagneticreluctanceinthepathoftheflux.Ironhasveryhighmagnetic
permeability,sothatitistheairgapinthepathofthefluxthatlimitsitsvalue.Theairgapmust
thereforebemadeshorttoincreasetheeffectiveflux.Theairgapcannotbeavoided
completely(why?).
P a g e |8
Aircorecylindricalironcoreslottedironcore(armature)
1.8Multiplepoles
Adcmachinecanhave2,4,6,8,.Poles(anevennumberwhy?)
2p=numberofpoles;(i.e.p=numberofpole
pairs)
Onerevoluon=360mechanicaldegrees;
Onepolepair=360electricaldegrees;
Electricalangle=pXmechanicalangle;
Polepitch=180
o
electrical=360
o
mech/2p.
Eacharmatureloopisplacedoveronepole
pitch.Electrically,everythingrepeatsaftertwo
polepitches.
1.9loopemf
D=diameterofthearmature[m];
L=activelengthofarmature[m];
n=rotationalspeed[rps=revolutionpersecond];
u=speed=Dn[m/s];
r
=angularspeed=2n[rad/s].
A
p
=armaturesurfaceareacorrespondingtoonepolepitch=DL/2p[m
2
].
=fluxperpole[wb=weber];totalmagneticfluxthroughpoleface:sameforallpoles;
B=airgapfluxdensity[T=tesla=wb/m
2
];normalfieldatarmaturesurface;
B
av
=ave
=
Ap
B.
Theactu
below.T
wireloop
e
a
=B.L.u
Theaver
E
a
=B
av
.L
Stator(fie
Airgap
Motion>
Rotor
(armatur
Ele
rageairgap
dA;B
av
=
alairgapflu
heaverageg
p;theinstan
(e
a
(t)ha
ageemfind
L.u(consta
eld)
>>>
B
re)
ectiical Nach
fluxdensity
/A
p
uxdensityB
gapfluxden
ntaneousem
asthesame
ucedinside
antoveralte
hines Notes
y[T].
isdistribute
sityB
av
isco
mfis
waveshape
eais
ernatepole

edaroundth
onstantover
asB)
pitches)
Bi. AF B
eperiphery
rapolepitch
BATI
ofthearma
h.Considers
P a g
P
atureasshow
sideaoft
e |9
Page 9
wn
the
P a g e |10
Electiical Nachines Notes Bi. AF BATI Page 1u
Averagecommutatedemf
Wireloop:E
loop
=E
a
+E
b
=2B
av
.L.u=2.D.L.n.B
av
=(2.D.L.n)(/A
p
)
=4p.n.=(2P.
r
.)/(=/t=2/(1/2pn))
Conductor(onesideofloop):
E
con
=1/2.E
loop
=B
av
.L.u=.D.L.n.B
av
=2p.n.=(P.
r
.)/
Coil(N=numberofturns=numberofloopsinseries):
E
coil
=NxE
loop
=2N.B
av
.L.u=2.D.L.N.n.B
av
=4p.N.n.=(2P.N.
r
.)/(=N/t)
1.10looptorque
Theinstantaneousforceonsideais
f
a
=B.I
a
.L
ThenormalfieldBvariesoverapolepitch,andhencef
a
alsovaries.Theaverageforceonsideais
F
a
=B
av
.I
a
.L
B
av
,andhenceF
a
,areconstantoverapolepitch
correspondingtoagivenpole.Moreover,becauseof
commutation,I
a
reversesoverthenextpolepitchsothat
F
a
remainsinthesamesensearoundtheaxisofthe
armature.Theresultantforceduetoallarmature
conductorsiszero,butthereisdevelopedtorquebecause
allforcesactinthesamesensearoundtheaxis.
Averagedevelopedtorque
WireloopT
loop
=F
a
.D/2+F
b
.D/2=D/2(B
av
.I
a
.L+B
av
.I
b
.L)=D.L.I.B
av
[Nm]
WhereI
a
=I
b
,>>>>T
loop
=D.L.I(/A
p
)=2p.I./
P a g e |11
Coil(Nturns):T
coil
=NXT
loop
=D.L.N.I.B
av
=2p.N.I./
Forconstantrotationalspeedn,andassumingnofriction,thedevelopedtorqueisequalto
theappliedmechanicaltorque.
1.11Conversionpower
Adcmachinemayrunasageneratororasamotor.Ineachofthetwomodesofoperation,
thereisinducedemfanddevelopedtorque(givenbytheequaonsofsecon1.9and1.10).
Whatdeterminesthemode(generatorormotor)isthedirectionalrelationshipbetweenE,and
I,andbetweenT
d
andn:
Generatormode:IwithE,T
d
oppositen;
Motormode:IoppositeE,T
d
withn.
Recallthecoilequaonsofsecon1.9and1.10;E=E
coil
andT
d
=T
coil
,wecanwrite
E.I=(4p.N.n.).I=4p.N.
r
..I/2=(2p.N.I./).
r
=T
d
.
r
Thisrepresentselectromechanicalenergyconversion.Theconversionpowerisdefinedas
P
c
=E.I=T
d
.
r
{E.IontheelectricalsideT
d
.
r
onthemechanicalside
Generatoraction
R=resistanceofthecoil
T
m
=mechanicaldrive
torque
Mechi/p:P
in
=
r
.T
d
=P
c
Electo/p:P
out
=V.I=(EI.R).I=E.II
2
.R=P
c
P
cu
>>>>P
out
=P
in
P
cu
P a g e |12
Motoraction
Electi/p:P
in
=V.I=(E+I.R).I=E.I+I
2
.R=P
c
+P
cu
Mecho/p:P
out
=
r
.T
d
=P
c
>>>>>P
out
=:P
in
P
cu
Moregenerally,P
out
=:P
in
losses
Wherethelossesinclude(inadditiontocopperlosses)mechanicallosses(frictionandwindage),
andironlosses(hysteresisandeddycurrent).
Example1:
GiventhattheairgapfieldisdistributedsinusoidallywithamaximumfluxdensityofB
m
.Show
that=B
m
.D.L/pandB
av
=2.B
m
/
Solution:B
av
=1/ ] B
m
0
.sinu=
B
m
|cos]
0
=
2B
m

=B
av
.A
p
=
2B
m
.
.D.L
2p
=
B
m
.D.L
p

Tutorial1:
Giventhattheairgapeldisdistributedasshowning.1overapolepitchy
p
.Showthat
=
u
2
B
m
.D.L/pandB
av
=.B
m
where=
y
a
y
B
m
0
y
a
y
p
Fig.1
P a g e |13
Electiical Nachines Notes Bi. AF BATI Page 1S
Example2:
Thearmatureofadcmachineis80cmlongandhasadiameterof50cm.Themaximumair
gapuxdensityis1.5T.Thepolearccovers70%ofthepolepitch.Thearmaturespeedis500
rpm.
(a) Ifthemachinehas2poles,ndtheuxperpoleandtheaverageairgapuxdensitywhen
thefielddistribuonis(i)sinusoidal,(ii)asing.1ofT.1.
(b) Repeatpartaforasixpolemachine.
Forallcasesofpartsaandb,findtheaverageemf,developedtorque,andconversion
powerforafullpitchwirelooponthearmature&carrying9A.current.
Solution:
a(i)Sinusoidalfielddistribution
B
av
=
2B
m
=
2X1.5
=0.955T
=B
av
.A
p
=0.955X
X0.5 X 0.8
2
=0.6Wb.
E
loop
=4p.n.=4X1X
500
60
=20Volts
T
loop
=
2p
.I.=2x9x0.6/=3.437N.m
P
c
=
r
.T
loop
=2X
500
60
X S.4S7=180Was
a(ii)elddistribuonasing.1
B
av
=.B
m
=
y
a
y

.B
m
=0.7X1.5=1.05T
=
u
2
.B
m
.D.L/p=0.66Wb.
E
loop
=4.p.n.=22Volts
T
loop
=
2p
.I.=3.78N.m
P
c
=
r
.T
loop
=198Was
b(i)when2p=6
=0.2Wb.
P a g e |14
E
loop
=20Volts
T
loop
=3.437N.m
P
c
=180Watts
b(ii)
=0.22Wb.
E
loop
=22Volts
T
loop
=3.78N.m
P
c
=198Was
Tutorial2:
Thearmatureofa4poledcmachineisrotangat840rpm.Thearmaturelengthand
diameterare40cmand30cmrespecvely.Theuxperpoleis65mWb.Fora5turnfull
pitchedarmaturecoil:
a.Findtheaverageemfinducedinthecoil.
b.Whatcurrentmustowthroughthecoilifitistodevelopatorqueof8.0N.m?whatis
theresultingconversionpower?
Answer(36.4V,7.25A.;264W.)
CHAPTER2:construction
Electricalmachinesareessentiallyelectricalandmagneticcircuitscoupledtoeachotherto
developemfsandtorques.Actualmachinescanvarygreatlyindetails.
2.1Materials
a.Iron:highmagneticpermeability>>minimizereluctanceofmagneticcircuit>>highworking
fields.
Highgradesteel(e.g.siliconsteels)formagneticcores.Lowergradesteels(e.g.castiron,cast
steel,mildsteel)forconstructionalparts.Relativepermeabilityofthelinearpartofthe
magnetization(BH)curveisoftheorderof1000,andishigherforhighergradesteels.
P a g e |15
Saturationlimitsmaximumfluxdensityin
ironto2Torless;theresulngaverage
gapuxdensityisthenaround0.8Tfor
practicalindustrialmachines.
b.copper:highelectricconductivity>>>
minimizeresistanceofelectriccircuits>>
highworkingcurrents.Aluminumis
seldomusedbecauseofspacelimitations;
(whyissilvernotusedeitheraslongasits
resistivityisthelowest?)
c.Air:airgapinpathoffluxnecessaryto
allowmotion.
d.Insulatingmaterials:theyarenecessarytoinsulateconductorsfromeachotherandfrom
adjacentironparts(whicharealsoconducting).
Theeconomicfactor:machinesaregenerallydesignedtoyieldtherequiredperformanceat
minimumcost.
Cost:costofmaterials+costofmanufacture.
Requiredperformance:describedintermsofoperatingvoltage,current,power,torque,speed,
efficiency,weight,volume,reliability,temperaturerise,function,noise,pollution,etc.
2.2Losses
Powerlossesindcmachinesinclude:copperlosses(I
2
.Rlossesinconductors);ironlosses(
hysteresis&eddycurrents);frictionandwindage.Alllossesareundesirablebecausethey
representwastedpower,andcausethetemperaturetorise.
Materialsretaintheirdesiredproperties(electrical,magnetic,andmechanical)withinspecific
temperaturelimits.Temperatureriseismostcriticaltoinsulatingmaterials:theirinsulation
capabilitydeterioratesatsucientlyhightemperatures(around100
o
C,dependingonthe
particularinsulator),andultimatelybreaksdowncausingshortcircuitsandpossiblytotal
machinefailure.Tolimittemperaturerise,themachinedesignmustminimizelosses,and
provideforefficientoperation.
Inge
dissip
made
Chan
buta
These
inthe
ofste
0.51
toget
insula
Stack
Ele
neral,heat
patedonlyth
elarger,whi
gingmagnet
lsoinironp
eeddycurr
eiron.Tolim
eellaminatio
.0mmthick
ther.Thelam
atedsurface
kingfactor=
u
ectiical Nach
A
isgenerated
hroughitssu
chmeansth
ticfieldsind
arts.Asiron
rentsdistor
mittheselos
ons(instead
kwithinsulat
minationsar
eswillbeint
uscIuI Icngth
totaI Icngth

hines Notes
ActualDC
dthroughth
urface.Toim
hatmachine
duceemfsn
nhasarelati
rtthefieldd
ses,andthe
ofsolidstee
tedfacets(
estackedin
thewayofc
0.90.97

Machine
hevolumeof
mprovecooli
sbecomebi
otonlyinco
velysmallre
distributiona
eresultingte
el);theseare
paperorsui
thedirectio
irculatingcu
Bi. AF B
ftheconduc
ingofsuchp
igger.
oppercondu
esistivity,cu
and,moreim
emperature
epuncheds
tablecoan
onoftheind
urrents.
BATI
ctororironc
parts,theirs
uctors(which
rrentswillc
mportant,yie
rise,somec
heets(orsta
ng)stackeda
ducedemfs
P a g e
Pa
core,butcan
surfacesmus
hisdesirable
irculateinit
eldI
2
.Rloss
coresarema
ampings)aro
andbolted
othatthe
e |16
ge 16
nbe
stbe
e),
t.
ses
ade
ound
MAIN
2.3St
Yoke
Poles
areu
reluc
airga
Field
coils.
areco
2.4R
Thea
form
mean
Ele
NPARTSOFA
tator(field)
:lowergra
s:coreands
suallylamin
tanceofthe
ap;and(iii)p
coils:provid
i.e.2ormo
onnectedto
otor(armat
armatureism
acylindero
nsofaspide
ectiical Nach
ADCMACH
desteel;sup
hoes;highg
nated(fluxfl
eairgap(by
providemec
dethemmff
orecoilsone
ogetherelect
ture)
madeofhigh
ordrum.Itis
erforlargerm
hines Notes
HINE(seefigu
pportspoles
gradesteel.
uctuationdu
increasingit
hanicalsupp
forthemain
eachpole.T
trically.
hgradestee
mountedo
machines).I

ureonpage
s;returnpat
Polecorem
uetorotatin
tsarea);(ii)
portforthe
nworkingflu
Thecoilsofo
ellamination
ntheshaft(
tmayhave
Bi. AF B
previouspa
hforflux;en
mayormayn
ngarmature
improveflux
fieldcoils.
ux.Therema
onesetareid
nspuncheda
(directlyfor
radialandax
BATI
age)
nclosesmac
notbelamin
slots).Pole
xdensitydis
aybemoret
denticaltoe
andstacked
smallmachi
xialventilati
P a g e
Pa
hine.
ated.Polesh
shoes(i)red
stributionin
thanoneset
eachother,a
togetherto
nes,andby
ionductsfor
e |17
ge 17
hoes
duce
the
tof
and
o
r
P a g e |18
Cooling.Thearmaturewindingsareplacedinslotsaroundthearmatureperiphery.The
conductorsareheldinplacebywedges,orbybandswrappedaroundthearmature.The
slotsaresometimesskewedtoreducenoise.
2.5Airgap
Theairgapisthespacebetweenstatorandrotorneededtoallowrelativemotionbetween
them(i.eitismechanicallynecessary).Magnetically,itintroducesahighreluctanceinthepath
oftheworkingflux(mostofthefieldmmfisconsumedintheairgap);itisthereforemadeas
shortaspossible,typically0.55.0mm.Thearmaturesurfaceandthepoleshoesfacingit
requireprecisemachiningtoavoidasymmetryandvibration.
2.6Commutator
Thefunctionofthecommutatoristointerfacebetweenthealternatingcurrentsandemfsin
therotatingarmaturecoilsontheoneside,andthedirectcurrentandvoltageatthemachine
terminals.Itismadeupofcoppersegmentsinsulatedfromeachotherandmountedonthe
shaft(i.eitrotateswiththerotor)inacylindricalform.Vringsholdthebarsinplace.Theleads
ofeacharmaturecoilareconnectedtorisers(eachofthetwoleadsofacoilgoestoadifferent
commutatorsegment).
Brushesarecarbonorgraphiteblocksmountedinstationaryholderswithspringpressureto
maintaingoodelectricalcontactwiththerotatingcommutatorsegments.Thebrusheswear
outwithtimeandmustbereplacedregularly.
Thecommutatorisacriticalpartofthemachine:frombrushes,carbonfillingsanddirt
accumulatecausingcurrentleakagebetweensegments.Intermittentcontactbetweenbrushes
andsegmentsoftenleadstosparking,whichmaybecomequiteserious.
2.7Mechanicalitems
Shaft;spider;bearings(withgreasepackorlubricationsystem).
Bolts;clamps,spacers,brackets.
Enclosure
eye;base
Terminal
2.8Smal
Verysma
annularm
Themag
machine
armature
Thecurre
threearm
Ele
e(frame);ve
e.
box;shaftm
l(miniature
alldcmoto
magnetthat
netfitswith
shownmay
emayhavet
entexcitedf
maturecoils
ectiical Nach
entilationw
mountedfan
e)machines
rsareoen
tmaybecro
hinasteelho
ybereplaced
threeslots(
fieldshown
tothethree
hines Notes
indows,liftin
n;brushgea
madewith
ssmagnetiz
ousingwhic
dbyPMs(at
andthreete
mayberepl
esegmentco

ng
r;etc.
PMelds.Th
zedasshown
hprovidest
textracost)
eeth)assho
lacedbyaP
ommutator;
Bi. AF B
he2polem
n,oritmay
heyoke.The
).Forsuchm
own,oritma
M.Notecar
;alsonoteth
BATI
achineshow
beradially
esteelblock
miniaturema
ayhavefive
efullytheco
helocationo
P a g e
Pa
wnhasan
magnetized
ksinthe4po
achines,the
slotsandte
onnectionof
ofthebrush
e |19
ge 19
d.
ole
eeth.
fthe
es.
P a g e |20
2.9Machineratings
Thenameplateofamachineservestoidentifythemachine.
Itgivesratedvoltage,current,power,speed,andpossiblyother
datausefultotheuser.Themachineratingsarethevaluesof
thevariousparametersforwhichthemachinewillrun
continuouslywithoutoverheatingorotherdamage.Inpractice,theratingscanbeexceededfor
shortperiods.If,however,theratingsareexceededforconsiderableperiodsoftime,there
maybepermanentdamage,particularlytoinsulation.
Machinesareusuallymanufacturedinstandardframesizes.Theyalsocomeindifferent
enclosurestosuitvariousenvironmentalconditionsandduties(e.g.dripproof,splashproof,
andsubmersible).
Allmaterialsaresubjecttophysicallimitations,i.e.limitsbeyondwhichtheynolongerretain
theirdesiredphysicalcharacteristics.Properdesignanduseofmachines(andindeedall
apparatus)shouldensurethatnoneoftheconstituentmaterialsexceedsitsphysical
limitationsundernormaloperatingconditions.
Toselectanappropriatemachineforhissystem,theusermustknowclearlytherequirements
ofthatapplication(e.g.speed,voltage,power,etc.)andtheconditionsunderwhichthe
machinewillberunning.Hewillthenbeabletoselectthemosteconomicalmachinethat
meetstheserequirementsandconditions.
Chapter3:Armaturewindings
Thecoilsonthearmatureareconnectedtoeachotherandtothecommutatorsegmentsto
formwhatiscalledanarmaturewinding.
3.1Coildetails
Coilsides:activepartsofcoil;placedinsideslots.
Coilspan:separationbetweenthetwocoilsidesalongthearmaturesurface(i.e.thearc
coveredbythecoil).
Fullpitchedcoil:coilspanexactlyequaltopolepitch.
Chordedorshortpitchedcoil:coilspanslightlyless(orpossiblymore)thananexactpolepitch.
P a g e |21
Allsectionsofthecoilareinsulated:fromeachother,fromadjacentcoils,andfromcoreiron.
Thelevelofinsulationatanypointisdeterminedbythepotentialdifferencebeinginsulated.
Coilsdesignedforlowvoltageandhighcurrenthavefewturnsoflargesections;conversely,
coilsforhighvoltageandlowcurrenthavemanyturnsofsmallsections.Largemachineshave
fewturns/coil,possiblyonlyone,madeofpreformedcopperbars.Smallmachinescoilsare
madeofmanyturnsofflexiblewirewoundandbenttoshape.
3.2Twolayerwindings
Machinewindingaremadeintwolayers:foreachcoil,onecoilsideisplacedinthetophalfof
itsslot(toplayer),andthesecondcoilsideisplacedinthebottomhalfofitsslot(bottom
layer).Thismakesiteasytoarrangeendconnections(front&back)inaregularmanner;all
coilsarethenidenticalsothatthewindingissymmetricalandcompact.Thereareatleasttwo
coilsidesineachslot,oneinthetoplayerandoneinbottomlayer.Inlargemachines,there
maybe2,3,4,etc.coilsidesperslot.
Forexample,ifwehave3coilsides/slot/layerand2turns/coilthen:
Numberofconductors/slot/layer=3X2=6
Conductors/slot=2X6=12(also,wecansay6coilsides/slot)

3.3Somenumbers
C=totalnumberofcoilsonarmature;N=numberofturnsineachcoil;
NC=totalnumberofloops;Z=totalnumberofarmatureconductors=2NC
2C=Z/N=totalnumberofcoilsides;S=totalnumberofslotsinarmature;
Z/S=2NC/S=numberofconductors/slot;2C/S=numberofcoilsides/slot;
NC/S=numberofconductors/slot/layer;C/S=numberofcoilsides/slot/layer;
S/2P=numberofslots/pole=polepitchmeasuredinslots.
P a g e |22
3.4Interconnectionofcoils
Allthecoilsonthearmatureareconnectedtogethertoformasingleclosedcircuit(calledthe
armaturewinding):startingwithanycoil,itsendisconnectedtothebeginningofasecondcoil;
theendofthesecondcoilisconnectedtothebeginningofathirdcoil,andsoon.Thisis
repeateduntilthelastcoil,Cthcoil,isreached;itsendisconnectedtothebeginningofthefirst
coil,sothatthecircuitisclosed.Theinterconnectionsbetweenthecoilsaremadeonthe
commutator:thesecondleadofthe1
st
coilandtherstleadofthe2
nd
coilaresoldered
togetherontheriserofonecommutatorsegment;thesecondleadofthe2
nd
coilandthefirst
leadofthe3
rd
coilaresolderedtogetherontheriserofanothercommutatorbsegment;finally,
thesecondleadofthelast(Cth)coilandtherstleadofthe1
st
coilaresolderedtotheriserof
onecommutatorsegment.
123C1CCoils
Commutatorsegments
Afulllineindicatesacoilsidelyinginthetoplayer,andadashedlineindicatesacoilsidelying
inthebottomlayer.Arrowsoncoilsidesmaybetakentoindicatedirectionofeitherinduced
emforcurrent.
Itshouldberememberedthat
Totalnumberofcommutatorsegments=totalnumberofcoils=C
3.5Windingschemes
Armaturecoilsmaybeinterconnectedaccordingtooneoftwoschemes,givingrisetotwo
typesofarmaturewindings,lapandwave.
y
C
=commutatorpitch=numberofcommutatorsegmentsadvancedfromthefirstcoilleadto
thesecond(sameforallcoils).
3.5.1Lap
Inlapwi
leadfrom
connecte
y
C
=1
Thewind
therstc
choiceof
3.5.2Wa
Inwavew
approxim
segment
y
C
=(C1
Aftertrav
theinitia
(retrogre
Ele
Lapw
pWinding
indings,the
msideais
edtosegme
dingiscontin
coil.Alapw
fprogressive
Progressiv
Y
C
=1
avewinding
windings,th
matelytwop
sorcoils,i.
1)/P>>>>
versingallp
alone,either
essive).
ectiical Nach
winding
etwocoilen
connectedt
ntx1.Thu
nueduntilal
indingcanb
eorretrogre
ve
g
etwocoilen
polepitches
.e.C/2p).T
C=p.y
C
1
olepairs,th
rtheonejus
hines Notes
dsareconne
tocommutat
us
llcoilsaretr
bemadeto
essivewindin
Re
y
ndsareconn
apart(whe
Thecommut
ewindingsh
stafterit(p

wav
ectedtoadj
torsegment
raversedupt
tanynumb
ngshasnos
etrogressive
y
C
=1
nectedtoco
ereapolepit
tatorpitchis
houldreturn
rogressive),
Bi. AF B
vewinding
acentcomm
tx,thenthe
tothelastc
berofcoilsa
ignificantef
ommutators
tchisnowm
sthen
ntoacomm
,ortheone
BATI
mutatorsegm
eleadfrom
oilC,which
ndpoles,C
ffect.
segmentsth
measuredin
utatorsegm
justbefore
P a g e
Pa
ments;i.e.if
sidebis
thencloses
and2p.Th
atare
numberof
mentadjacen
it
e |23
ge 2S
fthe
son
he
ntto
Thewind
Unliketh
poles:in
integer.(
beleftou
notconn
Ele
dingiscontin
helapwindin
theabovee
(Ifawavew
ut;formech
nectedelectr
y
C
ectiical Nach
nueduntilal
ng,thewave
equation,the
windingisto
hanicalbalan
rically).
hines Notes
llcoilsaretr
ewindingca
evaluesofC
beplacedo
nce,dummy

raversedwit
nnotbemad
Candpmu
nanunsuita
coilsarepla
Bi. AF B
hthelastco
detofitjust
ustbesucht
ablearmatur
acedinthese
BATI
oilclosingon
tanynumbe
thaty
C
turn
re,somecoi
epositions(
P a g e
Pa
nthefirstco
erofcoilsan
nsouttobe
ilpositionsm
dummycoi
e |24
ge 24
il.
d
an
must
lsare
Ele ectiical Nachhines Notes Bi. AF BBATI

P a g e
Pa
e |25
ge 2S

P a g e
Pa
e |26
ge 26

P a g e
Pa
e |27
ge 27

P a g e
Pa
e |28
ge 28

P a g e
Pa
e |29
ge 29

P a g e
Pa
e |30
ge Su

P a g e
Pa
e |31
ge S1

P a g e
Pa
e |32
ge S2

P a g e
Pa
e |33
ge SS

P a g e
Pa
e |34
ge S4
Ele ectiical Nachhines Notes
Bi. AF BBATI
P a g e
Pa
e |35
ge SS

P a g e
Pa
e |36
ge S6

P a g e
Pa
e |37
ge S7

P a g e
Pa
e |38
ge S8
P a g e |39
Electiical Nachines Notes Bi. AF BATI Page S9
3.6Parallelpaths
Fromtheprevioussection,itcanbeseenthatthearmaturecoilsformaclosedwindingthatis
tappedbythebrushesatcertainpoints.Ineffect,thebrushesdividesthewindingintoa
numberofparallelpathseachofwhichiscomposedofanumberofcoilsinseries.Theterminal
currentisdividedamongtheparallelpaths.Atanymomentduringoperation,thereareshort
circuitedcoils;thesearenotincludedinthepaths.Thecircuitdiagramsforthelapandwave
windingsareshownbelow.Ineachcase,theterminalvoltageisequaltothevoltageofthe
individualparallelpaths.
Fromthesequencediagraminpage29forthelapwdg.,itcanbeseenthatallthebrushesare
necessary:ifanybrushisremoved,therewillbeopposingemfsinseries(whichwouldcancel
out).Thusthenumberofbrushesisequaltothenumberofpoles,andhencethenumberof
parallelpathsisalsoequaltothenumberofpoles:
Lapwdg:2a=2p,>>>a=p,2a=numberofparallelpaths;a=numberofpairsofparallelpaths
Fromthesequencediagraminpage36forthewavewdg,ontheotherhand,itcanbeseenthat
onlytwobrushesarereallynecessary;alternatebrushesareconnectedtoeachotherinternally
throughshortcircuitedcoils.Thus2brushesmaybedisconnectedandremovedwithout
affectinginducedemfsandcurrents.Inotherwords,thebrushesdividethewdgintotwo
parallelpathsonly:
Wavewdg:2a=2,>>>>>a=1.
Theextrabrushesmayberemoved,butinpractice,theyaresometimeskepttoobtainbetter
currentdistributionoverthecommutator.
Generalsymbolicrepresentation

P a g e |40
3.7Comparisonoflapandwavewindings
Alapwdghas2pparallelpathsandmusthave2pbrushes(orbrushgroups).Awavewdghas
twoparallelpathsandrequiresonlytwobrushes(orbrushgroups),butitcanhave2pbrushes.
Alapwdgcanbemadetofitanynumberofcoilsandpoles.Awavewdgcanbefittedonlyifthe
numberofcoilsandpolesyieldanintegercommutatorpitchy
C
(=(C 1)/p).
Abrushonalapwdggenerallyshortcircuitsonecoilduringcommutation.Inawavewdg
havingonlytwobrushes,eachbrushshortcircuitspcoilsinseries;inawavewdghaving2p
brushes,acoilisshortcircuitedbytwobrushesinseries.
Assumenowthatagivenwdgcanbeconnectedineitherlaporwave.Thecoilemfandcurrent
arethesameinbothcases.Thelapconnectedwdgwillhaveahighterminalcurrentandalow
terminalvoltage,whilethewaveconnectedwdgwillhavealowterminalcurrentandahigh
terminalvoltage(for2p 4).Thetwowdgswillhavethesamepower.
Conversely,assumeamachineistohaveaspecifiedterminalvoltageandaspecifiedterminal
current.Ifitisconnectedinlap,itwillhavealowcurrentpercoil,andahighvoltagepercoil;
thereforeeachcoilwillhavemanyturnsofsmallcrosssection,andahigherlevelofinsulation
isneeded.Ifitisconnectedinwave,itwillhaveahighcurrentpercoilandalowvoltageper
coil;thereforethecoilswillhaverelativelyfewturnsandlargesections,andarelativelylower
levelofinsulationisneeded.Inthisrespect,wavewdgsarebetterthanlapwdgsbecausethey
allowforbettercoolingofwdgs,andbecausetheyhavehigherspacefactors(spacefactor=
copperarea/totalslotarea).Ingeneral,wavewdgsareusedinalmostallmachinesupto
50KW,andinallhighvoltagemachines.Lapwdgsareusedmostlyinlargemachineshavinglow
voltage/highcurrentratings.
3.8Equalizers
Inlapwdgs,eachpathisassociatedwithapairofpoles.Thusifthereisasymmetryinthe
magneticcircuit(duetowearofbearings,oreccentricityofshaft),theemfsinducedinthe
pathswillnotallexactlyequaltoeachother.Unequalemfsconnectedinparallelgiveriseto
circulatingcurrentsthatcanbequitelarge,causingheavyandunnecessaryheating.
Toreducethiseffect,pointsthatshouldhavethesamevoltageareconnectedtoeachotherby
meansofequalizers(orequalizingconnections,orequalizingrings).Suchpointsarelocated
twopolepitchesapart.Eachequalizingringisconnectedtoppointsinalternatepaths.
Inthewavewdg,thereareonlytwopathsthroughthearmature.Thecoilsofeachpathare
distributeduniformlyaroundthearmature,andhencecoverallpolepairs.Anyasymmetryin
P a g e |41
themagneticcircuitwillhavethesameeffectonbothpaths,sothatthetwoinducedemfs
willbeidentical.Thuswavewdgsdonotrequireequalizers,whichisanotheradvantageofwave
wdgs.
I
RI
C
RVAtnoloadI=0andI
C
=
E1-E2
2R

E
1
E
2
3.9Multiplexwindings
Thelapandwavewdgsdescribedsofararecalledsimpleorsimplexwdgs.Duplexwdgsare
composedoftwosimplexwdgsinterleavedaroundthearmature,andconnectedsoastohave
twiceasmanyparallelpaths:
Duplexlapwdg:2a=4pDuplexwavewdg:2a=4
a=2pa=2
similarly,theremaybetriplexwdgs,andsoon.Suchmultiplexwdgsarerarelyused.
3.10Armaturecalculations
Considerasymmetricalwdgcomposedof2aidencalparallelpaths.Ithas
C/2acoils/path,I
p
C/acoilsides/paths, I
p
V
A
Z/2a=NC/aconductor/pathR
p
LetE
p
E
p
=inducedemfineachpath;
P a g e |42
I
p
=currentflowingthrougheachpath;brushI
A
R
p
=resistanceofeachpath.R
pp
V
A
AlsoletE
A

V
A
=armatureterminalvoltage;
I
A
=armatureterminalcurrent;Theveninequivalentforarmaturewdg
E
A
=armatureemf=Theveninequivalentemfforarmaturewinding;
R
pp
=Theveninequivalentresistanceforarmaturewinding;
R
A
=totaleffectivearmatureresistance.
ApplyingKVL:
Generator:V
A
=E
A
I
A
.R
A
Motor:V
A
=E
A
+I
A
.R
A
3.10.1Armatureresistance
Singleloop:R
loop
=
pI
m
A

Where =resistivityofcopperattheworkingtemperature;I
A
I
A
l
m
=meanlengthofasingleloop;R
A
R
A
A=crosssectionalareaoftheconductor.V
A
V
A
coilR
coil
=NxR
loop
=
NpI
m
A
E
A
E
A
PathR
p
=
C
2a
XR
coil
=
NCpI
m
2aA
=
ZpI
m
4aA
Winding:R
pp
=
1
2a
R
p
=
NCpI
m
4a
2
A
=
ZpI
m
8a
2
A
GeneratorMotor
Commonsymbolicrepresentationofarmaturewinding
Effectivearmatureresistance:R
A
=R
pp
+R
brushes
+R
contact
;
R
brushes
istheresistanceofthecarbonbrushes.R
contact
istheresistanceofthe
brush/commutatorcontactsurface;itisnonlinear,andisusuallytakenasequivalenttoa
constantvoltdrop(forexample1volt).
G M
P a g e |43
3.10.2Armatureemf
Theaveragecoilemfderivedinsecon1.9isthesameforallarmaturecoils.Thus,foreach
path
E
p
=
C
2a
XE
coil
=
2pCN
a
n.
Butallpathsareinparallelwitheachother,sothatthearmatureemfisequaltotheindividual
pathemfs:
E
A
=E
p
=
C
2a
XE
coil
=
2pCN
a
n.=K
e
.n.(K
e
=
2pCN
a
=
Zp
a
)
Analternativeexpressioncanbeobtainedintermsof
r
(=2.n):
E
A
=(K
e
/2)
r
.=K.
r
.(K=K
e
/2=
2pCN
a
=
Zp
2a
)
3.10.3Torque
AccordingtoKCL,theterminalcurrentI
A
isthesumofallpathcurrents:
I
A
=2aXI
p
>>>>>>I
p
=I
A
/2a
Apathiscomposedofcoilsinseries,sothatthepathcurrentI
p
flowsthroughtheindividual
coils:
I
coil
=I
p
Theaveragecoiltorquewasderivedinsecon1.19:
T
coil
=
2p
N.I
coil
.=
2p
N.I
p
.=
pN
a
.I
A
.
Thetotalarmaturetorqueisthesumofallcoiltorquesactinginthesamedirectionandaiding
eachother:
T=CXT
coil
=
pCN
a
.I
A
.=K.I
A
.(K==
pCN
a
=
Zp
2a
asbefore)
3.10.4Conversionpower
Theconversionpowercorrespondingtoelectromechanicalenergyconversioninthemachineis
givenby:
Ontheelectricalside:P
C
=E
A
.I
A
P a g e |44
Onthemechanicalside::P
C
=
r
.T
NotethatP
C
=E
A
.I
A
=(k.K.I
A
.).
r
=
r
.T
UsingP
in
todenoteinputpowertothearmature,andP
out
todenoteoutputpowerfromthe
armature,wehave:
Generator:P
in
=
r
.T=P
C
,P
out
=V
A
.I
A
=E
A
.I
A
I
A
2
.R
A
=P
C
P
Cu
Motor:P
in
=V
A
.I
A
=E
A
.I
A
+I
A
2
.R
A
=P
C
+P
Cu
,P
out
=
r
.T=P
C
P
Cu
isthetotalcopperloss(orohmicloss)inthearmature.
Example3:
A6polemachinehas53slotswith8conductors/slot.Theuxperpoleis50mWb,andthe
speedis420rpm.Calculate:
1.Thenumberofturnspercoil;
2.E
coil
,E
A;
3.T
coil,
T;
4.conversionpower,Ifthewindingis(a)simplelapwinding;
(b)simplewavewinding.
AssumearmaturecurrenttobeI
A
=50A.
Solution:(a)simplelapwinding
2a=2p=6,C=53,Z=53x8=424conductors,2C=Z/N=2X53=106>N=424/106=4turns/coil
E
coil
=NxE
loop
=4X4p.n.=16X3X(420/60)X50X10
3
=16.8V.
E
A
=E
p
=(C/2a).E
coil
=53X16.8/6=148.4V.
OrE
A
=
2pCN
a
n.=148.4V.
T
coil
=NXT
loop
=4X
pN
a
.I
A
.=3.183N.m
T=C.T
coil
=53X3.183=168.7N.m
P
c
=E
A
.I
A
=148.4X50=7420W.
P a g e |45
.(b)Simplewavewinding
2a=2,E
coil
=16.8V.
E
A
=E
p
=53X16.8/2=445.2V.
T
coil
=N.T
loop
=
pN
a
.I
A
.=9.549N.m
T=C.T
coil
=506.11N.m
P
c
=E
A
.I
A
=22260W.
Tutorial3:
A6pole,1500rpmdcmachineislapwoundwith732acveconductors,eachcarrying20A.
Theuxperpoleis30mWb.(a)ndI
A
,E
A
,TandP
c
.
.(b)Repeatpart(a)ifthemachineisreconnectedinsimplewave.
Example4:
A10polesimplelapwoundgeneratorisratedat110V.,600A.,and750rpm.Ithasa
windingresistanceof7.2m,andiswoundin163slotswith4coilsides/slotand2
turns/coil.Assumeabrushvoltagedropof1.5V.(a)ndtheratedloadpower,(b)ndthe
resistance,emf,andterminalvoltagepercoilandperturn,and(c)findthedevelopedtorque
andfluxperpole.
Solution:
P
out
=V
A
.I
A
=110x600=66KW
2a=2p=10
R
P
=R
A
x10=72m
Coilsides=SXcoilsides/slot
2C=163X4=652coilsides
C=326coils
Coils/path=32.6
P a g e |46
R
coil
=
R
coIIspath
=72/32.6=2.2m
E
A
=V
A
+I
A
.R
A
+V
brushes
=110+600X0.0072+2x1.5=117.32V.=E
p
E
coil
=
E
coIIspath
=117.32/32.6=3.55V.=4pNn>>>>>=7.1mWb.
V
coil
=E
coi
I
P
.R
coil
=3.417V.
V
turn
=E
turn
I
P
.R
turn
=1.7860X1.1X10
3
=1.714V.
T=K.I
A
.=
pCN
a
.I
A
.=5x326X2X600X7.1X10
3
/5=884N.m
Tutorial4:
RepeatthesamerequirementinEx.4,iftheuxandspeedarekeptthesame,forwave
winding.
CHAPTER4THEMAINFIELD
Theoperationofdcmachinesisbasedontheinteractionbetweenthearmatureconductors
andtheairgapfield,whichresultsininducedemfanddevelopedtorque.Themainfieldisthe
fieldproducedbythefieldcoils(orPMs)onthestator.
Tobeabletostudythemainfieldbyitself,weshallassumethereisnoarmaturecurrent,i.e.
themachineisoperatingatnoload.
4.1Mainfielddistribution
Ifthefieldcoilsactalone(i.e.nocurrentinarmatureconductors),thefluxinthedcmachine
willhavethegeneralpattern,suchthatmostofthefluxinthepolecorescrossestheairgapto
linkthearmaturewindings;thisistheusefulfluxperpole.However,someofthefluxlines
completetheirpathswithoutlinkingthearmaturewdg;thisistheleakageflux.
Theusefulfluxisproducedbythemmfofthefieldcoils.ThemmfperpoleM
f
isthesumof
themmfsofallcoilsplacedononepole(whichmaybeone,ortwo,ormore).Thus
M
f
= N
f
.I
F
ampereturn/pole
P a g e |47
Ifyoufollowthelinesoftheusefulflux,youwillfindthatthepathoftheusefulfluxis
composedofthefollowingpartsinseries:statoryoke,polecore,poleshoes,airgap,
armatureteeth,andarmaturecore.Asaseriescircuit,theoverallreluctanceisdominatedby
thehighestreluctancesinthepath,whichare(a)theairgap,and(b)armatureteeth(when
saturated).

ThefigureontheLHSshowsthefluxdistributionalloverthemachine,whilethefigureonthe
RHSshowsthefluxdensitydistributionintheairgap,i.e.theeffectivefieldseenbythe
armatureconductors.Thecurveissmoothifthearmaturesurfaceisassumedtobesmooth;in
fact,armatureslotsintroducearipplethatmovesalongthecurveasthearmaturerotates;we
shallneglecttheslottingeffect.Amuchmoreseriousdistortionofthemainfieldiscausedby
armaturereaction.
4.2Fieldexcitation
Themainfieldmaybeproducedbymeansofpermanentmagnets(PMDC),orbymeansofcoils
placedonthepoles(woundpole).PMsarecompact(smallsize),requirenosupplyforthe
field,andareeconomicalinoperation(noohmiclosses);however,theyareveryexpensive.
Woundpolemachinesaremuchcheaper,andallowcontrolofthefield;theyaremuchmore
commonlyused.
Fieldcoilsinwoundpolemachinesmaybeconnectedinvariousways.Theymaybedividedas
follows:
Separatelyexcited:fieldcoilssuppliedfromseparatesource.
P a g e |48
Selfexcited:fieldcoilsareconnectedwiththearmature.Theymaybeinparallel(shuntfield),
orinseries.Compoundmachineshavebothshuntandseriesfields.
Shuntfieldcoilsaremadeofmanyturnsofthinwire;theyaredesignedtocarryacurrentmuch
smaller(lessthan10%)thanthearmaturecurrentI
A
.Theshuntfieldcurrentmaybecontrolled
byconnectingavariableresistor(rheostat)inserieswiththecoils.
Seriesfieldcoilsaremadeofjustafewturnsofthickwire;theycarrythearmaturecurrentI
A
(inshortshuntcompoundmachines,theseriesfieldcurrentdiffersfromthearmaturecurrent
byanamountequaltotheshuntfieldcurrent,whichissmall).Theseriesfieldcurrentmaybe
controlledbyplacingavariableresistorinparallelwiththecoils.
Compoundmachinesmaybeconnectedinlongshuntorinshortshunt.Thereisnomajor
differencebetweenthetwotypesofconnection.Theshuntandseriescoilsmayproducefields
thataideachother,andcompoundingissaidtobecumulative;conversely,theshuntandseries
fieldsmayopposeeachother,andthecompoundingisthensaidtobedifferential.Ingeneral,
theshuntfieldissubstantiallygreaterthantheseriesfield,andhencedominates.
Fromtheabove,itshouldbeclearthattheresistanceofshuntfieldcoilsisquitelarge,while
thatofseriesfieldcoilsisquitesmall.Moreover,controlofthefieldcurrentresultsincontrol
oftheinducedemf,andhencecontrolofgeneralmachineoperation.
Somespecialpurposedcmachineshavemorethantwosetsoffieldcoils;eachsetofcoilsis
fedfromadifferentcontrollingsignal,sothatmotoroperationisdeterminedbytheoverall
combinationofcontrollingsignals.Suchmotorsarecommonlyusedincontrolapplications.
P a g e |49
4.3Themagnetizationcurve
Inwoundpolemachines,thefluxisproducedbythefieldexcitation,i.e.bythemmfofthe
fieldcoils.Themagnetizationcurveistherelationshipbetweenthefluxperpoleandthe
mmfperpoleM
f
producingit.
M
f
isappliedtoamagneticcircuitcomposedoftheairgapreluctanceinserieswiththe
reluctanceofironparts(assumingtheleakagefluxisnegligible).Theairgapreluctanceis
constant,butthereluctanceofironpartsincreasesastheyenterintosaturation.
Atlowexcitation(sayM
f1
),theironisunsaturatedsothatitspermeabilityisveryhigh,andits
reluctanceisnegligiblerelativetothatoftheairgap;themmfdropintheironisnegligible,
andpracticallyalltheappliedmmfM
f1
istakenupindrivingtheflux
1
acrosstheairgap.At
higherexcitation(sayM
f2
),ironpartsbegintosaturatesothattheirpermeabilitygoesdown
andtheirreluctancegoesup;themmfdropintheironisnolongernegligiblerelativetothe
mmfdropintheairgap.TheappliedmmfM
f2
dividesbetweentheairgapandtheiron
accordingtotheratiooftheirreluctances(similartovoltagedivisioninelectriccircuits).Asthe
excitationisincreasedfurther(to,say,M
f3
),theironpartsaredrivenfurtherintosaturationso
thattheyconsumealargerproportionoftheappliedmmfM
f3
;indeed,themmfdropiniron
maybecomegreaterthanthemmfdropintheairgap.Armature
teethsaturatefirst,followedbythepoles,andthenthearmature
coreandyoke.
Therelationshipbetweenthefluxperpoleandthemmfdrop
intheairgap(whichislessthanM
f
)islinear;itisrepresentedby
theairgaplineing.4.4.Atlowexcitaon,themagnezaon
curvefollowstheairgapline.Asexcitationincreases,the
machinebeginstosaturate,andthecurvemovesawayfromthe
line(kneeofthecurve).Atheavyexcitation,themachineiswell
intosaturation,andthecurveiswellawayfromtheline.Itis
notedthatatzerofieldexcitation,thereissomeremanent
magnetism(duetohysteresisintheiron)sothatthefluxis
notzero.
Now,fromchapter3,wehave
E
A
=K
e
.n.=K.
r
.andT=K.I
A
.
WhereK
e
andKareconstantsdependingonmachineparameters.Ifisknown,thenE
A
may
becomputedforagivenspeedn,andTmaybecomputedforagivenI
A
.However,ifitisthe
P a g e |50
Electiical Nachines Notes Bi. AF BATI Page Su
fieldexcitationM
f
thatisknown,wemustfirstfindfromthemagnetizationcurve;the
procedureisgraphicalbecausethereisnoreadyformulagivingintermsofM
f
.
Atagivenconstantspeedn
o
E
Ao
=K
e
.n
o
.
SothattheverticalaxisofthemagnetizationcurvemaybescaledintermsofE
Ao
insteadof.
If,moreover,onlyonefieldwinding(i.e.onesetoffieldcoils)isexcited,then
M
f
=N
f
.I
f
WhereN
f
andI
f
correspondtothewdgexcited;sinceN
f
isconstant,thehorizontalaxisof
themagnetizationcurvemaybescaledintermsofI
f
insteadofM
f
.Theseformsofthe
magnezaoncurveareshowning.s4.5and4.6respecvely.Thelastformofthe
magnetizationcurve(E
A
xI
f
)canbeobtainedexperimentallybythesimpletestshownin
g.4.8:themachineisdrivenatconstantspeedn
o
;thefieldcurrentI
f
isvaried,andthe
correspondingvaluesofemfE
Ao
arerecorded.Ifthetestisperformedatratedspeed,the
resultingmagnetizationcurveiscalledtheopencircuitcharacteristic(OCC).
Toobtainthemagnezaoncurveatdierentspeedsasing.4.7,weneedtoperformthe
(opencircuit)testonlyonceat,say,n
o
;atagivenvalueoffieldcurrent,sayI
fo
,wehave
E
A1
=k
e
.n
1
.=K
e
.n
o
.(n
1
/n
o
)=E
Ao
(n
1
/n
o
)
Thustheemfvaluesatn
1
areobtainedbymultiplyingthecorrespondingemfvaluesatn
o
by
thespeedratio(n
1
/n
o
).
IftheOCCisavailable,themagnetizationcurveE
A
vs.M
f
maybeobtainedifN
f
isknown,
andthemagnetizationcurvevs.M
f
maybeobtainedifK
e
orKisknown.

P a g e |51
TesttomeasureOCC;machinedrivenatconstant
speedn
o
Chapter5ArmatureReaction
Whenamachineisloaded,currentswillflowinthearmaturecoils,andanarmaturefieldisset
up.Thisarmaturereactiondistortsthefielddistributioninthemachine,andresultsinsome
adverseeffectsthatmustbetreatedforsatisfactoryoperation.
5.1Armaturefield
Whenthemachineisloaded,currentflowsinthearmatureconductors,andtendstosetupa
magneceldasshowning.5.1.Thearmaturemaybeviewedasasinglecoilactinginthe
qaxis;mostofthefluxfollowsthepathcomposedof:armteeth,airgap,poleshoes,and
armcore.Noteinparticularthatthearmfieldisperpendiculartothemainfieldshowninfig.
4.1andrepeatedhereing.5.3,whichactsinthedaxis.Thearmaturemmfisdistributed
alongtheairgapasshowning.5.2(withtheactualslotsapproximatedbyaconnuousbelt
ofcurrent).ThearmmmfM
a
peaksattheqaxisandiszeroatthedaxis;itspeakvalueis
M
am
=
1
2
.
Z
2p
.
I
A
2a
=
Z
8pa
.I
A
=
NC
4pa
.I
A
Thearmmmftendstosetuptheairgapuxdensitydistribuonshowning.5.2;although
themmfismaximumattheqaxis,thefluxdensityisseentofallbecauseofthelarge
reluctancethereresultingfromthelongairpath.
P a g e |52
Fig.5.3
Fig.5.4Resultantuxdistribuon
P a g e |53
Electiical Nachines Notes Bi. AF BATI Page SS
Fig.5.5Airgapfluxdensitydistribution
MF:mainfield;
AF:armaturefield;
RF:resultantfield
5.2Resultantfield
Fig.5.1showsthearmeldbyitself,whileg.5.3showsthemaineldbyitself.Notethatthe
mainfieldactsalongthedaxis,whilethearmfieldactsalongtheqaxis.Inthearmcoreand
poleshoes,thetwofieldsareperpendiculartoeachother.Intheairgap,however,thearm
fieldaidsthemainfieldoverahalfpolepitch,andopposesitoverthenexthalfpolepitch.
Superpositionofthetwofieldsyieldstheresultantuxdistribuonshowning.5.4;thisisthe
actualdistributioninthemachinewhenbotharmatureandmainfieldsarepresent,i.eboth
armandfieldwdgsareexcited.Notehowarmaturereactionhasdistortedthefielddistribution;
note,inparticular,howthemagneticneutralaxisisnowshiftedfromtheqaxis(ormechanical
neutralaxis,orbrushaxis).Theairgapfluxdensityisstrengthenedinonepoletipand
weakenedintheotherpolep,asshowning.5.5.thezerocrossingofthefluxdensitywave
isnowshiftedfromtheqaxis.
Thedireconsofmaineldandarmcurrentsing.5.4correspondto(a)generatoroperaon
forCWarmrotation,orto(b)motoroperationforCCWarmrotation;thisiseasilyverifiedby
P a g e |54
nongthatthetorqueonthearmconductorsisCCW.Itisthusseen,fromg.5.4or5.5,that
thefluxispulledinthedirectionofrotationforgeneratoroperation,andinthedirection
oppositetorotationformotoroperation;thustheshiftinthemagneticneutralaxisisinthe
directionofrotationforgeneratoroperation,andinthedirectionoppositetorotationfor
motoroperation.
5.3Demagnetizingeffect
Thearmreactionactsontheqaxisandisthereforegenerallyperpendicularto(orin
quadraturewith)themainfieldwhichactsonthedaxis;itisthuscalledcrossmagnetizing
armaturereaction.Foralinearmagneticcircuit,thecrossmagarmreactionhasnoeffecton
,theusefulfluxperpole:thearmmmfinonehalfpolepitchisequalandoppositetothearm
mmfintheotherhalf;thereforeitaddsandsubtractsequalamountstothemainfluxwhich
thusremainsunchanged.ItfollowsthattheaverageemfE
A
=k.
r
.andtheaveragetorque
T=K.I
A
.areunaffectedbycrossmagARbecauseitselfisunaffected.However,becauseof
thedistortionoftheairgapuxdensity,g.5.5,theinstantaneousemfandtorqueareno
longerthesameforallconductorsunderthepoleface.
Butthemagneticcircuitisactuallynonlinearbecauseitincludesironpartswhichtendto
saturateathighfields.Inthehalfpolepitchwherethearmmmfaidsthemainfield,theiron
parts(armteethandpoletips)aredrivendeeplyintosaturationsothattheincreaseinflux
densitythereislessthanthedecreaseinfluxdensityintheotherhalfpolepitch(wherearm
mmfopposesmainfieldsothatironpartsaredrivendownthekneeofthemagcurveintothe
linearpart).Thismeansthatthepeaksofthedistortedfluxdensitywavearechippedoffas
shownbydoedcurvesing.5.5.Italsomeansthatthereisanetdecreasein;i.e.cross
magnetizingARhasademagnetizingeffect.Thedecreaseinresultsinreductionofthe
averageemfE
A
andaveragetorqueT.
Clearly,then,theeffectivemagnetizationcurveonload(I
A
>0)liessomewhatbelowtheOCC(I
A
=0),and
islowerforhigherarmaturecurrents;seeg.5.6.ThecurvesmergewiththeOCCattheairgapline
becausethereisnosaturationatlowexcitation.
ThereductionintheusefulfluxduetoARisanonlinearfunctionofbothfieldandarmaturemmfs,
andhenceoffieldandarmaturecurrents,I
f
andI
A
.ThedemagnetizingeffectofARmaybe
representedasareductionininducedemf, E ,orasareductionineffectivefieldcurrent, I
f
;
seeg.5.7.AtaeldcurrentI
f
andzeroarmcurrentI
A
=0,wehave
V
A
=E
A
andE
A
=E
Aoc
thenV
A
=E
A
=E
Aoc
AtthesamefieldcurrentI
f
,butwithanonloadarmcurrentI
A 0
,wehave
V
A
=E
A
I
A
.R
A
andE
A
=E
Aoc
E >>>>>V
A
=(E
Aoc
E )
I
A
.R
A
P a g e |55
Electiical Nachines Notes Bi. AF BATI Page SS
OrV
A
=E
Aoc
(I
A
.R
A
E )
ThuswemayviewE
Aoc
astheinducedemf,and E asavoltagedropthatsubtractsfromthearm
resistancedropI
A
.R
A
formotoroperation,andaddstoitforgeneratoroperation.Alternatively,we
mightviewARasareductionineffectivefieldmmf:atafieldcurrentI
f
andanarmcurrentI
A
,the
effectivefieldcurrentis
I
f
=I
f
I
f
OntheOCC,I
f
givestheactualinducedemfE
A
,whileI
f
givestheemfE
Aoc
whichwouldbeinduced
whentheloadisremoved.
Fig.5.6Eectofloadonmagnezaoncurve.Fig.5.7Representaonof
Demagnetizingeffectofarmature
Reaction.
Exercise
TheOCCofadcmachinerunningat800rpmisgiveninthetablebelow.Plotit,(a)onthesame
graph,plotthecurvesat600rpmandat1000rpm.(b)ifeacheldcoilhas630turns,plotthe
magnetizationcurvesE
A
vs.M
f
.(c)ifthemachineiswavewoundwith6poles,andhas46armature
coilsof3turnseach,plotthemagnetizationcurveasvs.M
f
.(d)at800rpm,esmatethemmf
dropsintheairgapandintheironwhentheemfis50,100,150,200,250,and00volts.(e)whatisthe
P a g e |56
residual(orremanent)fluxperpole?(f)whatistheinducedemfwhenthefieldcurrentis5.5A.and
thespeedis1500rpm?.
I
f
(amps)
0.3.511.522.533.544.55678910
E
A
(volts)
8284694.5143175195.521122424.5248.5251.5265276.5286294302
ThedcmachinewhoseOCCisgivenintheabovetablehasawdgresistanceof75manda
constantbrushcontactdropof1.5V.Themagcurvesatdierentarmatureloadingsandconstant
speed800rpmarelistedinthetablegivenbelow.Plotthesecurves,togetherwiththeOCC.Overthe
fieldcurrentrangeshownhere.(a)determine E ,and I
f
whenthearmcurrentis80Aandthe
eldcurrentis8A.(b)determinetheterminalvoltagewhentheeldcurrentis7Aandthearmcurrent
is60A,andthemachineisoperangasagenerator.(c)repeatpartbformotoroperaon.(d)ifthe
machineisoperangasageneratorwithterminalvoltage260Vandarmaturecurrent100A,fi
I
f
3.544.55678910
E
A
I
A
=
100
217225.5232.5239.5252262.5270.5277283
I
A
=
80
219228235.5243256267275.5283290
I
A
=
60
221230.5238.5246.5260271.5280.5288.5296
P a g e |57
5.4Effectsofarmaturereaction
ThedistortionofthefieldduetoARhasanumberofadverse(bad)effects:
(1) Demagnezingeectasdiscussedinsecon5.3:asarmcurrentincreases,theuseful
fluxperpoledecreases,andhencetheinducedemfanddevelopedtorquedecrease.
(2) Shiftofthemagneticneutralaxisfromthebrushaxismeansthatcoilsidesofcoils
undergoingcommutationaresubjectedtononzerofluxdensity,sothatanonzeroemf
isinducedinthem.
(3)ARconcentratestheuxatonepolep,g.5.5.Althoughtheaverageemfis
approximatelythesame(slightlyreducedg.5.6),theinstantaneousemfisincreasedfor
coilswhosesidesarepassingunderthesetips;theincreasecanbequitelarge,especiallyif
themachineisoverloaded(largeI
A
).Thesecoilsareconnectedtocommutatorsegments
thatarenearthebrusheswheretheairishighlyionizedduetonormalsparking.Highinter
segmentvoltageappliedtoionizedaircancausebreakdownoftheair(arcingbetween
segments).Thismaycausefurtherionizationandfurtherarcing;inseverecasesitmay
resultintotalflashoverfrombrushtobrush.Theheatfromthearccandamagethebrushes
andmeltholesinthecommutator.
Clearly,then,ARcanhaveseriousconsequencesthatlimittheoperationalconditionsof
themachine.Thedesignandconstructionofthemachinemustthereforeaimatreducing
armaturereaction:
(1) MachinesaredesignedtohaveastrongmainfieldsothatrelativedistortionduetoAR
remainssmall.
(2) Themachineisdesignedtohaveahighreluctanceinthepathofthearmaturecrossflux
(armteeth,airgap,poleshoesseeg.5.1).
Thismaybedonebyconstrucngpoleswithalternatelaminaonsasing.5.9:withthe
amountofironinthepoletipsreduced,thefluxdensityisincreased,andthetipsaredriven
quicklyintosaturation,andhencehighreluctance.Alternatively,theairgapunderpoletips
ismadelongerbyusingpoleswitheccentricpolefacesasinfig.5.9(orchamferedfaces).
Theincreasedreluctancealsoreducethemainflux,butthereductionismuchsmallerthan
thereductioninthearmaturecrossflux.
(3)Toavoidashovertheinstantaneousvoltagebetweencommutatorsegmentsmustnot
exceed3040volts.Machinesarethereforedesignedtohaveanaveragevoltagebetween
segmentsnotexceeding2030volts.
P a g e |58
(4)Insomemachines,thepoleshoesaremadewithslotsinwhichanaddionalwindingis
placed,g.5.10.Thecurrentsinthesepolefacewdgsorcompensatingwdgsare
arrangedtoflowindirectionsoppositetothoseofarmatureconductors,sothattheir
mmfscanceloutunderthepolefaceasshowning.5.10.
Compensangwdgsareconnectedinserieswiththearmature,g.5.11,sothat
cancellationoccursforallloads(asI
A
increases,ARwillincrease,butsowillthe
compensatingwdgmmfalso).
Forfullcompensation,wemusthave
(
1
2
N
c
).I
A
=(
Z
8pa
).I
A
>>>>>>N
c
=.Z/4pa=.NC/2pa
WhereN
c
=compensatingwindingconductorsperpole,and=polearc/polepitch.
ComputingN
c
inthisway,itisunlikelytocomeoutaninteger;asmallerintegernumberis
usedbecause6070%compensangisusuallysucient.Compensangwdgsarevery
expensivetoinstall;theyareeconomicallyjustifiedonlyinverylargemachines,andin
somespecialpurposemachines.
Fig.5.8V
A
=E
A
I
A
.R
A
AlternatepolelaminationsEccentricpoleface
Fig.5.9methodsofincreasingreluctanceatpoleps
Fig.5.10compensangeectofpolefacewdgFig.5.11dcM/CwithCW
P a g e |59
5.5Brushshift
Sometimesbrushesarenotintheexactneutralposition(qaxis).Suchbrushshiftmaybe(a)
unintentional:incorrectpositioninginmanufacture,orpoorbrushfit,etc.,oritmaybe(b)
intentional:inveryoldmachinesandinsomeverysmallmachines,brushesareshiftedto
improvecommutation.Withthebrushesthusshifted,thearmfieldisnolongerinstrict
quadraturewiththemainfield(i.e.daxis),g.5.12.Thedaxiscomponentofthearmfield
mayoppose(demagnetizing)oraid(magnetizing)themainfield;thisdependsonthedirection
ofbrushshiftrelativetorotation,andonthemodeofoperation,generatingormotoring;see
g.5.12.
Totestforcorrectpositioningofbrushes,themachineisrotatedinbothdirectionsasaloaded
generator;iftheload,speed,andfieldexcitationarethesameforbothdirectionsofrotation,
theterminalvoltagewillbethesameifthebrushesarecorrectlyplaced.If,however,the
brushesarenotattheexactneutralposition,theterminalvoltagewilldifferforthetwo
directionsofrotation.
Fig.5.12Eectofbrushshi.MF:maineld;AF:armatureeld;A
d
&A
q
=direct&quadrature
componentsofarmaturefield.
P a g e |60
CHAPTER6Commutation
Thecommutatorisacharacteristicfeatureofdcmachines.Itspurposeistomatchthe
alternatingcurrentsandvoltagesofthearmaturecoilstothedirectcurrentandvoltageofthe
brushesasalreadyexplainedinchapters1and3.However,thecommutaonprocessisquite
complicated,andgivesrisetosecondaryeffectsthatplacelimitsontheoverallperformance
ofthemachine.
6.1Theprocessofcommutation
Fig.6.1showsageneralarmcoilCmovingtotherightasitrotateswiththearmature;itis
connectedtocommutatorbarsaandbwhichmovewithit.(a)whenthecoilsidesareunder
thepoles,thecoilispartofacertainarmaturepathandcarriesapathcurrentI
a
I
a
=
I
A
2a
(b)Asthecoilsidesapproachtheqaxis(orbrushaxis),therewillbeaninstantt
1
atwhich
thebrushcontactsbarsaandbsimultaneously;thusstartstheshortcircuitofthecoilby
thebrush.(c)Thecoilcontinuestobeshortcircuitedbythebrush;itissaidtobeundergoing
commutation.(d)Ascoilsidesmoveawayfromtheqaxis,therewillbeaninstantt
2
at
whichbarbbreakscontactwiththebrushsothattheshortcircuitends.(e)Coilsidesmove
underpoles,andthecoilisnowpartofadifferentpath;thecoilcurrentisI
a
again,butina
directionoppositetotheoriginalone.
Clearly,then,thecoilisshortcircuitedforanintervalT
c
T
c
=t
2
t
1
Duringthisinterval,thecoilcurrentchangesfromI
a
toI
a
;i.e.itreversesor
commutates.Asshowning.6.2,thechangeincurrentmustfollowsometimecurvefrom
thepoint(t
1
,I
a
)tothepoint(t
2
,I
a
).Dependingonvariousconditionsthatwillbeexplainedin
latersecons,wemayhavelinearcommutaon(curve1),overcommutaon(curve2),or
undercommutation(curve3).
TocalculatetheSCinterval(orcommutationinterval),letu
c
denotethespeedofthebars;
thus
u
c
=2r
c
n
wherer
c
istheradiusatthecommutatorsurface.Fromg.6.3,itisseenthattheleadingedge
ofbaramovesfromx
1
att
1
tox
2
att
2
;
P a g e |61
Thus
u
c
=
x
2
-x
1
t
2
-t
1
=
w-y
T
c

Therefore
T
c
=
w-y
u
c
=
1
2r
c
n
[
w
y
o
-
y
y
o
y
o
=
1
nC
(
w
y
o
-
y
y
o
)(y
o
=
2r
c
C
)
Asexpected,thelengthoftheSCinterval,T
c
,isdeterminedbythespeedofrotationn,the
relativedimensionsofbarsand
brush,andthenumberofcommutator
bars.

Fig.6.3aidtocalculateT
c
Fig.6.1Theprocessofcommutaon>>
Fig.6.2Reversalofcurrentincoil
undergoingcommutation
P a g e |62
6.2Equivalentcircuitofcommutatingcoil
Duringcommutating,thecoilSCcurrenti
s
circulatesinapathcomposedof:thecoilitself,
risers,bars,contactsurfaces,andbrush(seeg.6.4).Asimpliedequivalentcircuitisshown
ing.6.5with:
R
c
=coilresistance;
E
c
=rotaonalemfincoil=2N(B.L.u)
L
c
=selfinductanceofcoil;
r
1
=contactresistancebetweenbrushandtrailingbar;
r
2
=contactresistancebetweenbrushandleadingbar.
Thecircuitofg.6.5involvesthefollowingsimplicaons:
1. theresistanceofriser,bar,andbrushisnegligiblew.r.tcontactresistance;
2. mutualinductancewithadjacentcoilsisneglected;
3. brushassumedtoshortcircuitonecoilatatime.
NotethatlowercasesymbolsareusedforquantitiesthataretimevaryingduringT
c
;these
aree
c
,i
s
,i
1
,i
2
,r
1
,andr
2
;indeed,i
s
andpossiblye
c
reverseduringT
c
.Alsonotethat
fromKCL
i
1
=I
a
i
s
andi
2
=I
a
+i
s
sothat
i
1+
i
2
=2I
a
asexpected.
Theterminalvoltageofthecoilv
c
isgivenby
V
c
=e
c
i
s
R
c
L
c
(di
s
/dt)
Therotationalemfe
c
issmallbecausefieldissmallaroundtheqaxis(see,forexample,fig.
5.5).L
c
(di
s
/dt)iscalledthereactancevoltage;itisinducedbythechangeini
s
.
P a g e |63
Fig.6.4currentdistribuoninbrushandFig.6.5Equivalentcircuitforbrush
Commutatingcoil.Andcommutatingcoil.
Figure6.6,Fig.6.7,&Fig.6.8
P a g e |64
6.3Linearcommutation(resistancecommutation)
Insmallmachines,thecoilvoltagev
c
issmallerthanthecontactdropsi
1
r
1
andi
2
r
2
.Ifwe
assumethatv
c
isnegligiblysmall,thentheequivalentcircuitofg.6.5reducestothatofg.
6.6.Inthiscase,r
1
andr
2
areinparallelsothatbycurrentdivision
1
2
2
1
r
r
i
i
=
Ifwefurtherassumethatr
1
andr
2
arelinearresistances(whichinfacttheyarenot),then
1
2
2
1
A
A
r
r
=
WherethecontactareasA
1
andA
2
aredeneding.6.7.Thus
2
1
2
1
A
A
i
i
=
i.e.thecurrentdivisionbetweenbarsisindirectproportiontotheirrespectivecontactareas.
Ifintheaboveexpressionwesubstitutefori
1
andi
2
intermsofI
a
andi
s
(seesecon6.2),
andrearrange,weget
i
s
=
a
b
I
A
A A
.
1 2

(derivethisequation?)
asthecommutatorslidesagainstthebrushatconstantspeed,A
1
increaseslinearlywithtime,
whileA
2
decreaseslinearlywithtime.Thusi
s
varieslinearlyfromI
a
att
1
toI
a
att
2
,
andwehavelinearcommutaonasincurve1ofg.6.2.Linearcommutaonisalso
calledresistancecommutationbecausethecurrentvariationiscontrolledbythecontact
resistancesr
1
andr
2
(seefirstequationinthissection).
Notethatwederivedlinearcommutationasanapproximationbasedontwoassumptions:
negligiblev
c
andlinearcontactresistances.Theseassumptionsdonotgenerallyholdin
practicesothatweseldomhavelinearcommutation.Commutationapproacheslinearityin
smallmachineswheretheseassumptionsareapproximatelytrue.
P a g e |65
6.4Reactancevoltage
Reactancevoltageisthevoltageinducedinthecoilduetothetimevariationofi
s
;itappears
acrossL
c
intheequivalentcircuitoffig.6.5,andisequaltoL
c
(di
s
/dt).Reactancevoltage
hasagreateffectoncommutationprocess,sothatlinearcommutation(whichisbasedon
neglectingreactancevoltage)isusuallytobeachievedinpractice.Theroleofreactancevoltage
inthecommutationprocessmaybedescribedqualitativelyasfollows:
ThereactancevoltageisinducedbythechangeofcoilcurrentfromI
a
toI
a
.Accordingto
Lenzslaw,thereactancevoltagewillbeinducedinsuchawayastoopposewhatiscausingit,
i.e.itopposesthechangeincurrent.Thereforethereactancevoltageretardsordelaysthe
changeincurrent.
DuetoRV,then,thecurrenttendstofollowacurveabovethatoflinearcommutation,for
examplecurve3ing.6.2;thegreaterthecoilinductanceL
c
,thehigherthecurve.
Ifcurrentreversalisnotcomplete(i.e.currenthasnotreachedI
a
)whenbarbbreaks
contactwiththebrushatt
2
,thecurvewillbeasshowning.6.8.Thisresultsinsparking
whichisexplainedasfollows:
Att
2
thecoilcurrentattemptstojumptoI
a
almostinstantaneously.Thisresultsinvery
highRV(why?),whichcausesbreakdownintheair.Thearcprovidesapathbetweenbrush
andbarbthroughwhichcurrentflowstocompleteitsreversaltoI
a
.
Sparkingisharmfulbecauseitcausesheatingandhencewearofbothbrushandcommutator
bars.Itbecomesmoresevereasloadincreases(asthearmaturecurrentI
A
increases,sodoes
thepathcurrentI
a
).
Treatmentofsparking
Insomesmallmachines,theresistivecontactdropismuchgreaterthantheRVsothat
sparkingislimitedbytheeffectofresistancecommutation,i.e.commutationapproachesthe
linearcase.
Inlargermachines,someadditionalmeansmustbefoundtolimitsparking,i.e.tocounterthe
effectofRVwhichistheprimecauseofsparkingasexplainedabove.Modernmachinesuse
interpoles,whileoldermachines(andsomesmallmachines)usebrushshift;thesetwo
methodsareexplainedinthefollowingsections:
6.5Interpoles(commutatingpoles,compoles)
Nearlyallintegralhorsepowermachineshaveinterpoles(IP).IParenarrowpoleswithlargeair
gapplacedbetweenmainpolesasing.6.9.Theircoilsareconnectedinserieswiththe
P a g e |66
armaturesothattheIPfieldisproportionaltoarmcurrentI
A
(thelargeairgapprevents
saturationintheiron).TheIPfieldactsoncommutatingcoilsattheqaxis.
TheIPmmfM
i
isgivenby
M
i
=N
i
I
A
WhereN
i
isthenumberofturnsineachIPcoil.ThenumberofturnsN
i
ischosentomake
theIPmmfsome25%graterthanM
am
,thecrossmagnetizingarmaturemmfattheq
axis(seesecon5.1);thus
M
i
=1.25M
am
sothatN
i
=1.25(NC/4pa)
Inthisway,M
i
ismadetoservetwopurposes:(1)theaddional25%neutralizesthe
commutangcoilux(whichinducestheRV).Thisisclearing6.10a,b,andc:theIPeldnot
onlyreducestheqaxisfieldtozero,butdrivesadditionalfluxinthenegativedirectionto
neutralizeRV.Figs.6.10dandeshowtheresultanteldininterpolemachines,without
andwithcompensangwindings;comparethemwithgs5.5and5.10(NBIPstreatarm
reactionintheqaxis,whilecompensatingwdgstreatarmreactionunderthepoles).
Asthemachineisloaded,thearmaturecurrentI
A
increasessothatarmaturereactionandRV
increase;buttheIPfieldisalsotoI
A
,andwillincreaseautomaticallytoneutralize
armaturereaction(intheqaxis)andRV.IPswillcontinuetodotheirjobproperlyforeither
modeofoperation,motororgenerator,andforeitherdirectionofrotation,forwardor
reverse.
Fig.6.11showsthegeneralconneconofadcmachine.Notallwindingsshownarepresent
inallmachines.IPorcommutatingwdgsarefoundonintegralhorsepowermachines(rated
power>onehp);compensatingwdgsarefoundonlargemachinesandonsomespecial
machines;manymachineshaveonlyonemainfieldwdg,shuntorseries;compoundmachines
haveboth.Theterminalsofmainfieldwdgs(shuntandseries)areusuallybroughtouttothe
terminalboxtoallowusermanipulation;theterminalsofcompensatingandcommutating
wdgsarenotbroughtouttotheterminalboxbecausetheyarepermanentlyconnectedin
serieswiththearmature.
P a g e |67
P a g e |68
6.6Brushshift
Asecondmethodforimprovingcommutationtolimitsparkingistoshiftthebrushesfromthe
qaxis.Theprincipleisasfollows:
Recallgs.5.4and5.5whichshowhowthemagnecneutralaxis(mna)movesawayfromthe
qaxisduetoarmreaction.ifnowthebrushesareshiftedinthesamedirection,theywillbein
aregionwherethearmfieldopposesthemainfield.Atcertainlocationthetwofieldscancel
out;placingthebrushesatthislocationeliminatestherotationalemfe
c
(seeg.6.5).Thisis
notenoughbecausetherestillistheRV.ToneutralizeRV,thebrushesareshiftedalittle
furtherinthesamedirection;thesidesofcommutatingcoilwillthenbesubjectedtoasmall
(butnonzero)fieldthatopposesthecoilfluxwhichinducestheRV.Iftheopposingfluxescan
bemadeequal,theRViseliminated.
Asamethodforimprovingcommutation,brushshiftisnotasgoodasIPsbecauseithasthe
followingdisadvantages:
1.Astheloadonthemachinechanges,thearmcurrentI
A
changessothatARandthemna
shiftalsochange.Forcorrectoperation,thebrushshiftmustbechangedaccordingly,whichis
impractical.Inpractice,thebrushesareplacedinapositionthatgivesminimumsparkingat
ratedload,sothattheremaybeconsiderablesparkingatotherloads.
2.Fromg.5.4,itisseenthatthemnashisinthedireconofrotaonforgenerator
operation,andinthedirectionoppositetorotationformotoroperation.Thusbrushshift
(whichisinthesamedirectionasthemnashift)cannotbeusedwithmotorsintendedtorunin
bothdirections,orwithmachinesintendedforvariablemodeofoperation:ifbrushshiftis
correctforonecase,itisincorrectfortheother!
3.Brushshicausesdemagnezingarmaturereacon(seeg.5.12).
Becauseofthesedisadvantages,brushshiftisusedonlyinsmallfractionalhorsepower
machines(ratedpowerlessthanonehp)whereitisnoteconomicaltouseIPs.Brushshiftwas
alsousedinoldmachinesbeforetheinventionofIPs.
P a g e |69
CHAPTER7POWERCONVERSIONANDLOSSES
Theinputpowertothedcmachineundergoeselectromechanicalconversiontoproducethe
outputpower;theprocessyieldsanumberoflossesthatappearasheatwhichhasharmful
effectsontheperformanceofthemachine.
7.1Powerbalance
Mostoftheinputpowersuppliedtoadcmachineisconvertedintousefuloutputpower;the
reminderoftheinputpowerislossandheat.Theprincipleofconversionofenergyrequires
totalpowerbalance
P
in
=P
out
+LOSSES
Itissometimesusefultothinkofpowerasflowingthroughthemachine.Powerflowisdivided
intotwostages,theborderlinebeingtheactualelectromechanicalenergyconversionprocess.
P
c
=E
A
I
A
=
r
T
d
Itisalsocalledtheinternalpowerbecauseitisdefinedwithinthemachine;incontrast,P
in
and
P
out
areexternalpowersthatcanbemeasured.E
A
andT
d
areinternalquantitiesthatcannot
bemeasureddirectly.
P
in
=P
c
+LOSS1andP
c
=P
out
+LOSS2
Thetotallossismadeupof2parts:LOSS1occursbeforeconversion,andLOSS2occursaer
conversion.Clearly
P
in
>P
c
>P
out
Motoroperation
Theinputpoweriselectrical,andtheoutputpowerismechanical.Partoftheinputpoweris
lostaselectrical(copper)lossesinthewindings,andtheremainderisavailablefor
electromechanicalenergyconversion;partoftheconvertedpowerislostsupplyingthelosses
duetorotation,andtheremainderisavailableasamechanicaloutputpowertodrivetheload.
Notethat
P a g e |70
P
mech
<P
c
>>>>>
r
T
L
<
r
T
d
>>>>>T
L
<T
d
Thatis,theshafttorqueavailableattheload,T
L
,islessthanthedevelopedtorqueT
d
;the
differenceisneededtoovercomeopposingtorqueswithinthemotor(suchasbearingfriction).
Generatoroperation
Theinputpowerismechanical,andtheoutputpoweriselectrical.Partoftheinputislostas
rotationallosses,andtheremainderisavailableforelectromechanicalenergyconversion;part
oftheconvertedpowerP
c
islostaselectrical(copper)lossesinthewindings,andthe
remainderisavailableaselectricaloutputpowertosupplytheload.Notethat
P
mech
>P
c
>>>>
r
T
pm
>
r
T
d
>>>>T
pm
>T
d
Thatis,theshafttorqueproducedbytheprimemover,T
pm
,isgreaterthanthedeveloped
torqueT
d
;thedifferenceisthetorqueneededtoovercomefrictionandotheropposing
torques.
7.2Losses
Thelossesofadcmachineareofvarioustypesandoccurindifferentpartsofthemachine.
Althoughdifferentlossesareproduceddifferently,theyallappearasheat,i.e.theyrepresent
conversiontounlessthermalenergy.Theheatgeneratedbythelosseshastwomajoreffects:
(i) Lossesraisethetemperatureinsidethemachine,andthusaffecttheperformance
andlifeofthematerialsofthemachine,particularlyinsulation.Thereforelosses
determinetheupperlimitsonmachinerating.
(ii) Lossesareawasteofenergy,andenergycostsmoney;thereforelossesresultina
wasteofmoney(intheoperatingcostofthemachine).
Lossescannotbeeliminated,buttheycanbereducedbyproperdesign;thedesignmust
alsoprovideforventilationtodispersetheheatgenerated.Thuslosseshaveasignificant
effectontheinitialcostofthemachine.
Thecostofwastedenergyinitem(ii)aboveisimportantwithindustrialmotorswherethe
powersinvolvedarequitehigh;itisnotimportantwithsmallcontrolmotorswherethe
powersinvolvedareverysmall.However,thetemperatureriseinitem(i)isimportantfor
allmotors.
P a g e |71
Electricallosses
Electricallossesarealsocalledcopperlosses,windinglosses,I
2
Rlosses,andohmiclosses.
copperlossesoccurinallwindingsduetoflowofcurrentthroughthem;theyare
LOSS
arm
=I
A
2
R
A
=armaturecircuitcopperloss
LOSS
ser
=I
S
2
R
S
=seriesfieldwindingcopperloss
LOSS
sh
=I
f
2
R
f
=shuntfieldwindingcopperloss
IncomputingLOSS
arm
,R
A
includestheresistancesofcommutatingandcompensating
windings(ifpresent).TheseriesfieldcurrentI
S
mayormaynotbeequaltothearmature
currentI
A
.
Thecopperlossinagivenwdgisproportionaltothesquareofthecurrentinthatwdg;if
thecurrentisdoubled,thecopperlossincreasesfourtimes.LOSS
arm
andLOSS
ser
depend
onarmaturecurrent,andhencetheydependontheloadonthemachine(I
A
increases
withload).LOSS
sh
dependsontheterminalvoltage,andvarieswithitssquare.
Theaboveexpressionscanbeusedtocalculatecopperlossesusingmeasuredvaluesof
windingresistances.Thewdgresistancemustbeatthecorrectwdgtemperature;ifthe
temperatureatwhichthelossisrequiredisnotknown,itisassumedtobe75
o
C.ifthe
wdgresistanceisknown(saybymeasurement)atatemperatureT
1
,itcanbefoundata
differenttemperatureT
2
from
R
2
R
1
=
T
2
+ 2S4.S
T
1
+ 2S4.S
Thebrushcontactlossisalsoanelectricalloss.SincethebrushcontactdropV
b
is
approximatelyconstantoverawiderangeofarmaturecurrents,thelossisproportionalto
thearmaturecurrentitself(andnotitssquareasinwdglosses):
Loss
contact
=I
A
V
b
Magneticlosses
Magneticlossesarealsocalledironlossesorcorelosses.Theyresultfromhysteresisand
eddycurrentsincoressubjectedtovaryingmagnetization,i.e.mainlyinthearmatureteeth
andcore,butalsointhepoleshoes(duetoarmatureslotting).
Ironlossesaredistributedinthecoresincomplicatedpatterns,sothattherearenosimple
formulaethatgivetheirvaluesaccurately.Itisknown,however,thatironlossesdependon
P a g e |72
themagnetizationlevel(fluxdensity)inthecores,andonthefrequencywithwhichit
alternates,f=pn.
Forthehysteresisloss,wehave
LOSS
hyst
fB
x
max
Wheretheconstantofproportionalityisdeterminedbythevolumeofthecoreandits
magneticcharacteristic(hysteresisloop).Thesteinmetzexponentxdependsonthetypeof
ironused,andrangesfrom1.5to2.5(usuallyaround2);itisanempiricalconstant
(obtainedfromexperienceanttesting,notfromelectromagnetictheory).Fortheeddy
currentloss,wehave
LOSS
eddy
f
2
B
2
max
(laminationthickness)
2
Wheretheconstantofproportionalityisdeterminedbythevolumeofthecoreandits
electricalcharacteristics(resistivity).Clearly,thinlaminationsreduceeddycurrentlosses.
Thearmatureisalwayslaminated,andthepoleshoesareusuallylaminated.Ifamotoris
tobedrivenfromamodernsolidstatecontrolledrectifier,allcoresmustbe
laminated(includingpolesandyoke).
Mechanicallosses
Mechanicallossesarisefromfrictionandwindage(frictionwithair)duringrotation.They
dependonthespeedofrotation,eachtypeofmechanicallossbeingproportionaltosome
powerofn.Bearingfrictionlossdependsonthetypeofbearingusedandontheviscosity
ofthelubricant;improperlubrication(toolittleortoomuch)increasetheloss.
Brushfrictionlossisproportionaltotheareaofcontactandtothebrushpressure;italso
dependsonthebrushandcommutatormaterials,theirstateofpolish,andthetemperature
atthecontactsurface;itisoftenthelargestfrictionloss.Windagelossesarisefrommoving
theairaroundthearmature(airfriction);theydependontheshapeoftherotatingsurface
(smoothorrough).Ventilationlossisanadditionalwindagelossduetofansandventducts
usedtocoolthemachine.
Strayloadloss
Strayloadlossesareadditionallossesthatoccurinthemachinewhenloaded,andcannot
beincludedwiththeconventionallosseslistedabove.Theyinclude:
additionalcorelossresultingfromarmaturereactiondistortion;
P a g e |73
copperlossduetoshortcircuitcurrentduringcommutation(incommutatingcoils,
commutatorsegments,andbrushes);
nonuniformcurrentdistributioninlargearmatureconductors.
Strayloadlossesaresmallanddifficulttocalculate.Theymaybeneglectedforsmall
machines,andareusuallyassumed1%ofoutputforlargemachines.
7.3Classificationoflosses
Table7.1Classicaonoflossesindcmachines.
Loss type rotational With
load
dependence
Armaturecircuitcopperloss elect
No
variable
I
A
2
Seriesfieldcopperloss elect No variable I

A
2
Shuntfieldcopperloss elect No constant V

t
2
Brushcontactloss
elect
No
variable
I
a
Hysteresisloss mag
Yes
constant
fB
x
max
Eddycurrentloss
mag
Yes
constant
f
2
B
2
max
Frictionloss
mech Yes constant powerofn

Windageloss
mech Yes constant powerofn

Strayloadloss Elect&mech Yes variable indeterminate
P a g e |74
Table7.2Typicalvaluesofdcmachinelossesforindustrialmotorsintherange1100KW;
lowerpercentagelossesareforthehigherratedmotors.
losses Percentofrated
power
Armaturecctelectricalloss
Shuntfieldelectricalloss
Rotationallosses
36%
15%
315%
Table7.3Typicalecienciesofindustrialmotors.
RatedpowerKW efficiency
1
50
500
5000
75%
90%
94%
97%
Constantandvariablelosses
Constantlossesarelossesthatdonotchangeastheloadonthemachinechanges;theyare
independentofarmaturecurrent,andincludemechanicallosses,corelosses,andshuntfield
windingloss.Variablelossesarelossesthatincreaseastheloadonthemachineincreases;they
areelectricallossesincludingarmaturecircuitcopperloss,seriesfieldloss,andbrushcontact
loss.CopperlossesincreasewithI
2
A
,whilebrushcontactlossincreasewithI
A
itself.Wemay
thereforewrite
LOSSES
total
=K
o
+K
1
I
A
+K
2
I
2
A
P a g e |75
ThefirsttermontheRHSrepresentsconstantlosses,whilethesecondandthirdterms
representvariablelosses.Atfullload,constantlossesare420%,andvariablelossesare36%;
seetable7.2.
Remark
Strayloadlossesareindeterminatefunctionsofarmaturecurrentandspeed.Theycomplicate
classification,butaresmallenoughtobeneglectedinmostcases.
7.4Measurementoflosses
Thereareanumberofpracticalteststomeasurethevariousmachinelosses.Inmostcases,a
giventestyieldsthesumoftwoormorelossestogether;sometimesthecomponentlossescan
beseparatedbyfurthertesting.
Intesting,itisquiteeasytomeasureelectricalquantities(resistance,voltage,andcurrent)and
speed,somewhatdifficulttomeasuretorque,andquitedifficulttomeasuremagnetic
quantities(fluxandfluxdensity).Powersaredetermined,ontheelectricalside,bytheproduct
ofvoltageandcurrent,andonthemechanicalsidebytheproductoftorqueandangularspeed.
Inaloadtest,themachineisloadedatagivenspeedandfieldexcitation(i.e.fieldcurrent);the
inputandoutputpowersaremeasured.Thetotallossatthatspeed,excitation,andloadcan
beobtainedfrom
LOSSES
total
=P
in
P
out
ThetotallosscanbeseparatedintoelectricalandrotationallossesbycalculatingI
2
Rproducts
inthevariouswindingsusingwdgcurrentsmeasuredduringtheloadtestand(hot)wdg
resistancesmeasuredpreviously.Withtheelectricallossesthuscalculated,therotationallosses
areobtainedfrom
LOSS
rotational
=LOSSES
total
LOSS
elec
Loadtestsforlargemachinesareimpracticalintestlabs:theyrequireverylargeloads,and
wastelargeamountsofenergy.Thereareotherteststhatyieldthelossesindividually.
Inanoloadtest,themachineisdrivenbyasuitableprimemover(possiblyanothermachine)
withitsterminalsopencircuited(i.e.itoperatesasunloadedgenerator).Theinputpowerto
thetestmachineismeasuredmechanically(torqueandspeed),orelectricallybymeasuringthe
inputpowertothedrivemotorandsubtractingitslosses(whichmustthereforebeknown).If
thetestmachineisunexcitedthenP
in
=LOSS
mech
.Ifthetestmachineisthenexcitedbutleft
unloadedwegetP
in
=LOSS
rot
;thecorelossisobtainedfrom
P a g e |76
LOSS
core
=LOSS
rot
LOSS
mech
(Exercise:suggestatestforseparatingthebrushfrictionloss).
Ifnosuitabledrive(primemover)isavailable,rotationallossesmaybeobtainedbyrunningthe
machineasamotorwithnoexternalload;thisistherunninglighttest,orSwinburnetest.
Theinputpowerwillmainlygotorotationallosses,buttherewillalsobealittlecopperloss
(why?).Thecopperlossmaybecomputedandsubtractedfromtheinputpowertoyield
rotationallosses.Intherunninglighttest,rotationallossescannotbeseparatedinto
mechanicalandcorelosses(why?).
Asseenfromtheabovetests,itisalwayspossibletodeterminecopperlossesfromthe
measuredvaluesofwdgcurrentsduringthetests,andpreviouslymeasuredwdgresistances.
Windingresistancesaremeasuredbystandardmethods(voltmeterammeter,Wheatstone
bridge,etc.);thewdgtemperaturesmustbemonitoredatthetimeofresistancemeasurement
(why?),orthemeasurementismadewiththemachinehot(forexampledirectlyafteraload
test).
Thenoloadandrunninglighttestsdeterminemachinelosseswithoutloadingit.Othertests
havebeendevisedtooperatethemachineatfullloadconditionswithoutrequiringanexternal
load.
Anexampleofsuchtestsistheoppositiontest(KappHopkinsontest)whichrequirestwo
identicalmachines.Themachinesarecoupledmechanically,andconnectedinparallelwith
eachothertothemains.Byincreasingtheexcitationforonemachineanddecreasingitforthe
other,thefirstwilloperateasagenerator,andthesecondasamotor:thegeneratorsupplies
themotorelectrically,whilethemotordrivesthegeneratormechanically;thepowerinput
fromthemainssuppliesthelossestokeepthesystemrunning.Bysuitableadjustmentsofthe
fieldrheostats,thearmaturecurrentscansettotheirratedvalues.Withthetwomachines
runningatornearrating(current,voltage,andspeed),theywilldevelopfullloadlosses,yet
thedisadvantagesofaloadtesthavebeenavoided:noexternalloadisneeded,andthemains
suppliesonlymachinelosses,nottheirfullpower.
M G
P a g e |77
Inaheatrun(ortemperaturerisetest),themachineisrunatfullloadtodevelopfullload
losses;thetesttakes2060minutesunlthetemperaturereachessteadystatecorresponding
toitsratedoperatingvalue.Thenoloadandrunninglighttestscannotreplacetheloadtestina
heatrunbecausetheydonotgenerateallmachinelossessimultaneously.Anoppositiontest,
ontheotherhand,canbeusedinaheatrun.
7.5Efficiency
Theefficiencyofamachineisdefinedby
=
P
out
P
n
=
P
out
P
out
+LOSSES
= 1 -
LOSSES
P
n

Thefirstexpressionisgeneral,thesecondissuitableforgenerators(P
out
measuredelectrically),
andthethirdissuitableformotors(P
in
measuredelectrically).Theefficiencyisafractionless
thanunity,andisusuallyexpressedinpercent.Table7.3liststypicalvaluesofdcmachine
efficiencies.
Thegeneraldefinitionofefficiencygivenabovecanbeanalyzedintotwocomponent
efficienciescorrespondingtothetwostagesofpowerflow:
=
P
out
P
n
=
P
c
P
n
P
out
P
c

Foramotor,thisbecomes
=
P
c
P
eIec
P
mech
P
c
= ( eff of conveision)(mech eff)
andforagenerator,itbecomes
=
P
c
P
mech
P
eIec
P
c
= (eff of conveision)(elec eff)
maximumefficiency
wehavealreadydividedlossesintoconstantandvariable;theefficiencywasthenexpressedas
intheeq.giveninpage74.Nowconsidermotoroperaon:neglecngthesmallshunteld
current,theinputpoweris
P
in
=V
t
I
A
Using=1 -
LOSSES
P
n
=1
K
o
+K
1
I
A
+K
2
I
A
2
V
t
I
A

P a g e |78
=1
1
V
t
(K
o
I
A
-1
+K
1
+K
2
I
A
)
ThisgivesefficiencyasafunctionofarmaturecurrentI
A
;tolocatethepointofmaximum
efficiency,wedifferentiatetheaboveeq.w.r.tI
A
,andtofindthemaximumefficiencypoint,
weequatethedifferentialtozero:
u
uI
A
= -
1
v
t
(-K
o
I
A
-2
+K
2
)
Andequatetozero,weget
K
2
I
A
2
= K
o
ThusmaximumefficiencyoccurswhenthecopperlossesK
2
I
A
2
equaltheconstantlosses K
o
(or,asanapproximation,whenvariablelossesequalconstantlossesi.e.assumingthebrush
contactlossK
1
I
A
issmall).Industrialmachinesareusuallydesignedtohavemaximumefficiency
forI
A
betweenhalfandfullloadvalues(becausethemachineoperatesatlessthanfullload
mostofthetime);theexactchoiceisnotcriticalbecausetheefficiencycurveisflataroundthe
maximumvalue.
Forindustrialmotors,tractionmotors,andotherpowerapplicationmotors,efficiencyisquite
important,butitisonlyoneofanumberoffactorsthatdeterminehowgoodamachineis;the
otherfactorsincludepower/weightratio,power/costratio,reliability,maintenance
requirements,vibrationandnoise,etc.Forsmallcontrolmotors,efficiencyisoflittle
importance;themainfactorsofinterestincludeaccuracy,cost,size,speedofresponse,
reliability,noise,weight,interference,etc.
Chapter8GENERATOROPERATION
Ingeneratoroperation,adcmachineisdrivenbyaprimemoverandsuppliesanelectrical
load.Wewillexplaintheoperatingcharacteristicsofdcgeneratorsandthefactorsthataffect
them.
8.1Thevoltageequation
Ingeneratoroperation,weareinterestedinthevoltagesuppliedattheoutputterminals.From
KVLandtheinformationofthepreviouschapters,theterminalvoltageofadcgeneratorcanbe
writtenasfollows:
V=E
A
(IR+V
b
)
P a g e |79
=K
e
.n.
r
(IR+V
b
)
=E
Aoc
(IR+V
b
+E)
=K
e
.n.
m
(IR+V
b
+E)
WhereE
A
=K
e
.n.
r
istheinducedemfinthearmature,and
r
istheactual(i.eresultant)flux
perpole;E
Aoc
=K
e
.n.
m
istheinducedemfonopencircuit(noarmaturecurrent),and
m
is
thefluxperpoleduetothemainfield.
r
maybesomewhatlessthan
m
duetothe
demagnetizingeffectofarmaturereaction;Erepresentsthecorrespondingreductionin
inducedemf(E=E
Aoc
E
A
).ThedifferencebetweentheinducedemfE
A
andtheterminal
voltageVisthesumofseriesresistivedropsIR(inthearmature,seriesfieldwdg,
commutatingwdg,andcompensatingwdg)andthebrushcontactdropV
b
.Thisequationtells
usthattheterminalvoltageisdeterminedprimarilybythespeednandthemainfieldflux
m
,withsomereductionduetoseriesvoltagedropsandarmaturereaction.
Speedofrotation
Thespeedissetattheprimemover,notthegeneratoritself.Ofcoursethegeneratorisa
mechanicalloadontheprimemover,andhenceaffectsitsoperation:astheelectricalloadon
thegeneratorincreases,thearmaturecurrentI
A
increasesthusincreasingthedeveloped
torqueT
d
(=K.I
A
.
r
);iftheprimemovertorquedoesnotincreasetobalancetheincreaseinT
d
,
itwillslowdown(reducingE
A
,henceI
A
,henceT
d
).However,inmanyapplications,theprime
moverisequippedwithautomaticcontrolthatmaintainsthespeedalmostconstant.
Fieldexcitation
Themainflux
m
isdeterminedbythefieldmmfthroughthemagnetizationcurve,orwesay
thatE
Aoc
isdeterminedbythefieldexcitationcurrentthroughtheOCC.Theshuntfield
excitationmaybecontrolledbymeansofvariableresistanceinserieswiththeshuntfieldwdg,
andtheseriesfieldexcitationmaybecontrolledbymeansofasmallvariableresistor(diverter)
inparallelwiththeseriesfieldwdg.
Voltagedrops
TheseriesresistivedropsIRandthearmaturereactiondropEincreasewithload(why?);the
brushcontactdropV
b
ispracticallyconstantoverthenormalworkingrangeofI
A
.Thetotal
dropisgenerallysmall(smallwdgresistances,andsmalldemagnetizingeffectofarmature
reaction).Forsimplicity,weshallusethesymbolVforthetotaldrop
V=IR+V
b
+E
ThenV=E
Aoc
V=K
e
.n.
m
P a g e |80
8.2Definitions
Weshallneedthetermsandconceptsdefinedbelowinourdescriptionofgeneratoroperation
andthefactorsthataffectit.
Externalcharacteristic
TheexternalcharacteristicofadcgeneratoristhecurverelatingterminalvoltageVand
terminalcurrentI(i.e.loadcurrent).Thecurveshowshowvoltagechangeswithload.Fora
simplesourcecircuitcomposedofconstantemfinserieswithconstantinternalresistance,the
externalcharacteristicisastraightlinewithnegativeslope.
Theexternalcharacteristicofadcgeneratorwillbedifferentfromthesimplesourcecircuit,
notonlybecauseoftheadditionaldropsV
B
andE,butalsobecause
m
itselfmaychange
withload(ifforexamplethegeneratorhasaseriesfield).
Theoperatingpoint(foragivenvoltageVandagivencurrentI)mayalsobefoundgraphically
bydrawingVIcharacteristicoftheload,andintersectingitwiththeexternalcharacteristicof
thesource;theintersectionisthepointthatsatisfiesbothcharacteristicsatthesametime.
VR
1
I
ER
2
R
o
VR
V
1
E
V
2
0I
1
I
2
Simplevoltagesource:externalcharacteristicandcircuitdiagram
Forthetypicaldroopingcharacteristicshown,itisseenthatdecreasingtheloadresistance
increasestheloadcurrentanddecreasestheterminalvoltage(R
2
<R
1
,I
2
>I
1
,andV
2
<V
1
).
Remark1:Thegraphicalmethodcanbeusedevenwhentheexternalcharacteristicandthe
loadVIcharacteristicarenonlinear(notstraightlines).
P a g e |81
Remark2:Theinternalcharacteriscisthecurverelangtheemfandcurrent.Itisa
horizontallineatEforthesimplesourcecircuitgivenabove,butcanbedifferentin
generators.
Voltagecontrol
Agivenexternalcharacteristiccorrespondstoafixedspeedandfixedsettingsofthefield
controlresistors.Ifthesettingsofthefieldresistorsarechanged,
m
willalsochange(sincethe
excitationcurrentsarechanged),andoperationshiftstoanothercurve.
Thereforetheoperatingpointmaybemovedfromonecurvetoanotherbychangingthefield
excitation,asshowninthefig.below.Theterminalvoltagemaybekeptapproximately
constantbyautomaticregulatorsthatsensetheterminalvoltageandincreaseordecreasethe
excitationtokeepthevoltageatthesetvalue.
Voltageregulation
Thevoltageregulationofageneratoratagivenloadis
definedby
Voltageregulation=
no Ioad voItagc-Ioad voItagc
Ioad voItagc

Itisafigureofmeritthatindicateshowconstanttheterminal
voltageiswithload;agoodvoltagesourceshouldhavesmall
voltageregulation.Thevoltageregulationofgeneratorsequippedwithautomaticvoltage
controlisalmostzero.
8.3Separatelyexcitedgenerator
Ifthefieldcurrentofaseparatelyexcitedgeneratoriskeptconstant,
m
andE
Aoc
willbe
constant.Theexternalcharacteriscisthenasshowning.8.5:VislessthanE
Aoc
duetothe
armaturecircuitresistivedropI
A
R
A
(linearwithcurrent),thedemagnetizingeffectofarmature
reactionE(nonlinearfunctionofI
A
),andthebrushcontactdropV
b
(constantnotshownin
thefigure).The
curvatureofthe
characteristiccomes
fromE.Comparewith
thesimplesourcegiven
above.
Fig.8.5
P a g e |82
8.4Shuntgenerator
Theexternalcharacteriscoftheshuntgenerator,g8.6,issimilartothatoftheseparately
excitedgenerator,buthasanadditionaldropduetoshuntfieldweakening:
I
A
-Vl-Vl -I
f
l-
m
l-E
Aoc
l
Toexplainthisprocessinmoredetail,werstdrawtheOCCasing8.7;notethattheOCC
isobtainedwiththeshuntfieldwdgdisconnectedfromthearmatureandfedfromaseparate
source.NextwedrawtheVIcharacteristicfortheshuntfieldresistance
V=R
f
I
f
Onthesamegraph.Now,foranyfieldcurrentI
f
,thepoint(I
f
,E
Aoc
)mustlieontheOCC,and
thepoint(I
f
,V)mustlieontheR
f
line.AtnoloadtheterminalcurrentIiszerosothatI
A
is
equalto
I
f
whichissmall,sothatwemayneglectthedropV;thustheterminalvoltageVis
equaltotheinducedemfE
Aoc
.Thisconditionissatisfiedonlyatthepointofintersectionof
theR
f
linewiththeOCC;therefore,atnoload,wehave
I
f
=I
fo
,E
Aoc
=E
o
,V=V
o
,withV
o
=E
o
Considernextthegeneratoronload.I
A
hasincreasedsothatthedropVisnowlarge
enoughtomakeVlessthanE
Aoc
.operationhastoshiftfromthepointofintersection:
(I
f
,E
Aoc
)movesdowntheOCC,while(I
f
,V)movesdowntheR
f
line.I
f
willtakeupapositionat
whichthedifferencebetweenE
Aoc
andVisequaltothedropV:
I
f
=I
f1
,E
Aoc
=E
1
,V=V
1
,withV
1
=E
1
V
1
ComparingV
1
andV
o
,weseethatthedifferencebetweenthemisthedropV
1
plusan
additionaldrop(E
o
E
1
)duetothereductionoftheinducedemfE
Aoc
fromE
o
toE
1
correspondingtothereductionofthefieldcurrentI
f
fromI
fo
toI
f1
aswasstatedatthe
beginningofthissection.
AteachvalueofloadcurrentI,thefieldcurrentI
f
movestoapositionthatmakesthe
differencebetweentheOCCandtheR
f
lineequaltothedropVthatcorrespondstothat
loadcurrentor,moreprecisely,tothearmaturecurrentI
A
.IfyoustudytheOCCandthe
R
f
linecarefully,youwillseethatthereisacertainI
f
atwhichthedifferencebetweenthemis
maximum.thereforethereisamaximumarmaturecurrentandhenceamaximumloadcurrent,
I
max
ing.8.6thisiscalledthebreakdownpoint.
P a g e |83
Theshortcircuitcurrentoftheshuntgeneratorisinherentlylimited:atSCtheterminalvoltage
ViszerosothatI
f
=0;theemfisE
res
(inducedbytheresidualfluxalone)whichisverysmall.
Theresultingarmature
currentistherefore
small.
Fig.8.4shuntgenerator
connectiondiagramand
externalcharacteristic
Fig.8.7open
circuit
characteristic
andfield
resistanceline
forshunt
generator.
Fig.8.8eectofeldresistance
onvoltagebuildupinshuntgeneratorgenerator.
Voltagebuildup
Theprecedingdiscussionhelpsusunderstandhowthevoltageoftheshuntgeneratorbuilds
up.Assumethatthereisnoloadonthegenerator,andthatthereisanopenswitchinthefield
circuitsothatI
f
=0,E
Aoc
=E
res
,andI
A
=0.Iftheswitchisnowclosed,E
res
isappliedtoR
f
,anda
smallcurrentI
f
flowscausingE
Aoc
toclimbuptheOCC.ButthisincreasedvalueofE
Aoc
isagain
appliedtoR
f
andwillincreaseI
f
,whichinturnincreasesE
Aoc
somemore.Theprocess
continueswith(I
f
,E
Aoc
)climbinguptheOCCand(I
f
,V)climbinguptheR
f
lineuntilthetwo
pointscoincideattheintersectionpoint.WesaythattheshuntgeneratorvoltageVhasbuilt
uptoV
o
;whatstopsthebuildupprocessfromcontinuingindefinitelyisthecurvatureofthe
OCC,i.e.saturation.(Exercise:howdoesKVLapplytothecircuitduringbuildup?).
P a g e |84
Theprocessofvoltagebuilduprequiresthefollowingconditionstosucceed:
(1) Theremustberesidualfluxtostarttheprocess.Anewgenerator,oronethathasnot
beenusedforlongtime,mustbemagnetizedfirst.Thisisdonebyapplyingaseparate
dcsource(forexampleabattery)tothefieldwdgforashorttime;itiscalledflashing
thefield.
(2) ThefluxproducedbyI
f
shouldaidtheresidualflux.Ifthefieldwdgisconnectedinthe
reversedirection,thevoltagewillbuilddown,i.e.itbecomeslessthanE
res
(i.e.
almostzero).
(3) TheresistanceofthefieldcircuitshouldbesmallenoughtointersecttheOCCinthe
saturationregion.AsR
f
ismadelarger,theinterseconmovesdowntheOCC,g.8.8.
ThefieldresistancelinethatistangenttothelinearpartoftheOCCiscalledthecritical
fieldresistance,R
crit
ing.8.8:ifR
f
isincreasedfurther,therewillbenobuildup.The
criticalresistanceishigherforhigherspeeds(why?);thecriticalspeedcorrespondingto
agivenfieldresistanceisthespeedatwhichthelinearpartoftheOCCbecomes
tangenttothatresistanceline.Iftheshuntgeneratorfailstobuildupatacertainspeed
duetolargefieldresistance,itmightbuildupatahigherspeed.
(4) Properrelationshipbetweendirectionoffieldconnectionanddirectionofarmature
rotation.
8.5Compoundgenerator
Acompoundgeneratorisessentiallyashuntgeneratorwithadditionalmmffromthe
serieswdg:
MMF
total
=N
f
I
f
_N
s
I
s
Thecompoundingiscumulativeiftheseriesfieldaidstheshuntfield(plussign);the
compoundingisdifferentialiftheseriesfieldopposestheshuntfield(minussign).Forlong
shuntconnection,I
s
=I
A
,andfor
shortshuntconnectionI
s
=I
A
I
f
I
A
.Ifadiverterisused,
I
s
maybelessthanthesevalues.
TheOCCofacompoundmachinecorrespondstoseparateexcitationofshuntfieldalone.
Dividingtheaboveeqn.bytheshuntfieldturns
MMFtotaI
N
I
=I
f
_
N
s
N
I
I
s
= I
eq
The teim
N
s
N
I
I
s
is the seiies fielu excitation iefeiieu to the shunt fielu ciicuit ; I
eq

iepiesents total excitation in teims of shunt fielu ampeies, anu can be ieau off oi
piojecteu uiiectly on the hoiizontal axis of the 0CC.
P a g e |85
Cumulative compounuing
As seen in section 8.4 the teiminal voltage of a shunt geneiatoi uiops uue to v anu the
ieuuction in E
Aoc
. In a cumulative compounu geneiatoi, the seiies fielu compensates
foi pait oi all of the uiop. The seiies fielu cuiient changes with loau (why.) so that the
uegiee of compensation changes with loau. The numbei of seiies tuins N
s
may be
chosen such that the iesulting seiies fielu compensates exactly foi the uiop at full loau;
the full loau voltage is then equal to the noloau voltage (zeio voltage iegulation), anu
the machine is saiu to be flatcompounueu (oi levelcompounueu)see fig 8.9. If fewei
seiies tuins aie useu, we have unueicompounuing: the full loau voltage is less than the
noloau voltage( positive iegulation), but still moie than the shunt geneiatoi full loau

voltage . If moie seiies tuins aie useu, we have oveicompounuing : the full loau
voltage is gieatei than the no loau voltage (negative iegulation) . It is also possible to
choose N
s
foi oveicompounuing, anu change the actual uegiee of compounuing by
means of a uiveitei(a vaiiable iesistoi connecteu shunt with seiies fielu winuing) .
Biffeiential compounuing
When the seiies fielu opposes the shunt fielu, it effectively incieases the uiops. The
exteinal chaiacteiistic is then below that of the shunt geneiatoi, fig.8.9.
8.6 Seiies geneiatoi
The 0CC foi a seiies geneiatoi, fig.8.1u, is obtaineu with the fielu supplieu fiom a
sepaiate souice( the aimatuie is open ciicuiteu by uefinition). In noimal opeiation , the
fielu wug is connecteu in seiies with the aimatuie, anu the teiminal voltage v is less
than the inuuceu emf E
Aoc
uue to the uiop v ; the exteinal chaiacteiistic is thus
below the 0CC as shown in fig. 8.1u. The iising pait of the cuive is not stable: a slight
change of loau iesistance causes laige changes in teiminal voltage anu cuiient. In the
satuiation iegion, the 0CC is almost hoiizontal, but v continues to inciease with I
A
so
that the cuive is falling; the fall is shaip in seiies geneiatois uesigneu to have stiong
uemagnetizing aimatuie ieaction.
8.7 Applications
Foi uc powei geneiation, the sepaiately exciteu geneiatoi has acceptable voltage
iegulation, but has the uisauvantage of iequiiing a sepaiate souice. The selfexciteu
shunt geneiatoi uoes not iequiie a sepaiate souice, but has pooi iegulation. The
cumulative compounu geneiatoi oveicomes this pioblem; it can be uesigneu to have
zeio iegulation by suitable compounuing. Nouein geneiatois aie equippeu with
automatic voltage contiol, possibly soliustate, so that they have excellent iegulation;
the uesign of the contiol system is ueteimineu by the exteinal chaiacteiistic of the
P a g e |86
geneiatoi. Bowevei, soliustate iectifieis aie iapiuly ieplacing uc geneiatois in most

applications; technological auvances have maue it possible to manufactuie commeicial
soliustate components of high iating, i.e. components capable of passing high cuiients
anu withstanuing high voltages. Foi example, the uc geneiatoi in the automobile has
been ieplaceu by an ac geneiatoi(alteinatoi) with iectifiei.
Theexternalcharacteristicsoftheseriesanddifferentialcompoundgeneratorsmake
themunsuitablefordcpowergenerationatconstantvoltage.Thefallingportionsoftheir
characteristicscorrespondtoconstantcurrentoperationoverthatrange.Theseriesgenerator
hasbeenusedasabooster:itisconnectedinserieswiththelinebetweenageneratorandits
load;itsrisingcharacteristiccompensatesforthedropintheline.
P a g e |87
8.8Paralleloperation
Twodcgenerators,ageneratoranddcpowermains,orageneratorandabattery,
maybeoperatedinparalleltosupplyacommonload.Theoverallcharacteristicisobtainedby
graphicalparalleladdionoftheirexternalcharacteriscs,g.8.11.Thegurealsoshowshow
thetwogeneratorssharetheloadcurrentaccordingtotheirindividualcharacteristics.
Whenweintendtooperatetwogeneratorsinparallel,beforeclosingtheparalleling
switchwemustmakesurethatthevoltagesofthetwogeneratorsareequalandhavethesame
polarity;otherwiselargecurrentsmaycirculatebetweenthem.
Chapter9MOTOROPERATION
Inmotoroperation,adcmachineissuppliedelectrically,anddrivesamechanicalload.
9.1Governingequations
Inmotoroperation,weareinterestedintheoutputtorqueandshaftspeed,andtheir
influenceonthecurrentdrawnbythemotor.Frompreviouschapters,theemfandtorque
equationsforadcmachineare
E
A
=K
e
.n.
And
T
d
=K.I
A
.
intheseequationsistheresultantusefulfluxperpole,i.e.itincludesany
demagnetizationduetoarmaturereaction.FromKVL,wehave
E
A
=V(IR+V
b
)
P a g e |88
Visthevoltageappliedtothemotorterminals,andIRisthetotalseriesresistive
drop(armwdg,commutatingwdg,compensatingwdg,seriesfieldwdg,andanyadditional
seriesresistance).Tosimplifyourstudy,weshallapproximatethisequationto
E
A
=VI
A
R
i.ethebrushvoltagedropisignored,andRincludesallresistancesinthepathofthe
armaturecurrent.Dividingtheaboveeqn.byK
e
.,weget
n=
V-I
A
R
K
e
q

ThisequationtellsusthatspeedisdeterminedprimarilybytheappliedvoltageVand
theflux,withsomereductionduetotheseriesvoltagedropI
A
R(whichdependsoncurrent,
andhenceonloadtorque).Theaboveeqn.sallowustounderstandmotoroperation.
Load:torqueandcurrent
ThedevelopedtorqueT
d
isslightlygreaterthantheloadtorqueT
L
duetorotational
losses:
T
d
=T
L
+T
rotloss
Thegreatertheloadonthemotor,thegreaterthecurrentitdrawsfromthesupply.
Theloadtorquedeterminesthecurrentofthemotor.
Actually,theaboveeqn.holdsonlyundersteadystateconditions,i.e.whenthespeedis
constant.Undertransient(ordynamic)conditions,thetwosidesoftheequationarenotequal,
andthedifferencebetweenthemproducesanacceleration
J
dm
dt
=T
d
(T
L
+T
rotloss
)
WhereJisthemomentofinertiaoftherotatingparts(rotor,shaft,andload);
dm
dt
is
theangularacceleration.Theaboveeqn.isadevelopmentfromNewtonslawF=ma(i.e.it
relatestothemechanicsofthesystem).
Supposethatthemotorisrunningatsomeconstantspeedsothat
dm
dt
= u .Now
supposetheloadonthemotorsuddenlyincreases:themotorwillslowdownaccordingtothe
dynamiceqn.above.Butthiscausestheinducedemftodecrease.Theresultingincreaseinthe
differencebetweenVandE
A
mustbebalancedbyanincreaseinthearmaturecurrentI
A
.The
increaseincurrentincreasesthedevelopedtorqueT
d
,andtheinitialincreaseinloadtorqueis
thusmet.Themotornowoperatesatsteadystateagain,butatareducedspeed.
P a g e |89
NotethatiftheseriesresistanceRissmall,thenonlyaslightchangeinspeedis
sufficienttocauselargechangesinarmaturecurrent(andhenceindevelopedtorque).
Afteradisturbance(suddenchangeinload),thetimeittakesthemotortosettleata
newspeediscalledtheresponsetime.Itisdeterminedbytheelectricaltimeconstantofthe
motorandthemechanicaltimeconstantsofthemotorandconnectedload.Incertain
applications,particularlyautomaticcontrolsystems,theresponsemustbequick,andthemotor
isdesignedtohavelowinductanceandlowinertia.
Theseriesresistanceinthearmaturecircuitissmall,sothattheinducedemfE
A
is
approximatelyequaltotheappliedvoltageV,henceforagivenvalueofflux,thespeedis
determinedprimarilybytheappliedvoltageV.
Thefluxisdeterminedprimarilybythemainfieldmmf(i.e.byfieldcurrent),and
maybecontrolledbyfieldresistors.Thetorqueisdirectlyproportionaltoflux,butthespeedis
inverselyproportionaltoit.Thusanincreaseinfluxtendstodecreasespeed,andadecreasein
fluxtendstoincreasespeed.Clearly,then,armaturereactiontendstoincreasespeed,whilethe
seriesfieldincumulativecompoundmotorstendstodecreasespeed.
9.2Definitions
Weshallneedthetermsandconceptsdefinedbelowinourdescriptionofmotor
operationandthefactorsthataffectit.
Mechanicalcharacteristics
Themechanicalcharacteristicofadcmotoristhecurverelatingthemotorstwo
outputvariables,torqueandspeed;thecurveshowshowspeedchangeswithload.
Wecanrewritetheeqn.ofspeedasfollows:
n=
V
K
e
q
-
R
K
e
Kq
2
T
d
forconstantVand,theaboveeqn.representsastraightlinewithnegativeslope,
g.9.2.ThersttermontheRHSgivesthevercalintercept(noloadspeed),andthe
coefficientofT
d
inthesecondtermgivestheslope.TheloadtorqueT
L
isalittlelessthanthe
developedtorqueT
d
,sothattherelationshipcurvesbelowthestraightline.Theshapeofthe
curvemaybefurthermodifiedduetochangesintheflux(whichaffectsbothslopeand
intercept)asthemotorloadchanges;thefluxchangeswithloadwhenthereisaseriesfield,
andwhenthedemagnetizingeffectofarmaturereactionisnotnegligible.
P a g e |90
Whenthemotorisdrivingamechanicalload,the
torqueandspeedarefoundfromthemotormechanical
characteristicandtheloadtorquespeedcharacteristic,g.9.2;
thatis,theoperatingpoint(T
1
,n
1
)isfoundgraphically.Fig.
9.3showssometypicalcharacteriscsofmechanicalloads.
Stability
Theoperatingpointmayormay
notbestable.Ing.9.4aitisstable:ifthe
speedsuddenlyincreasesfromnton,
theloadtorqueT
L
i
willbegreaterthan
themotortorqueT
M
i
,causing
decelerationbacktotheoperatingpoint
(n,T);theoperatingpointwillalsobe
restoredto(n,T)forasuddendecreasein
speed(tryit).
Ing.9.4b,theoperangpointisunstable:ifthe
speedsuddenlyincreasefromnton,themotortorque
T
M
i
willbegreaterthantheloadtorqueT
L
i
,causing
accelerationandfurtherincreaseinspeedawayfromthe
operatingpoint(n,T);asuddendecreaseinspeedmay
resultinstall(zerospeed).Clearly,then,thestabilityofthe
operatingpointdependsontherelativeshapesofthemotorandloadtorquespeed
characteristics.
Speedcontrol
n=
V-I
A
R
K
e
q
indicatesthatthespeedmaybecontrolledbymeansoftheappliedvoltage,
mainflux,andtheseriesresistance;theseparametersmaybeadjustedmanuallyor
automatically.AlthoughthearmaturecurrentI
A
appearsintheequation,andhenceaffects
speed,itisnotapropercontrollingparameterbecauseitcannotbeadjustedasdesired,butis
determinedbythemechanicalload.
Nowagivenmechanicalcharacteristiccorrespondstoaparticularsettingoftheapplied
voltage,fieldcontrolresistor,andseriesresistance.Ifanyofthesettingsischanged,operation
shiftstoanothercurve.Thereforetheoperatingpointmaybemovedfromonecurveto
anotherbychangingthesettingofoneormoreofthecontrolparameters,g.9.5.Thespeed
P a g e |91
maybekeptapproximatelyconstantbyautomatic
regulatorsthatsensetheshaftspeedandadjust
oneofthecontrolparameterstokeepitattheset
value.
Speedregulation
Thespeedregulationofamotoratagiven
loadisdefinedby
SR=
no-Ioad spccd - spccd undcr Ioad
spccd undcr Ioad

Itisafigureofmeritthatindicateshowconstanttheshaftspeediswithload.Formany
applications,agooddrivemotorisonewhichmaintainsitsspeedconstantoverawiderangeof
loads.Thespeedregulationofmotorsequippedwithautomaticspeedcontrolisalmostzero.
Alowvalueofspeedregulationisnotalwaysdesirable.Thereareapplicationsthat
requirethemotortochangeitsspeedwithload,forexampletokeepthetorqueoroutput
powerconstant.Amainfeatureofthedcmotoristhatitsoperationcanbetailoredtosuitany
typeofloadrequirements.
9.3Constantfluxmotors(permanentmagnet;separatelyexcited;shunt)
Thedifferencebetweenshuntandseparatelyexcitedmotorsisthatthefieldofashunt
motorisfedfromthesamesourceasthearmature,whilethefieldofaseparatelyexcited
motorisfedfromadifferentsource,possiblyatadifferentvoltage.Inbothcases,constant
fieldvoltageandresistanceresultinconstantfieldcurrent(I
f
doesnotchangewithload),and
henceconstantmainfieldflux.Permanentmagnetmotorsalsooperatewithaconstantmain
field.
Ifthedemagnetizingeffectofarmaturereactionisneglected,thedevelopedtorqueT
d
willbedirectlyproportionaltothearmaturecurrentI
A
,sothatthetwovariablesarerelatedby
thestraightlineshowndoeding.9.6.Armaturereaconmayreducetheux,and
hencereduceT
d
,sothattheactualrelationshipbetweenT
d
andI
A
iscurvedslightlybelow
thestraightline.TheloadtorqueT
L
islessthanthedevelopedtorqueduetorotationallosses,
sothattheT
L
curveisslightlybelowtheT
d
curve,g.9.6.Therelaonshipbetweentorque
andcurrentissometimescalledthetorquecharacteristicofthemotor.
P a g e |92
Forconstantfluxmotors,themechanicalcharacteristicisastraightlinewithaslight
negaveslope,g.9.7.Armaturereaconmayreducetheusefuluxandhenceincreasethe
speed,sothatthemechanicalcharacteristiccurvesslightlyabovethestraightline.Thisupward
curvaturemayleadtoinstability,itisavoidedbydesigningthemotortohavenodemagnetizing
armaturereaction(bytheuseofinterpoles);andbyaddingaweakseriesfieldtocompensate
forthereductioninflux(stabilizedshuntmotor).
Thereductioninspeedwithloadisverysmallforconstantfluxmotors.Themechanical
characteristicissaidtobehard,andthemotorsoperateinanessentiallyconstantspeedmode.
9.4Seriesmotor
ThemainfieldfluxoftheseriesmotorchangeswithloadcurrentaccordingtotheOCC;
thereforetheseriesmotorischaracterizedbyvariableflux,asopposedtotheconstantflux
motors.Atlightloads,operationisonthelinearpartoftheOCC,sothat
I
A
andT
d
I
A
2
Thusthetorquecharacteriscfollowsaparabolaatlightloads,g.9.8.Atheavyloads,
themachinewillbesaturatedsothatthefluxisalmostconstant,andoperationapproaches
thatofconstantfluxmotors
constant>>>>>T
d
I
A
Thetorquecharacteriscapproachesastraightlineatheavyloads,g.9.8.
Applyingthesamereasoningtothemechanicalcharacteristic,weseethat
Atlightloads:n
K
1
T
d
-K
2
Andatheavyloads:n K
3
-K
4
I
d
(similartoshunt)
P a g e |93
Themechanicalcharacteriscwillthenhavethegeneralshapeshowning.9.9.The
changeofspeedwithloadisquitelarge;themechanicalcharacteristicissaidtobesoft,andthe
seriesmotoroperatesinavariablespeedmode.Themotorhasahighstartingtorque,butthe
torquequicklydecreasesasspeedgoesup.Atnoloadthespeedbecomessohighthatitcan
damagethemotor;thereforeseriesmotorsareneverrununloaded,andarealwaysrigidly
coupledtotheirloads(i.e.beltsareneverused).
9.5Compoundmotors
Acompoundmotorhasbothshuntandseriesfields.Forcumulativecompounding,the
motorcharacteristicswillmovefromshuntc/sinthedirectionofseriesc/sasload
increases(i.e.astheserieseldbecomesstronger);seeg.s.9.10,9.11.Theactualshapeofthe
mechanicalc/sisdeterminedbythedegreeofcompounding,i.e.bytheratio
N
5
N
I
,g.9.11.
Differentialcompoundmotorshaverisingmechanicalc/sbecauseofthereductioninmainfield
fluxwithload.
P a g e |94
Armaturevoltagecontrol
InPMandseparatelyexcitedmotors,thevoltageappliedtothemotorcanbevaried
withthefieldremainingconstant.Differentvoltagesthengivedifferentintercepts(differentno
loadspeeds),andwegetafamilyofparallel(i.e.sameslope)mechanicalc/sasing.9.12.
Similardownwardshisoccurfortheseriesmotor,g.9.13.Thesimplestmethodof
obtainingvariabledcvoltageistouseavoltagedivider,butthismethodisimpracticaland
uneconomical;itisusedonlyfortesting.
Inmodernapplications,variabledcvoltageforthearmatureisoftenobtainedfroma
solidstatecontrolledrecer,withtheeldfedfromanuncontrolledrecer,g.9.14.The
firingangleofthecontrolledrectifiermaybechangedmanually,butinpracticeitisadjusted
automaticallyusingaspeedsignalorarmaturecurrentsignal(i.e.load),orbothforoptimum
control.
Inroadvehicles,thesupplyisitselfdc,andhenceneedsnorectification.Voltage
controlisoftenobtainedbyanelectronicchoppercircuit.Choppersmayusepulsewidth
modulationPWMatconstantfrequency,orpulsefrequencymodulationPFMwithconstant
pulsewidth.
AnothereffectivemethodforobtainingsmoothvoltagecontrolistheWardLeonard
system.Thedcmotorisfedfromadcgeneratordrivenbysomeprimemover(egacmotor
P a g e |95
orDieselengine).Byvaryingthefieldexcitationofthegenerator,thearmaturevoltageofthe
motorvaried(andcanbeevenreserved).Themotorfieldisfedfromanexciter(smalldc
generator)orrectifieratconstantvoltage.TheWardLeonardsystemisgenerallymore
expensivethanasolidstatedrive,buthascompensatingadvantagesforcertainapplications.
Armatureresistancecontrol
Foragivenloadtorque,andhencegivencurrent,placinganexternalresistanceinseries
withthearmature,reducestheemfandhencespeed.Theincreasingvalueofresistance
increasestheslopeofthemechanicalc/s,buttheinterceptremainsunchanged.Armature
resistancecontrolmayalsobeusedwithseriesmotors;atheavyloadsthemachineis
saturatedandoperationapproachesthatofconstantfluxmotorswithslopeincreasingas
resistanceisincreased.Armatureresistancecontrolisinexpensiveandsimpletousewithsmall
motors,butitisimpracticalandwastesenergywithlargemotors.
Fieldcontrol
Thismethodofspeedcontrolmaybeusedwithshuntandseparatelyexcitedmotors.If
thefieldcircuitresistanceisincreased,thefieldcurrent,andhencethemainfield,willbe
reduced,andthespeedwillincrease.Thehigherthefieldresistance,thehighertheintercept
andthegreatertheslope(i.e.thec/sbecomessofter).
Thefluxcannotbereducedindefinitelybecausethespeedbecomestoohighandmay
damagethemotor.Moreover,ifthemainfieldbecomestooweak,thedemagnetizingeffectof
armaturereactionbecomesprominent(relativelylarge)whichmayleadtoinstability.
9.7Starting
Atthemomentthemotorisswitchedon,itisatstandstill,sothatthereisnoinduced
emf.Theentirelinevoltageisappliedacrossthearmatureresistance,sincewehave
V=I
start
.R
A
andI
start
=
V
R
A
Thestartingcurrentisthereforeveryhigh,especiallyforlargemotorswhichhavevery
smallarmaturecircuitresistance.Thestartingcurrentmaybemorethan20mesratedvalue,
andwoulddamagethemotorunlesssomemeansisfoundtolimitit.
Oncethemotorstartstorotate,theinternalemfbeginstobuildupandthusreduce
thecurrentinaccordancetoI
A
=
V-E
R
A

Notealsothattherateatwhichtheemfbuildsupdependsontherateatwhichthe
motoracceleratesfromstandstillwhich,inturn,dependsonthestartingtorque;
P a g e |96
Thatis,ahighstartingtorqueisdesirableforrapidinitialacceleration(andhencerapid
buildupofemf,andhencerapidreductionofthehighstartingcurrent).
Directonlinestarting(DOL)
DOLstartingmeanssimplyconnectingthemotortothesupplythroughaswitch.This
methodcanbeusedonlywithsmallmotorswhere(a)thearmatureresistanceishighenough
tolimitthestartingcurrent,and(b)therotorinertiaissmallenoughtoallowrapid
acceleration(andhencerapidbuildupofemfleadingtorapidreductionofcurrent).
Variablevoltagestarting
MotorssuppliedfromWardLeonardsetsorcontrolledrectifierscanbestartedby
raisingthesupplyvoltagegraduallyfromzero.Thelowinitialvoltageresultsinareduced
startingcurrent.
Resistancestarting
Thisisthemostcommonmethodofstartingdcmotors.Aspeciallydesignedvariable
resistorisconnectedinserieswiththearmature,g.9.21.Whenthemovingcontactismoved
fromtheOFFpositiontotheSTARTposition,allsectionsofthestartingresistorareinthe
circuitsothatthestartingcurrentislimitedto
I
start
=
V
R
A
+R
stat
ThevalueofR
start
ischosentolimitthestarngcurrenttoasafevalue,usually1.52.5
timesratedcurrent.Althoughthestartingcurrentisstillgreaterthantheratedcurrent,itis
consideredsafebecauseitflowsonlyforashorttime.Moreover,arelativelyhighcurrentis
neededtoobtainahightorqueforrapidacceleration.
Asthemotorbuildsupspeed(andhenceemf),thestartingresistanceiscutoutsection
bysectionuntilitistotallyoutofthecircuit.Duringthisprocess,thestartingcurrentandthe
inducedemffollowsteppedcurvesoftheformsshowning.9.22.Inprinciple,agivensecon
iscutoutwhenthecurrenthasfallentosomeminimumvalue,sayratedcurrent;uponcutting
outsection,thecurrentwilljumpupagaintoavaluelimitedbythesectionsremaininginthe
circuit(maximumsafevalue).
Duringstarting,fullvoltagemustbeappliedtotheshuntfieldwindingtomaketheflux
maximum;thismaximizesstartingtorqueandemf,andpreventsoverspeed(thehighstarting
currentmaycauseseverearmaturereaction,i.e.reducetheflux).Forthisreason,thestarting
resistorisconnectedinthearmaturecircuitandnotintheline,andthefieldcontrolresistoris
shortedoutduringstarting.
P a g e |97
Fig.9.22Fig.9.21ResistanceStarng.
Gradingofstartingresistanceofshuntmotors
Eitherlowervalueofcurrentmaybefixedorthenumberofstarterstepsmaybefixed.
Iowcr currcnt IImIt
uppcr currcnt IImIt
=
I
mn
I
max
Resistanceinthecircuitonsuccessivestudsfromgeometricalprogression,havinga
commonratioequalto
I
mn
I
max
R
1
R
2
R
3
R
a
For4studsstarter:
1234
+A

WhenarmAgoestopoint1I
A
=I
max
=
V
R
1
whereR
1
=R
A
+starterresistance.
M
P a g e |98
Asthemotorspeedsup,itsemfgrowsandhencedecreasesI
A
asshownbythecurvein
g.9.22.WhencurrenthasfallentopredeterminedvalueI
min
,armAismovedtostudNo.2.
letthevalueofbackemfbeE
b1
atthemeofleavingstudNo.1.Then
I
min
=
V-E
b1

R
1
..(1)
WhenAtouchesstudNo.2,thenduetodiminuonofcircuitresistance,thecurrentagain
jumpsuptoitspreviousvalueI
max
.sincespeedhadnotimetochange,thebackemfremains
thesameasinitially.
I
max
=
V-E
b1

R
2
..(2)
From(1),and(2),weget
I
max
I
mn
=
R
1
R
2
(3)
WhenAisheldonstudNo.2forsomeme,thenspeedandhencebackemfincreasestoa
valueE
b2
,therebydecreasingthecurrenttopreviousvalueI
min
,SOTHAT
I
min
=
V-E
b2

R
2
..(4)
Similarly,onrstmakingcontactwithstudNo.3,thecurrentis
I
max
=
V- E
b2
R
3
.(5)
I
max
I
mn
=
R
2
R
3
.(6)
WhenAisheldonNo.3forsomeme,thespeedandhencebackemfincreasestoanew
valueE
b3
,therebydecreasingthearmaturecurrenttoavalueI
max
suchthat
I
min
=
V- E
b3
R
3
.(7)
OnmakingcontactwithstudNo.4,currentjumpstoI
max
givenby
I
max
=
V- E
b3
R
a
..(8)
I
max
I
mn
=
R
3
R
a
(9)
From(3),(6),and(9),itisseenthat
I
max
I
mn
=
R
1
R
2
=
R
2
R
3
=
R
3
R
a
=k(say)..(10)
P a g e |99
Obviously,R
3
=kR
a
,R
2
=kR
3
=k
2
R
a
R
1
=kR
2
=k
3
R
a
Ingeneral,ifiisthenumberoflivestudsandtherefore(i1)thenumberofseconsinthe
starterresistance,then
R
1
=k
i1
R
a
or
R
1
R
a
=k
i1
Or(
I
max
I
mn
)
i1
=k
i1
ork
i1
=
R
1
R
a
=
V
I
max
R
a
k
i
=
V
I
max
R
a
I
max
I
mn
=
V
I
mn
R
a
i=1+
Iog (
V
I
max
R
a
)
Iogk

sinceR
1
=
V
I
mn
andR
a
areusuallyknownandkisknownfromthegivenvaluesofmaximum
andminimumcurrents(determinedbytheloadagainstwhichmotorhastostart),thevalueof
icanbefoundandhencethevalueofdifferentstartersections.
9.8Braking
Whentheelectricsupplytothemotorisswitchedoff,therotationdoesnotstopimmediately,
butcontinuesuntilthekineticenergyoftherotatingparts(rotorandload)isdissipated.Butin
manyapplications,suchaselectrictrains,vehicles,cranes,andlifts,themotormustbestopped
quickly,andhencesomeformofbrakingisrequiredatswitchoff.
Externalbraking
Quickbrakingcanbeachievedbyanexternalfrictionbrakemountedontheshaftandoperated
byasolenoid(electromagnet).Attheinstantthesupplyisswitchedoff,thebrakeisappliedto
stoprotation.Ineffect,thekineticenergyoftherotatingpartsisdissipatedquicklyasheatin
thebrakepads.
Theeddycurrentbrakeisanothertypeofexternalbrake.Itismadeupofaconductingdisc
mountedontheshaft,andasetofstationarycoilsadjacenttothedisc.Attheinstantthe
supplytothemotorisswitchedoff,thebrakecoilsareenergizedtoinduceeddycurrentsinthe
rotatingdisc.Thefieldofthecoilsandthecurrentsofthediscproduceatorquethatopposes
P a g e |100
Electiical Nachines Notes Bi. AF BATI Page 1uu
rotation(generatoraction)andhenceslowstheshaftrapidly.Ineffect,thekineticenergyofthe
rotatingpartsisdissipatedasheatinthediscofthebrake.
Electricbraking
Insteadofusinganexternalbrake,itissometimespossibletousethepropertiesofthedc
machineitselftoachievequickbraking,ortoassistinbraking.
Indynamicbraking(orrheostaticbraking),aresistor(possiblythestartingresistoritself)is
connectedacrossthearmatureterminalsattheinstantitisdisconnectedfromthesupply.With
theshuntfieldstillexcited,themachineactsasageneratorloadedbytheresistor;the
armaturecurrentreverses,andthedevelopedtorquenowopposesrotation.Ineffect,the
kineticenergyisdissipatedasheatmainlyintheresistor,butalsointhearmaturewdg.During
braking,itispreferabletoenergizethefieldfromthelineandnotfromthearmature;
otherwise,brakingactionstopswhenthespeedfallsbelowthecriticalvalue.
Adcmotorissaidtoberegeneratingwhenitsemfexceedstheappliedvoltagesothatthe
armaturecurrentreversesandthemachinebecomesageneratorthatreturnselectricalpower
tothesupply;thesourceofthepoweristhekineticenergyoftherotatingparts,andhence
regenerationslowsthemotordown.Regenerativebrakingusesthisprincipletoaidinstopping
themotororinslowingitdown;regenerationisachievedbystrengtheningthefieldorby
reducingtheappliedvoltage.Themainadvantageofregenerativebrakingisthesavingof
energy,whichisreturnedtothesupplyandnotdumpedasheatasintheothermethodsof
braking.Itisoftenusedinelectrictrainstoexploitdownhillruns,andincranestoexploitthe
descendingpartofthedutycycle.Regenerativebrakingcanbeusedonlyiftheelectricsupply
iscapableofacceptingelectricalenergyfromthemotor(egchargeablebatteriesordcmains);
standardcontrolledrectifierscannotacceptelectricalpowerfromthemotorunlesstheyare
modifiedforthepurpose(egbytheinclusionofinverters).Inregenerativebraking,thebraking
actionstopswhenthespeedbecomeslowenoughtoreducetheemfbelowtheterminal
voltage.
Astrongbrakingeffectdowntozerospeedisobtainedbyplugging(orcountercurrentbraking).
Thesupplyconnectionstothearmaturearereversed,sothatthesupplyandarmatureemfact
asseriessourcesaidingeachothertocirculateaheavycountercurrent
I
A
=
E
A
+ V
R

Themachineoperatesinthegeneratingmodewithaheavycurrent,andhencewithastrong
brakingtorque.Aserieslimitingresistorisinsertedinthecircuittoavoiddamagingcurrents;if
thestartingresistorisused,thepluggingcurrentwillbetwicestarngcurrent(i.e.upto5mes
ratedcurrent).Duringplugging,thekineticenergyoftherotatingpartsplusheavypowerfrom
P a g e |101
Electiical Nachines Notes Bi. AF BATI Page 1u1
thesupply(VI
A
)aredissipatedinthearmaturewindingandthelimitingresistor.Thesupply
mustbedisconnectedfromthemotorattheinstantthespeedreacheszero,otherwisethe
motorwillruninthereversedirection.Plugginginvolvessuchheavycurrentsandhigh
mechanicalstressesthatitisusedonlywithsmallmotors.
9.9Modesofoperation
Thefourquadrantdiagramhelps
clarifythevariousmodesof
operationofadcmotor.Thefirst
quadrantcorrespondstostandard
motoroperationinonedirection,
whilethethirdquadrant
correspondstomotoroperation
inthereversedirection.The
secondandfourthquadrants
correspondtogenerator
operation.
Takingthe1
st
Qasreference,itis
seenthatmotoroperationinthe
reversedirecon,3
rd
Q,requires
reversalofeithertheapplied
voltageorthefieldcurrent.If
botharereversedatthesame
me,motoroperaonwillconnueinthesamedirecon,1
st
Q.
Ifinialoperaonisinthe1
st
Q,thenthe2
nd
Qcorrespondstodynamicorregenerative
braking.Pluggingalsoshisoperaontothe2
nd
Q,butattemptstocontinuetothe3
rd
;the
supplyisdisconnectedwhentheoperatingpointpassesthroughzerospeed.Ifinitialoperation
isinthe3
rd
Q,i.e.inthereversedirection,thendynamicbraking,regenerativebraking,and
pluggingoccurinthe4
th
Q.
Forexample,ifthemotorisusedinliftsorcranes,wehave:
QuadrantI:motorraisesload;
QuadrantIII:motorlowersload;
QuadrantII:motorbrakesupward(inertia)motionofload;
P a g e |102
Electiical Nachines Notes Bi. AF BATI Page 1u2
QuadrantIV:loadmovesdownbyitsownweightwhilemotorappliesabrakingtorquetokeep
speedconstant.
9.10Applications
DCmotorsarelesscommonthanacmotorsbecauseacmotorsarecheaper,morerobust,
andrequirelessmaintenance,andbecausestandardmainsareac.However,therearetwo
maintypesofapplicationforwhichdcmotorsaremoresuitablethanacmotors:battery
operatedequipment(thinkaboutmotorsusedinvehicles),andapplicationsrequiringaccurate
orflexiblecontrolofspeedortorque.
Batteryoperatedequipmentincludessmallportableapparatus(suchasDVDplayers,cassette
recorders,etc),cordlesstools,andtoys,aswellaselectricdrivesinroadvehicles.Theseare
usuallypermanentmagnetorshunt(fixedexcitation)motors,butoccasionallyseriesmotors.
Thehighstartingtorqueoftheseriesmotormakesitsuitableforselfstarterdutyincars.
Electricvehiclesemploypermanentmagnetorseriesmotors,withspeedcontrolbymeansof
choppers(armaturevoltagecontrol)orarmatureseriesresistance.
Theaccuratecontrolofdcmotorsmakesthemsuitableforservomotordutyinautomatic
controlsystems.Themotorsinsuchapplicaonsgenerallyhavesmallpowerrang(lessthan1
KW),andarerequiredtodrivealoadinaccordancewithacontrolsignalappliedtothe
armature(armaturevoltagecontrol).Theyareusuallyconstantfieldmotors(PMorseparately
excited)designedtohavealowmomentofinertiaforquickresponse,andlinearmechanical
characteristicsforaccuratecontrol.
Theflexibilityofcontrolofdcmotorsmakesthemsuitableforcertainheavypower
applicationssuchaslifts,cranes,hoists,andelectrictraction(electrictrains),aswellascertain
drivesinheavyindustry.Theseapplicationscaninvolvefrequentchangesinspeed,stopsand
starts,andpossiblyreversals.Thehardc/ssofshuntmotorswitharmaturevoltagecontrolare
idealforadjustablespeeddrives,whilethesofterc/ssofcompoundandseriesmotorsare
sometimesexploitedintraction(locomotives)todowithoutdifferentgearratios.

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