Mathematical Logic

Mathematical logic is introduced in this unit. Topics include sentences and statements, logical connectors, conditionals, biconditionals, equivalence and tautologies. Truth tables are constructed throughout this unit. Choose a topic from the table of contents below.

Un it 9 > Le sso n1 of 11

Mathematical Logic
Negation

Description
To identify a statement as true, false or open. To list the negation of a statement in symbolic and in sentence form. To list the truth values for a given statement and its negation. To define logical connector, compound statement, and conjunction. To list a conjunction in symbolic and in sentence form. To construct a truth table for a conjunction. To define disjunction. To list a disjunction in symbolic and in sentence form. To construct a truth table for a disjunction. To identify the hypothesis and conclusion of a conditional. To list a conditional in symbolic and

Conjunction

Disjunction

Conditional Statements

in sentence form. To list the truth value of a conditional, given the value of each part. Compound Statements To evaluate sentences represented by compound statements with logical connectors. To write a compound statement in symbolic form. To construct a truth table for a compound statement to determine its truth values. To list a biconditional in symbolic and in sentence form. To identify the hypothesis and conclusion. To evaluate a sentence to determine whether or not it is biconditional. To identify the individual parts of a compound statement. To construct a truth table for a compound statement to determine whether or not it is a tautology. To define logical equivalence. To construct a truth table for several compound statements to determine which two are logically equivalent. To recognize that the biconditional of two equivalent statements is a tautology. To complete 10 additional exercises as practice with

Biconditional Statements

Tautologies

Equivalence

Practice Exercises

mathematical logic. Includes interactive truth tables. To assess students' understanding of all concepts in this unit. Challenge Exercises To solve 10 additional problems that challenge students' understanding of mathematical logic. To hone students' problem-solving skills. To review complete solutions to all exercises presented in this unit. Includes the problem, step-by-step solutions, and final answer for each exercise.

Solutions

Conjun ction

Uni t9 > Les son 2 of 11

Example 1: Given: p: Ann is on the softball team. q: Paul is on the football team. Problem: What does p represent? q

Solution: In Example 1, statement p represents the sentence, "Ann is on the softball team," and statement q represents the sentence, "Paul is on the football team." The symbol is a logical connector which means "and." Therefore, the compound statement p q represents the sentence, "Ann is on the softball team and Paul is on the footballteam." The statement p q is a conjunction. Definition: A conjunction is a compound statement formed by joining two statements with the connector AND. The conjunction "p and q" is symbolized by p q. A conjunction is true when both of its combined parts are true; otherwise it is false.

Now that we have defined a conjunction, we can apply it to Example 1. The conjunction p q is true when both "Ann is on the softball team" and "Paul is on the football team" are true statements; otherwise it is false. We can construct a truth table for the conjunction "p and q." In order to list all truth values of p q, we start by listing every combination of truth values in the first two columns of the truth table below.

p q p TT TF F T F F

Next, we complete the last column according to the rules for conjunction listed above. p q p TT TF F T T F F q

F F

The truth table above lists the truth values of p q. A truth table is an excellent tool for listing the truth values of a conjunction (or any compound statement). (Note: Throughout our lessons on symbolic logic, we will always construct truth tables with the first two columns listed exactly as above. The order of the truth values in these first columns is critical to finding all truth values for a given statement. This order will also apply to other formats used to list truth values in more advanced lessons.) Let's look at some more examples of conjunction. Example 2: Given: a: A square is a quadrilateral. b: Harrison Ford is an American actor. Construct a truth table Problem: for the conjunction "a and b." Solution: a b a TT TF F T F F T F F F b

Example 3: Given: r: The number x is odd. s: The number x is prime. Problem: Can we list all truth values for r s in a truth table?Why or why not? Solution: Since each statement given in this example represents an open sentence, the truth value of r s will depend on the value of variable x. But there are an infinite number

of replacement values for x, so we cannot list all truth values for r s in a truth table. We can, however, find the truth value of r s for given values of x as shown below. If x = 3, then r is true, s is true. The conjunction r s is true. If x = 9, then r is true, s is false. The conjunction r s is false. If x = 2, then r is false, s is true. The conjunction r s is false. If x = 6, then r is false, s is false. The conjunction r s is false.

In the next example we are given the truth values of each statement. We are then asked to determine the truth values of the specified conjunctions.

Example 4: Given: p: The number 11 is prime. q: The number 17 is composite. r: The number 23 is prime. true false true

Problem: For each conjunction below, write a sentence and indicate if it is true or false. p q p r q r The number 11 is prime and the number false 17 is composite. The number 11 is prime and the number true 23 is prime. The number 17 is composite and the number 23 is prime. false

1. 2. 3.

A conjunction is formed by combining two statements with the connector "and." One of these statements can be a negation as shown in the example below.

Example 5:

Construct a truth table for each conjunction below: 1. x and y 2. ~x and y 3. ~y and x

Solution: x y

x x y ~x y TT T TF F F T F F F F TT F TF F F T T F F T

~x x y ~y y F F T F TT F TF T F T F F F T

~y x F T F F

Summary: A conjunction is a compound statement formed by joining two statements with the connector "and." The conjunction "p and q" is symbolized by p q. A conjunction is true when both of its combined parts are true; otherwise it is false.

Exercises

Directions: Read each question below. Select your answer by clicking on its button. Feedback to your answer is provided in the RESULTS BOX. If you make a mistake, choose a different button. 1. Which of the following sentences is a conjunction? Jill eats pizza or Sam eats pretzels. Jill eats pizza but not pretzels. Jill eats pizza and Sam eats pretzels. None of the above. RESULTS BOX:

2. Which of the following statements is a conjunction? p+q p ~p None of the above. RESULTS BOX: q

3. A conjunction is used with which connector? Not Or And None of the above.

RESULTS BOX:

4 If a is false and b is true, what is the truth value of a . b? True False Not enough information was given. None of the above. RESULTS BOX:

5. Given:

r: y is prime. s: y is even.

Problem: What is the truth value of r s when y is replaced by 2? True False Not enough information was given. None of the above. RESULTS BOX:

Conjun ction

Uni t9 > Les son 2 of 11

Example 1: Given: p: Ann is on the softball team. q: Paul is on the football team. Problem: What does p represent? Solution: In Example 1, statement p represents the sentence, "Ann is on the softball team," and statement q represents the sentence, "Paul is on the football team." The symbol is a logical connector which means "and." Therefore, the compound statement p q represents the sentence, "Ann is on the softball team and Paul is on the footballteam." The statement p q is a conjunction. Definition: A conjunction is a compound statement formed by joining two statements with the connector AND. The conjunction "p and q" is symbolized by p q. A conjunction is true when both of its combined parts are true; otherwise it is false. q

Now that we have defined a conjunction, we can apply it to Example 1. The conjunction p q is true when both "Ann is on the softball team" and "Paul is on the football team" are true statements; otherwise it is false. We can construct a truth table for the conjunction "p

and q." In order to list all truth values of p q, we start by listing every combination of truth values in the first two columns of the truth table below.

p q p TT TF F T F F

Next, we complete the last column according to the rules for conjunction listed above. p q p TT TF F T F F T F F F q

The truth table above lists the truth values of p q. A truth table is an excellent tool for listing the truth values of a conjunction (or any compound statement). (Note: Throughout our lessons on symbolic logic, we will always construct truth tables with the first two columns listed exactly as above. The order of the truth values in these first columns is critical to finding all truth values for a given statement. This order will also apply to other formats used to list truth values in more advanced lessons.) Let's look at some more examples of conjunction. Example 2: Given: a: A square is a quadrilateral. b: Harrison Ford is an American actor. Problem: Construct a truth table for the conjunction "a

and b." Solution: a b a TT TF F T F F T F F F b

Example 3: Given: r: The number x is odd. s: The number x is prime. Problem: Can we list all truth values for r s in a truth table?Why or why not? Solution: Since each statement given in this example represents an open sentence, the truth value of r s will depend on the value of variable x. But there are an infinite number of replacement values for x, so we cannot list all truth values for r s in a truth table. We can, however, find the truth value of r s for given values of x as shown below. If x = 3, then r is true, s is true. The conjunction r s is true. If x = 9, then r is true, s is false. The conjunction r s is false. If x = 2, then r is false, s is true. The conjunction r s is false. If x = 6, then r is false, s is false. The conjunction r s is false.

In the next example we are given the truth values of each statement. We are then asked to determine the truth values of the specified conjunctions.

Example 4: Given: p: The number 11 is prime. q: The number 17 is composite. r: The number 23 is prime. true false true

Problem: For each conjunction below, write a sentence and indicate if it is true or false. p q p r q r The number 11 is prime and the number false 17 is composite. The number 11 is prime and the number true 23 is prime. The number 17 is composite and the number 23 is prime. false

1. 2. 3.

A conjunction is formed by combining two statements with the connector "and." One of these statements can be a negation as shown in the example below.

Example 5:

Construct a truth table for each conjunction below: 1. x and y 2. ~x and y 3. ~y and x

Solution: x y

x x y ~x y TT T TF F F T F F F F TT F TF F F T T F F T

~x x y ~y y F F T F TT F TF T F T F F F T

~y x F T F F

Summary: A conjunction is a compound statement formed by joining two statements with the connector "and." The conjunction "p and q" is symbolized by p q. A conjunction is true when both of its combined parts are true; otherwise it is false.

Exercises
Directions: Read each question below. Select your answer by clicking on its button. Feedback to your answer is provided in the RESULTS BOX. If you make a mistake, choose a different button. 1. Which of the following sentences is a conjunction? Jill eats pizza or Sam eats pretzels. Jill eats pizza but not pretzels. Jill eats pizza and Sam eats pretzels. None of the above. RESULTS BOX:

2. Which of the following statements

is a conjunction? p+q p ~p None of the above. RESULTS BOX: q

3. A conjunction is used with which connector? Not Or And None of the above. RESULTS BOX:

4 If a is false and b is true, what is the truth value of a . b? True False Not enough information was given. None of the above. RESULTS BOX:

5. Given:

r: y is prime. s: y is even.

Problem: What is the truth value of r s when y is replaced by 2? True False Not enough information was given. None of the above. RESULTS BOX:

Bicondi tional Statem ents

Uni t9 > Les son 6 of 11

Example 1: Examine the sentences below. Given: p: A polygon is a triangle. q: A polygon has exactly 3 sides. Problem: Determine the truth values of this statement: (p q) (q p)

The compound statement (p q) (q p) is a conjunction of two conditional statements. In the first conditional, p is the hypothesis and q is the conclusion; in the second conditional, q is the hypothesis and p is the conclusion. Let's look at a truth table for this compound statement. p q p TT TF F T F F T F T T qq T T F T p (p q) T F F T (q p)

In the truth table above, when p and q have the same truth values, the compound statement (p q) (q p) is true. When we combine two conditional statements this way, we have a biconditional. Definition: A biconditional statement is defined to be true whenever both parts have the same truth value. The biconditional operator is denoted by a double-headed arrow . The biconditional p q represents "p if and only if q," where p is a hypothesis and q is a conclusion. The following is a truth table for biconditional p q. p q p TT TF F T F F T F F T q

In the truth table above, p q is true when p and q have the same truth values, (i.e., when either both are true or both are false.) Now that the biconditional has been defined, we can look at a modified version of Example 1. Example 1:

Given:

p: A polygon is a triangle. q: A polygon has exactly 3 sides.

Problem: What does the statement p q represent? Solution: The statement p q represents the sentence, "A polygon is a triangle if and only if it has exactly 3 sides." Note that in the biconditional above, the hypothesis is: "A polygon is a triangle" and the conclusion is: "It has exactly 3 sides." It is helpful to think of the biconditional as a conditional statement that is true in both directions. Remember that a conditional statement has a oneway arrow ( ) and a bicondition al statement has a twoway arrow ( ). We can use an image of a one-way street to help us remember the symbolic form of a

conditional statement, and an image of a two-way street to help us remember the symbolic form of a bicondition al statement.

Let's look at more examples of the biconditional. Example 2: Given: a: x + 2 = 7 b: x = 5 Problem: Write a b as a sentence. Then determine its truth values a b. Solution: The biconditonal a b represents the sentence: "x + 2 = 7 if and only if x = 5." When x = 5, both a and b are true. When x 5, both a and b are false. A biconditional statement is defined to be true whenever both parts have the same truth value. Accordingly, the truth values of a b are listed in the table below. a b a TT TF F T F F T F F T b

Example 3:

Given:

x: I am breathing y: I am alive y as a sentence.

Problem: Write x

Solution: x y represents the sentence, "I am breathing if and only if I am alive."

Example 4: Given: r: You passed the exam. s: You scored 65% or higher. Problem: Write r s as a sentence.

Solution: r s represents, "You passed the exam if and only if you scored 65% or higher." Mathematicians abbreviate "if and only if" with "iff." In Example 5, we will rewrite each sentence from Examples 1 through 4 using this abbreviation.

Example 5: Rewrite each of the following sentences using "iff" instead of "if and only if." if and only if iff

A polygon is a triangle if and A polygon is a triangle iff only if it has exactly 3 sides. it has exactly 3 sides. I am breathing if and only if I I am breathing iff I am am alive. alive. x + 2 = 7 if and only if x = 5. x + 2 = 7 iff x = 5. You passed the exam if and only if you scored 65% or higher. You passed the exam iff you scored 65% or higher.

When proving the statement p iff q, it is equivalent to proving both of the statements "if p, then q" and "if q, then p." (In fact, this is exactly what we did in Example 1.) In each of the following examples, we will determine whether or not the given statement is biconditional using this method.

Example 6: Given: p: x + 7 = 11 q: x = 5 Problem: Is this sentence biconditional? "x + 7 = 11 iff x = 5." Solution: Let p Let q q represent "If x + 7 = 11, then x = 5." p represent "If x = 5, then x + 7 = 11."

The statement p q is false by the definition of a conditional. The statement q p is also false by the same definition. Therefore, the sentence "x + 7 = 11 iff x = 5" is not biconditional.

Example 7: Given: r: A triangle is isosceles. s: A triangle has two congruent (equal) sides. Problem: Is this statement biconditional? "A triangle is isosceles if and only if it has two congruent (equal) sides."

Solution: Yes. The statement r s is true by definition of a conditional. The statement s r is also true. Therefore, the sentence "A triangle is isosceles if and only if it has two congruent (equal) sides" is biconditional.

Summary: A biconditional statement is defined to be true whenever both parts have the same truth value. The biconditional operator is denoted by a double-headed arrow . The biconditional p q represents "p if and only if q," where p is a hypothesis and q is a conclusion.

Exercises
Directions: Read each question below. Select your answer by clicking on its button. Feedback to your answer is provided in the RESULTS BOX. If you make a mistake, choose a different button. 1. Given: a: y - 6 = 9 b: y = 15 Problem: The biconditional a b represents which of the following sentences? If y - 6 = 9, then y = 15. y - 6 = 9 if and only if y = 15. If y = 15, then y - 6 = 9. None of the above. RESULTS BOX:

2. Given:

r: 11 is prime. s: 11 is odd.

Problem: The biconditional r s represents which of the following sentences? If 11 is prime, then 11 is odd.

If 11 is odd, then 11 is prime. 11 is prime iff 11 is odd. None of the above. RESULTS BOX:

3. Given:

x y

y x

Problem: If both of these statements are true then which of the following must also true? (x x y) y (y x)

x iff y All of the above. RESULTS BOX:

4. Given:

n is biconditional

Problem: Which of the following is a true statement? m is the hypothesis m is the conclusion n is a conditional statement n is a biconditional statement RESULTS BOX:

5. Which of the following statements is biconditional? I am sleeping if and only if I am snoring. Mary will eat pudding today if and only if it is custard. It is raining if and only if it is cloudy. None of the above.

Tautol ogies

Uni t9 > Les son 7 of 11

Example 1: What do you notice about each sentence below? 1. 2. A number is even or a number is not even. Cheryl passes math or Cheryl does not pass math.

3. It is raining or it is not raining. 4. A triangle is isosceles or a

triangle is not isosceles. Each sentence in Example 1 is the disjunction of a statement and its negation. Each of these sentences can be written in symbolic form as p ~p. Recall that a disjunction is false if and only if both statements are false; otherwise it is true. By this definition, p ~p is always true, even when statement p is false or statement ~p is false! This is illustrated in the truth table below: p ~p p T F F T ~p T T

The compound statement p ~p consists of the individual statements p and ~p. In the truth table above, p ~p is always true, regardless of the truth value of the individual statements. Therefore, we conclude that p ~p is a tautology. Definition: A compound statement, that is always true regardless of the truth value of the individual statements, is defined to be a tautology.

Let's look at another example of a tautology. Example 2: Is (p p q p TT TF F T F F T F F F q (p q) T T T T q) p p a tautology?

Solution: The compound statement (p q) p consists of the individual statements p, q, and p q. The truth table above shows that (p q) p is true regardless of the truth value of the individual statements. Therefore, (p

q)

p is a tautology.

In the examples below, we will determine whether the given statement is a tautology by creating a truth table. Example 3: Is x x y x TT TF F T F F T T T F yx (x T T T T (x y) are {T, T, (x y) y) a tautology?

Solution: Yes; the truth values of x T, T}.

Example 4: Is ~b b ~b ~b T F F T T F b

b a tautology?

Solution: No; the truth values of ~b

b are {T, F}.

Example 5: p q (p TT TF F T F F T T T F

Is (p

q)

(p q) T F F T

q) a tautology? (p q)

q) (p T F F F

q) (p

Solution: No; the truth values of (p {T, F, F, T}.

q)

(p

q) are

Example 6: Is [(p p q p TT TF F T F F T F T T q (p q) T F F F

q)

p]

p a tautology? q) T T T T q) p] p are p] p

p [(p

Solution: Yes; the truth values of [(p {T, T, T, T}.

Example 7: Is (r r s r TT TF F T F F T F T T ss T T F T r (r

s) s)

(s (s T F F T

r) a tautology? r)

Solution: No; the truth values of (r {T, F, F, T}.

s)

(s

r) are

Summary: A compound statement that is always true, regardless of the truth value of the individual statements, is defined to be a tautology. We can construct a truth table to determine if a compound statement is a tautology.

Exercises
Directions: Read each question below. Create a truth table on paper to help you answer each question. Select

your answer by clicking on its button. Feedback to your answer is provided in the RESULTS BOX. If you make a mistake, choose a different button. 1. What is the truth value of r True False Not enough information was given. None of the above. RESULTS BOX: ~r?

2. Is the following statement a tautology? s ~s Yes No Not enough information was given. None of the above. RESULTS BOX:

3. Is the following statement a tautology? [(p q) ~p] q Yes No Not enough information was given. None of the above.

RESULTS BOX:

4. Is the following statement a tautology? ~(x y) (~x ~y) Yes No Not enough information was given. None of the above. RESULTS BOX:

5. Is the following statement a tautology? a ~a Yes No Not enough information was given None of the above RESULTS BOX:

Equiva lence

Uni t9 >

Les son 8 of 11
Example 1: Given: If I don't ~p study q , then I fail. p q I study or I fail.

Determin e the truth Proble values of m: the given statement s. Solution: p q ~p ~p TT F TF F F T T F F T T T T F qp T T T F q

In the truth table above, the last two columns have the same exact truth values! Therefore, the statement ~p q is logically equivalent to the statement p q. Definition: When two statements have the same exact truth values, they are said to be logically equivalent.

Example 2: Construct a truth table for each statement below. Then determine which two are logically equivalent. 1. ~q 2. ~(p 3. p q ~q p T T T F p q TT TF F T F F p q T F T T ~(p q) F T F F p q TT TF F T F F p q T T T F p q)

p q ~q TT F TF T F T F F F T

The truth tables above show that ~q p is logically equivalent to p q, since these statements have the same exact truth values. In Example 3, we will place the truth values of these two equivalent statements side by side in the same truth table. We will then examine the biconditional of these statements.

Example 3: Construct a truth table for (~q q) p q ~q ~q TT F TF T F T F F F T T T T F pp T T T F q (~q p) T T T T (p q)

p)

(p

The biconditional (~q p) ( p q) is a tautology. This is no coincidence: It turns out that any two equivalent statements will yield a tautology when placed in the biconditional.

Definition: The biconditional of two equivalent statements is a tautology. In the next example, we will place the two equivalent statements from Example 1 in the biconditional.

Example 4: Given: ~p p q q If I don't study, then I fail. I study or I fail. q) (p q) a tautology?

Problem: Is (~p Solution: p q ~p ~p TT F TF F F T T F F T T T T F qp

q (~p T T T F

q) T T T T

(p

q)

The truth values of biconditional (~p q) (p q) are {T, T, T, T}. Therefore, (~p q) (p q) is a tautology. Once again, we see that the biconditional of two equivalent statements is a tautology.

Summary: When two statements have the same exact truth values, they are said to be logically equivalent. The biconditional of two equivalent statements is a tautology.

Exercises

Directions: Read each question below. Create a truth table on paper to help you answer each question. Select your answer by clicking on its button. Feedback to your answer is provided in the RESULTS BOX. If you make a mistake, choose a different button. 1. What are the truth values of the following statement? (p ~q) ~p {T, T, T, F} {T, F, T, T} {F, T, T, T} None of the above. RESULTS BOX:

2. Which of the following statements is logically equivalent to the statement given in Exercise 1? q ~p p q p (p ~q)

None of the above. RESULTS BOX:

3. Which of the following statements is logically equivalent to q (p q)? q ~p p (p ~q)

None of the above. RESULTS BOX:

4. Which of the following statements is logically equivalent to a (a b)? a (a (a b b) b) b b

None of the above. RESULTS BOX:

5. Given:

Statement x is logically equivalent to statement y.

Problem: Which of the following is true? x if and only if y x y is a tautology

x iff y All of the above. RESULTS BOX:

Practi ce Exerci ses: Symb olic Logic

Unit 9> Less on 9 of 11

Directions: Complete each truth table below by typing T for true and F for false into each form field. Then click ENTER for feedback. To start over, click CLEAR. 1. p q ~p p T T T F F T F F F T T F F F T

qp T T

qp T F T

Ent Cle Feedb er ar ack

2. p

q ~q p T F T F F T F

q (p

q) F T T

~q

Ent Cle Feedb er ar ack

T F F

F T F

3. x y T T

x y

y x T

(x

y) (y x) T

x y T

Ent Cle Feedb er ar ack

T F

F F T

F F

F T T F F T

4. Which of the following statements from problem 3 is conditional? x y x y None of the above. RESULTS BOX:

5. Which of the following statements from problem 3 is biconditional? x y x y x y

None of the above. RESULTS BOX:

6. a b T T F F T

a b T

(a T F

b) [(a b) a a] b T T T

Ent Cle Feedb er ar ack

F F

7. Choose the word that best completes this sentence: The statement in the last column of the truth table in problem 6 is a ____________. Biconditional Tautology Disjunction None of the above. RESULTS BOX:

8.

~ p p q q ~q T T F T F T F T T F F T T T T

p q T

~(p (p ~q) q) [~(p q)] F T T T T T

En Cl Feed ter ear back

F F

9.

Which two statements from problem 8 are logically equivalent? p p p ~q and p q and ~(p ~q and ~(p q q) q)

None of the above. RESULTS BOX:

10. Choose the word that best completes this sentence: The ____________ of two equivalent statements always yields a tautology. Biconditional Conjunction Negation All of the above. RESULTS BOX:

Challe nge Exerci ses: Symb olic Logic

Unit 9> Less on 10 of 11

Directions: Read each question below. Create a truth table to help you answer each question. The answer choices provided correspond to the last column of the truth table for a given problem. Select your answer by clicking on its button. Feedback to your answer is provided in the RESULTS BOX. If you make a mistake, choose a different button.

1. What are the truth values for this statement? ~p q {T, F, F, F} {F, T, T, T} {F, F, T, F}

None of the above. RESULTS BOX:

2. What are the truth values for this statement? p ~q {T, T, F, T} {F, F, T, F} {F, T, F, F} None of the above. RESULTS BOX:

3. What are the truth values for this statement? ~a b {F, T, T, F} {T, T, T, F} {T, F, T, T} None of the above. RESULTS BOX:

4. What are the truth values for this statement? a ~b {F, T, T, T} {T, F, T, F} {T, T, T, F} None of the above. RESULTS BOX:

5. Choose the word or phrase that best completes this sentence: The statements in problems 3 and 4 are

____________. Logically equivalent Biconditional Tautologies None of the above. RESULTS BOX:

6. What are the truth values for this statement? ~q p {F, T, T, T} {T, F, T, F} {T, T, T, F} None of the above. RESULTS BOX:

7. Which statement below is logically equivalent to the statement in problem 6? p p p q q q

None of the above. RESULTS BOX:

8. What are the truth values for this statement? ~r ~(r s) {T, T, T, T} {F, F, F, F} {T, T, T, F} None of the above.

RESULTS BOX:

9. What are the truth values for this statement? (~q p) (p q) {F, T, T, T} {T, T, T, F} {T, T, T, T} d None of the above. RESULTS BOX:

10. Choose the word or phrase that best completes this sentence: The statements given in problems 8 and 9 are _______. Conjunctions Tautologies Triconditionals None of the above. RESULTS BOX:

Negation of a Statement
Example 1: Examine the sentences below. 1. Every triangle has three sides. 2. Albany is the capital of New York State. 3. No prime number is even. Each of these sentences is a closed sentence. Definition: A closed sentence is an objective statement which is either true or false.

Thus, each closed sentence in Example 1 has a truth value of either true or false as shown below. 1. Every triangle has three sides. 2. Albany is the capital of New York State. 3. No prime number is even. true true false

Note that the third sentence is false since 2 is a prime number. It is possible that a closed sentence will have different truth values at different times. This is demonstrated in Example 2 below. Example 2: 1. Today is Tuesday. 2. Bill Clinton is the President of the United States. Example 3: Examine the sentences below. 1. x + 3 = 7 2. She passed math.

3. y - 4 = 11 4. He is my brother. The sentences in Example 3 are open sentences. Definition: An open sentence is a statement which contains a variable and becomes either true or false depending on the value that replaces the variable.

Let's take another look at Example 3. This time we will Identify the variable for each open sentence.

1. x + 3 = 7 3. y - 4 = 11

The variable is x. The variable is y.

2. She passed math. The variable is she. 4. He is my brother. The variable is he.

Now that we have identified the variables, we can analyze the meaning of these open sentences. Sentence 1 is true if x is replaced by 4, but false if x is replaced by a number other than 4. Sentence 3 is true if y is replaced by 15, but false otherwise. Sentence 2 is either true or false depending on the value of the variable "she." Similarly, sentence 4 is either true or false depending on the value of the variable "he." In summary, the truth value of each open sentence depends on what value is used to replace the variable in that sentence.

Example 4: Given: Let p represent, "Baseball is a sport." Let q represent, "There are 100 cents in a dollar." Let r represent, "She does her homework." Let s represent, "A dime is not a coin." Problem: Write each sentence below using symbols and indicate if it is true, false or open. 1. A dime is a coin. 2. Baseball is not a sport. 3. She does her homework. ~s true ~p false r open

4. There are not 100 cents in a dollar. ~q false 5. She does not do her homework. 6. Baseball is a sport. ~r open p true

Example 5: Given: Let p represent the closed sentence "The number 9 is odd."

Problem: What does ~p mean? In Example 5 we are asked to find the negation of p. Definition: The negation of statement p is "not p." The negation of p is symbolized by "~p." The truth value of ~p is the opposite of the truth value of p. Solution: Since p is true, ~p must be false. p: The number 9 is odd. true

~p: The number 9 is not odd. false

Let's look at some more examples of negation. Example 6: r: 7 < 5 false ~r: 7 5 true

Example 7: a: The product of two negative numbers is a positive number. true

~a: The product of two negative numbers is not a positive number. false

We can construct a truth table to determine all possible truth values of a statement and its negation. Definition:

A truth table helps us find all possible truth values of a statement. Each statement is either Tru (T) or False (F), but not both.

Connection:

To help us remember this definition, think of a computer, which is either on or off, but not both.

Example 8: Construct a truth table for the negation of x. Solution: x ~x T F F T

In Example 8, when x is true, ~x is false; and when x is false, ~x is true. From this truth table, we can see that a statement and its negation have opposite truth values.

Example 9: Construct a truth table for the negation of p. Solution: p ~p T F F T We can also negate a negation. For example, the negation of ~p is ~(~p) or p. This is illustrated in the example below. Example 10: Construct a truth table for the negation of p, and for the negation of not p. Solution: p ~p ~(~p) TF F T T F

Summary: A statement is a sentence that is either true or false. A closed sentence is an objective statement which is either true or false. An open sentence is a statement which contains a variable and becomes either true or false depending on the value that replaces the

variable. The negation of statement p is "not p", symbolized by "~p". A statement and its negation have opposite truth values.

Exercises
Directions: Read each question below. Select your answer by clicking on its button. Feedback to your answer is provided in the RESULTS BOX. If you make a mistake, choose a different button. 1. Which of the following is a closed sentence? Summer follows spring. A quarter is a coin. There are 360 days in a year. All of the above. RESULTS BOX:

2. What is the negation of, "Jenny rides the bus"? Jenny does not like to ride the bus. Jenny does not ride the bus. Jenny likes to ride the bus. None of the above. RESULTS BOX:

3. Which of the following is the negation of x? -x

~(~x) ~x None of the above. RESULTS BOX:

4. Given:

a: A triangle is not a polygon. b: A square is a rectangle.

Problem: Which of the following is the negation of "A triangle is not a polygon"? ~(~b) ~a a None of the above. RESULTS BOX:

5. Which of the following is an open sentence? The number 4 is even. The number 8 is odd. The number 5 is even. The number x is odd. RESULTS BOX: