Logical Reasoning

Topic 1: Logic
Objectives
Students should be able to
Define statements (simple and compound
statements).
Construct truth tables of statements
Determine whether two compound
statements are logically equivalent
Negate a statement
Statement
A statement is a sentence that is either definitely true (T) or false (F).
Example 1:
Decide whether or not the following are statements. In the case of a
statement, say if it is true or false.
a) Kuala Lumpur is the capital of Malaysia
b) 5  6
c) x + 1 = 2
d) Hello !
Solution:
a) Statement. True
b) Statement. False
c) Not a statement
d) Not a statement
Compound statements
A compound statement is a combination of two or more
simple statement. Statements a) and b) in Example 1 are
simple statements. There are many ways of combining
simple statements to form compound statement, but only
five connectives that are commonly used.
Connectives:
1) Negation ~ (this symbol is called tilde)
2) Conjunction 
3) Disjunction  (this symbol is called wedge)
4) Implication 
5) Equivalence 
Examples
Example 2:
Let p be the statement “I am 8 feet tall”.
What is the negation of p?
Solution:
The negation of p denoted by ~p is “I am
not 8 feet tall”.
Examples
Example 3
Let p be the statement “They are talking”
and q be the statement “The door is
closed”. Write the conjunction statement.
Solution:
The conjunction statement (denoted by p
 q) is “They are talking and the door is
closed”.
Examples
Example 4
Let p be the statement “A policeman has to
cross a river using a small boat” and q be the
statement “A thief has to cross a river using a
small boat”. Write the disjunction statement.
Solution:
The disjunction statement (denoted by p  q)
is “Either a policeman or a thief has to cross
a river using a small boat”.
Examples
Example 5
Let p be the statement “you participate in
class” and q be the statement “you will
get extra points”. Write the implication
statement p  q.
Solution:
The implication statement p  q is “If
you participate in class then you will get
extra points”.
Remark
The implication statement is also called the
conditional statement. In the “If…then” statements,
the “if-part” is called the antecedent while the “then-
part” is called the consequent. Other ways to say “If
you participate in class then you will get extra
points” are
“You participate in class only if you will get extra
points”
“You will get extra points if you participate in class”
“You participate in class implies you will get extra
points”
Examples
Example 6
Let p be the statement “He will push
button A” and q be the statement “The red
light flashes”. Write the statement p  q.
Solution:
The statement p  q is “He will push
button A if and only if the red light
flashes”.
Remark
The statement p  q is called
equivalence or biconditional. Some other
books use “” instead.
Quantifiers
Two quantifiers: Universal and Existential
 : “There exists a” or “There is a” or
“There is at least one” (existential)
: “For all” or “For every” (universal)
Some symbols: N : Set of positive integers

R : Set of real numbers

Z : Set of integers

Q : Set of rational numbers

Examples
Example 7
Let P(x) be “x is even”. Express the
following statement in symbolic form.
“For all integer x, x is even”
Solution:
 x  Z, P(x).
Examples
Example 8
Let Q(x) be “x  4”. Express the
following statement in symbolic form.
“There is a real number x such that x  4”
Solution:
 x  R, Q(x)
Negation of a statement involving a
universal quantifier
~( x P(x) ) is x ~P(x)
Example 9
Let P(x) be “x is even”. Express negation
of x  Z, P(x) in sentence.
Solution:
 x  Z, ~P(x)
There is an integer x such that x is not
even.
Negation of a statement involving an
existential quantifier
~( x Q(x) ) is x ~Q(x)
Example 10
Let Q(x) be “x  0”. Express the negation
of x  N, Q(x) in sentence.
Solution:
x  N, ~Q(x)
For all integer positive x, x  0.
Exercises:
Decide whether or not the following are statements. In the case of a statement,
say if it is true or false.
Today is raining
For every real number x, x  2
x  3
Please open that door
I am a good student
There is a positive integer x such that x  2

Express each statements in symbolic forms

Either my parents are out of town or visiting my sick neighbor
If it rains then he will not come
I will score A if and only if I study hard
For all integer a, 2a  1 is odd.
There is a real number y such that 2099  y  2100.
Truth tables
Negation:
p ~p

T F

F T
Truth tables
Conjunction:
p q pq

T T T

T F F

F T F

F F F
Truth tables
Disjunction:
p q pq

T T T

T F T

F T T

F F F
Truth tables
Implication:
p q pq

T T T

T F F

F T T

F F T
Truth tables
Biconditional
p q pq

T T T

T F F

F T F

F F T
Logically equivalent
Two compound statements are called
logically equivalent if they have the same
truth value for every possible truth value
assignment to the component statements.
Example 11
Determine whether p  q is logically
equivalent to ~q  ~p.
Logically equivalent
Solution:
Step 1: Construct truth tables for each
statement
Step 2: Compare the truth values
The statements p  q and ~q  ~p have
the same truth values.
Therefore, p  q is logically equivalent
to
~q  ~p.
Exercises
Determine whether p  q is logically
equivalent to ~p  q
Determine whether p  q is logically
equivalent to p  ~q
Negate the following statements:

a) For every positive integer r, r  1

b) There is a real number y such that 0
y1
c) 5  1 and 1  0