Musical Culture and Asymmetry of Information in Free Market Systems by Payman Akhlaghi 2004 UCLA Graduate Paper Musicology Composition

Musical Culture & Asymmetry of Information in Free Market Systems
A Case for Protective Intervention on Behalf of Minority Arts
By: Payman Akhlaghi
Musicology 260F Prof. Robert Fink UCLA Winter 2004

Graduate Paper Toward Degree of Ph.D. in Composition (*) The opinions expressed in the following pages belong to the author, and as such, he accepts full blame for any shortcomings contained therein. (*) The author wishes to express his sincere gratitude to Prof. Robert Fink of UCLA for the generous latitude and erudite guidance which made this independent study possible . (*) Please note that the following consists solely of the content of the paper at the time of submision. Hence, this version does not reflect the advising professors final valuable comments and valid criticisms. P.A., 2012
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2004, 2012: Payman Akhlaghi. All rights reserved.
Musical Culture & Asymmetry of Information in Free Market Systems Author: Payman Akhlaghi (2004) Graduate Paper Toward Degree of PhD in Composition, UCLA
Preface
Is the market always right? Should the fate of culture in general, and music in particular, be fully entrusted to the unchecked trends and decisions of a free market system? Are sales ratings reliable indicators of the real value of musical artifacts or the underlying cultural orientation of the society? Would the preferences of todays audiences amongst modern sonorities1 still be the same, had they been informed differently? Major portions of such sonorities are direct or indirect products of the twentieth century advancements in musical technology, such as new instrumental sounds or methods of preservation and distribution of sound events. Such questions might have been answered differently were it not for the fact that as a result of such advancements, a musical event is no more bound in time and space by necessity, as it can now reach thousands (a live amplified performance) or millions (record sales; radio or internet broadcasts) without imposing any extra burden on the artist(s) involved. The change from an additive, labor-oriented market (music publishing exempt) to an exponential system of revenue-generation for the artist and/or intermediary forces (publisher, producer, distributor, etc.) is a significant modern phenomenon with important consequences, and as such begets serious consideration of such questions. The present paper tries to offer a perspective on such issues, by relying primarily on the notion of imperfect or asymmetrical information in [free]-market systems, a concept that was first developed in the 1960s and 70s America, and which eventually
Sonority in a broad sense, be it a single synthesized sound, or the sound of a metallica ensemble, musique concrte, angularities of an atonal piece, harmonies of a serial or minimalist composition, etc. Page 2 of 20
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garnered its three pioneers, Joseph E. Stiglitz, George A. Akerlof and A. Michael Spence, the 2001 Nobel prize in economics. By referring to this notion, the author will attempt to explain how it is that the artist in a free-market society, which is an ostensibly ideal environment for the flourishing of his or her creative potential, can still maintain the need for some level of intervention, preferably by democratically elected, qualified institutions, rather than the private sector, in order to preserve the integrity of the collective or individual artistic output, as well as the artistic experience of the audiences. My line of thought recognizes Theodor Adornos major contribution, Culture Industry Reconsidered (Adorno, 1963), and considers some of the issues in todays musical culture (which overlaps, but also extends beyond the musical sector of the culture industry) in part consequences of the extant, perhaps natural shortcomings of the liberal economic system as practiced today (as opposed to its theoretically perfect models). As such, it will be suggested that a degree of control and modification of the functions and operations of this system in regards to artsand culture in generalwould make it an even more fertile ground for artistic including musical progress, and by extension, cultural development at large. The reader might notice that while the discussion is developed from the point of view of Western classical music, it is meant to be equallyand persuasivelyapplicable to other musical categories, and possibly other art forms. In other words, the core idea of the current essay is in essence stylistically neutral.
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The Ideal and the Dilemma
In Capitalism and Freedom (Friedman, 1962), Milton Friedman2 writes: Viewed as a means to the end of political freedom, economic arrangements are important because of their effect on the concentration or dispersion of power. The kind of economic organization that provides economic freedom directly, namely, competitive capitalism, also promotes political freedom because it separates economic power from political power and in this way enables the one to offset the other. As such, the scope of government must be limited, and government power must be dispersed. Not only these are two necessary conditions for the preservation of freedom, but also there is a constructive reason, as great advances of civilization, whether in architecture or painting, in science or literature, in industry or agriculture, have never come from centralized government. He explains, however, that as history suggests, while capitalism is a necessary condition for political freedom, clearly it is not a sufficient condition. In effect, his ultimate goal is an outline of the ideal economic arrangement for a free society. As liberals, we take the freedom of the individual, or perhaps the family, as our ultimate goal in judging social arrangements. [] Freedom in this sense has to do with the interrelationship of people, not the isolated existence of a single man on a remote island, he clarifies. Friedman further writes that fundamentally speaking, the economic activities of a large society can either be co-ordinated through central direction involving the use of coercion or voluntary co-operation of individuals. He explains:
2
Milton Friedman is the 1976 Nobel laureate in economics. Page 4 of 20
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The possibility of co-ordination through voluntary co-operation rests on the elementaryyet frequently deniedproposition that both parties to an economic transaction benefit from it, provided the transaction is bi-laterally voluntary and informed. [] A working model of a society organized trough voluntary exchange is a free private enterprise exchange economywhat we have been calling competitive capitalism (Friedman, 1962).
For an artist, typically or practically the most liberal, freedom-hungry member of any society, Friedmans words come as consoling as a utopian vision. Especially remembering the suffocating pressures of totalitarian political systems, be it the Stalinist dictatorship of the Soviet Union or the clerical rule in contemporary Iran, these words feel even more precious. The continuous migration of prominent artists from such societies toward the West over the past century further attests to the realistic roots of the ideals of liberalism. Notwithstanding their merits, however, manifested shortcomings of free-market systems, as practiced today, have so far prevented the liberals vision to be fully realized, because at least one of its two necessary pre-conditions at least according to Friedmans formulation i.e. bi-lateral information, is not always satisfied. In the 1960s and 70s, certain researches in economics of information concluded that government must play a strong role in a market system, to prevent damage from imperfect information (Uchitelle, 2001). According to Joseph Stiglitz (2001), using financial markets as an
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example, without the Securities and Exchange Commission to enforce full disclosure, people would end up buying corporate stock without sufficient knowledge to make evaluative judgments, in contrast to the seller, who might have known more, of the hidden imperfections of a given stock. High frequency of such imperfect or asymmetric information could result in the collapse of the stock trade (ibid). For those who still remember the catastrophic saga of the .com bubble or the disturbing events of the recent California energy crisis, to cite two conspicuous examples, these words should not come as a surprise, as both events can be explained partially, but satisfactorily, in terms of extreme manipulation of asymmetric information in their respective markets, which led to disastrous results for the less informed consumers. On the other hand, arguably, the more or less effective containment of the ensuing damages (compared to the Great Depression of the thirties) reflects in part the constructive influence of such researches in economics of information on the governance of the economic system, over the last four decades. To an artist (or an intellectual in general), however, the possibility of occurrence of such damages in cultural domains still appears even more alarming, beyond consolation, if the least for the tentatively abstract function or even nature of cultural artifacts, as compared to the more concrete properties of common commodities. While the tangible effects of damages to, say financial markets allow for faster detection and widespread admission of the problem at hand, such colossal events in cultural areas could go unnoticed for long, and at their worst, might continue to the point of no return. Historical evidence suggests that conscientious artists have, at times, sensed such danger, voices their concerns, and even called for intervention. The violinist Isaac Sterns
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more than 50 years of cultural-political activity, including his advisory role in the creation of National endowment for the Arts and his successful campaign in saving the Carnegie Hall as a prominent symbol of classical music in America, is one eloquent case in point. So great were the stakes to him that in 1970, he appeared before the Congress and warned against debated cuts in art support, saying that the United States ran the risk of becoming an industrial complex without a soul (Kozinn, 2001). His story, while pointing at the fragility of the cultural heritage of thisindeed, any advancedsociety, also suggests that the basic need for governments protective intervention on behalf of cultural markets has already been recognized on a more or less macro social level. To the idealist musician, however, who might or might not belong to a minority sector of the musical culture, the current level of recognitionand the providingof such intervention is neither sufficient nor stable. It is not sufficient, because it can hardly balance against the monopolistic forces of what Adorno (1963) has collectively referred to as the culture industry. And it is not stable because first, such intervention is not fully institutionalized, and second, the existing unstable institutions themselves are in constant danger of becoming manipulated by such forces (e.g. future generations of board members of such institutions; contemporary critics; coming generations of academic communities, etc.). Such an artist might further be concerned that the current forms of intervention are, as a rule, defined too narrowly (e.g. direct endowment of grants, or private donations to an appealing category or an individual, as opposed to, say implementation of long-term, sophisticated and wide-spread educational mandates), and that the current standards and methods of its implementation, in principle, are suspect to border on contradicting the anti-discriminatory ideals of a liberal [free-market] society.
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The last concern is indeed one that could easily underlie the arguments against such interventions by opposing interest groups, as well. Interestingly, under the light of asymmetry of information in the current system, the last concern is satisfactorily quelled. The monopolistic (or oligopolistic) nature of the culture industry per se, particularly its music and film sectors, is itself a contradiction, an anomaly, in the current market systema contradiction that has survived in part due to the employment of the dual aspect of cultural commodities, and their essentially intangible nature. Traditionally, the production system of culture industry has suppressed, implicitly or explicitly, questions regarding the aesthetic value of its artifacts on grounds of their economic efficiency, and yet it has evaded concerns over its economic practices by appealing to the artistic aspect of the merchandise, hence, shielding their content against otherwise required checks of the market of commoditiesas a rule, under the protection of the freedom of expression. Furthermore, many of its manipulative practices, such as incessant, powerful and resourceful advertisementtypically exaggerated and commonly misinforming to the publicor consequently, corporate monopolization of, say a given musical sector, also escape regulatory scrutiny not only by invoking the freedom of expression (implicitly or explicitly), but also by simply abusing the essential abstraction of such commercial artifacts. When a popular album, or more commonly, a film, boasts the approval of one or two critics (Two thumbs up!), or simply misrepresents a review by selective quotation (The must see film of the year!; Absolutely the Best!the best what?), it knows how hard it would be to evaluate
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satisfactorily such mostly self-generated market signals3 on any objective basis. 4 In contrast, advertising claims regarding commodities of a more ostensible nature (cars, food, drugs, etc.) can hold the claimant responsible before the consumers and even the authorities, because in such cases, objective consensus can be reached more readily. As a result, the audiences of commercial artifacts of the culture industry are left with little chance for informed advice of an independent third party. Under such circumstances, the current regulatory laws (a.k.a. censorship laws) have become another anomaly in the system: while their imposition, again, betrays a basic understanding of the need for some kind of intervention, their contents (e.g. obscenity laws that prohibit the use of certain words or limit the length of a sexually explicit scene) are either too arbitrary or otherwise, prejudicially discriminatory, because they enforce certain ethical (hence subjective) judgments, which might not be uniformly adopted by all sectors of the society. One ought to question why a widely distributed artifact such as a moviewhich might have even meticulously observed such regulationspromulgates a concoction of myth and misinformation about larger social, historical and possibly ethical issues, can go unchecked under the current system. And this, while the promoters of the artifact might not be missing a single chance to stress its historical and spiritual accuracy, hence, blurring the fine line between art (imagination)
3
Market Signals are another concept in the economics of information that were first described in a 1973 paper by A. Michael Spence. In the pure model of a free market, consumers are presumed to have perfect knowledge, able to accurately tell the differences in quality among, say various refrigerators. Prices would automatically reflect that understanding. But most consumers lack this information, so sellers intervene, offering comprehensive warranties, for example, to signal high quality. If a seller gave a fancy warranty on a product that broke down a lot, Mr. Spence said, he could go broke. (Uchitelle, 2001).
4
The Polish born, German educated, American pianist, Arthur Rubinstein, says in his autobiography how surprised he was in his youth when he first encountered such a practice in the fin de cicle concert life of the United States. More surprisingly, however, was the journalistic practice of the contemporary Paris: the critic of Figaro simply asked the pianists agent beforehand what to write about him in his review! (Rubinstein, 1973) Page 9 of 20
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and life (reality; cf. Adorno, 1963). Should an advertiser verbally diminish the value of a competing product, his claim would undoubtedly give grounds to an effective legal complaint by the offended competitor. But few would normally think that the process of belittling an artistic sectoror an individual artistby another, constitutes an abuse of the medium and the market system in which the latter is operating freely, inasmuch as it generates harmful pre-judgments against the victim in the minds of the consumers.5 This is while in most cases, such victims (e.g. multitudes of intellectuals, who are being portrayed in misleading stereotypes; women of all ages (cf. Adorno, 1963); religious or racial minorities) lack the resources to counter such offenses on an equal scale. Such gossip is not only inappropriate, but also it might be considered an act of malpractice under the ethics of a free-market society, because by manipulating the shortage of accurate information on part of the audiencei.e. some of the potential customers for the victimit pushes the market towards the constraints of an unmerited, artificially enforced monopoly. And yet, the proprietor of the commercial artifact is commonly spared any kind of effective scrutiny. The laws of censorship, as such, only add to the problem because now the audience would acquiesce unguardedly to the message content of the artifact by placing their trust in an inadequate rating system. The lack of bi-lateral information between the sellers and the buyers of culture industrys artifacts, say musical products, also prevents the second condition of a true liberal economy from becoming satisfied. By manipulating the market (in our case, the musical market) the industry reinforces strongly a certain category of music, a certain
5
An extreme case was the mockery of the music of a twentieth century composer in The Island of Dr. Moreau (1996), in which the central character (played by Marlon Brando) compares the random noisemaking of a group of non-intelligent, hybrid creatures on a keyboard to the music of the Arnold Schoenberg. Page 10 of 20
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artistic preference, to the cost of another. Through the complicated cybernetics of the markets (with composers, performers, producers, distributors and audiences or consumers as its main operative agents), more composers become inclined, or are pressed to, satisfy the newly induced demand of the market, thus further reinforcing that type of music to the point of stylistic stagnation. Consequently, a major, but superficial shift of trend takes place, which is principally brought forth through the resourceful manipulation of the mass audience by a mainly profit-oriented few. The economic push could become as coercive as an ideological one, should the composers conscience be in conflict with the predominant trend. Indeed, it is quite common to encounter even prominent artists of all categories, who severely criticize compromising their creative needs under economic pressure as being morally wrong. (To a purist auteur director such as Ingmar Bergman, even the need for the artist to please his audience constitutes an act of prostitution. See Ingmar Bergman Makes a Movie, 1962.) It is true that the majority of artists, including composers, eventually learn to adapt to the status quo of the market, at times with outstanding success, and not necessarily with any internal artistic conflict or ethical compromise. For instance, many composers have managed to pursue a dual, or even triple career as film, concert stage, and/or pop composers, and several have proved equally accomplished in all categories. (Aaron Copland, John Williams, Paul Chihara, Jerry Goldsmith, John Corigliano, and Randy Newman are readily remembered.) Those who choose to fully avoid such pressures, risk oblivion or late recognition, sometimes amid their unequivocal merits. (Lou Harrison and Alan Hovhaness belong to this last group.)6 The latter case also suggests that the monopolistic tendencies of the larger
6
Some composers, it appears, have had alternate, sometimes interesting sources for additional income. Charles Ives (insurance sales) aside, the case of two other composers seems rather amusing: [] once, at Page 11 of 20
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musical market have long been reflected locally in the prohibitive ideological texture and behavior of the classical music sector, as well. Still, the [eventual] success of this select group of composers does not negate the fact that current economic constraints, especially when in conflict with artists aesthetic needs, can result in a form of coercion that is certainly unacceptable to a culturally sensitive liberal mind, and which is pernicious to the artistic coherence and sincerity of the resultant musical products on a collective level. Thus, given the realities of todays market system, it is unreasonable to expect the minority artist as a norm, say an accomplished violinist with a heart for twentieth century modernism or a serious indigenous banjo player, to compete effectively in the larger market without any protective intervention, and yet to survive this ordeal with untouched artistic integrity, unless he or she agrees to making disproportionate, unrewarded personal sacrifices for the sake of his or her art. And this is exactly what numerous artistsand intellectualshave chosen to do. The asymmetry of information also makes the sales charts unreliable references for aesthetic or content-based value judgments about the artifacts, because of the suspicious nature of the audiences market behavior, and as a partial result of the real possibility of profit-oriented aesthetic inductions by the selling parties. This is while many corporate-level decisions and even creative choices on part of the artists are being
an official dinner, he was assigned a seat near Rachmaninov. Musically, two opposites who detested each other. But to the great surprise of those who knew them, they chatted amiably for the entire meal. It was later found out that they spoke neither about music (a subject on which both were qualified) nor about women (a subject on which only Stravinsky was qualified), but about stock prices, the passion of both (Rattalino, 1999). Marginally, another amusing, although much earlier case is Anton Rubinsteins account of his extensive, and apparently exhausting concert tour across the United States, in the 1872-3 season. After complaining about the slavish conditions of the workunder such conditions there is no chance for the art; [] no dignity remains to the artist. [] It often happened that we gave two or three concerts in as many cities on the same day; []he adds, The proceeds of my tour in America laid the foundation of my prosperity. On my return, I hastened to invest in real estate (Schoenberg, 1987). Page 12 of 20
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made based on such ratings. Subsequently, neither the relatively enormous success of, say Henryk Greckis Symphony No. 3 (1976) after the release of its 1992 recording, nor the overwhelming sale of a given rap album would necessarily indicate the high content value of these works, since a multitude of factors, from effective advertisement to a momentary social or cultural need, or perhaps even some direct form of monopolistic economic behavior, might have driven an ill-informed, malleable consuming market to the desired effect of a corporate interest. Thus, rather hasty changes in modern stylistic epochs, too, cannot be taken necessarily as signs of deeply rooted social transitions (cf. Adorno, 1963). Furthermore, the long-lasting tradition of compartmentalization of the musical market into hard-edged musical sectorse.g. classical music vs. popis increasingly disappearing, with mixed results. For long, such differentiation partly provided a minimal level of protection for minority musical cultures, by creating specialized markets within the larger market system, more or less leading the market to what economists might call a monopolistic competition. On the other hand, it also resulted in a non-democratic trend, i.e. demographic association of musical categories, largely based on economic, but also ideological standing of a given class. Such musical class assignments have been both reflected in, and reinforced in part by the film industry. Over the past few years, for instance, an isolated scientist in the futuristic Minority Report (2002) [arguably, a successful example of high art with commercial value] was portrayed within the saturated aura of the sound of a classical string quartet, while in Bulworth (1998), a senator had to rap his way toward the votes of an inner-city constituency. Given the above, one remains ambivalent toward the popularization of Ode to Joy, say in the finale of Sister Act (1992);
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should one see it as another product of the culture industry, to the detriment of both high and low arts (Adorno, 1963), or a democratic reaction against such stereotypical, economically based classifications? Whatever the answer, the obliteration of these rather arbitrary partitions seems to be undeniably real. This process is best symbolized by the 2002 decision of BMG Inc., one of the largest business conglomerates, to merge its classical music division with other more popular categories. So far, the result has been a dramatically shrunk classical music catalogue in mailboxes, presented in conjunction with pages of album titles from other groups. This alone entails the possibility of an even more diminishing audience for classical music. Here, lets remind ourselves that such results have little to say, reliably, about the deepest cultural needs of the contemporary American society, or the legitimacy, relevance and viability of classical music in todays culture. The increasing exposure of mass audiences to digitally replicated sounds of acoustic instruments, while surely threatens the future of real acoustic performance to the point of extinction, does not necessarily prove aesthetic superiority of the former over the latter. True that even many acoustic composers, too, have adopted this technology, but at least to this group, expressed economic efficiency seems to have been the prime reason. Again, a major acoustical, aesthetical and professional shift is in progress without any certainty about the degree of its true socio-cultural and psychological legitimacy, a shift which could be attributed in part to the aural misinformation (lack of adequate acoustic exposure) of the contemporary audiences. Had the audiences become more sensitive to the inimitable niceties of a sophisticated acoustic performance, they would have certainly chosen with more discretion. In any case, if the current trend continues, an important part
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of our cultural heritageand along with it, many careers in musical performancewill be lost, in part due to the whims and imperfections of the market and its insistence on maximum economic efficiency. To put it succinctly, the artist would not be contradicting his or her essentially liberal intent if he or she admits the need for qualified intervention, since the status quo of the free-market system is short of its ideal, theoretical state, in which equal opportunity, transparency of the market and perfect information would allow for a fair and healthy competition with reliable results. Taking todays sales ratings at face value is in effect claiming that the market, and in part consumers, are always right, which as was stated before, has been shown to be untrue. As a result, minority artistic sectors, including the dynamic heritage of classical music and its present and future creative extensions are worth being protected, at least minimally, by society at large through qualified intervention. Given that here the intervention is meant to be along the ideals of a liberal society, a most fertile ground for the creative artist, it would rather consist of, say, an ever more persistent emphasis on equal-opportunity education in arts, or mandatory yet nondiscriminatory funding for minority arts activities, rather than the undesired imposition of any specific aesthetic or functional constraint on a given sector. A combination of a better informed, critical audience; responsible and imaginative state and national policies; persuasive activities on part of the art devotees; insistence of the artists on the integrity of their art forms; and the achievement of a sincere appreciation, on part of the larger society, of the significance of the true heritage of the Western arts as a pinnacle of human civilization, is the best guarantee for preservation of this most fragile of endangered species.
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Speculations
Certainly, the classical music society, too, has itself contributed to its own diminishment. The adoption of monopolistic behaviors, mostly in the form of periodic ideological conformity to certain stylesfor example, the period of 12-tone atonalism, or serialismultimately to the cost of the original value of the style itself and the timely emergence of new styles, seems to have been an important factor. The detrimental petrification of the classical repertoire of most orchestras is in part due to the aging of the classic arts patrons, as well, including many benefactors who serve on the boards of classical orchestras. It is also due in part to the ineffectiveness of hitherto executed outreach programs in approaching the younger generations of audiences. I fear that a cool brand of snobbism has already been formed in todays youth against the old-wig snobbism of the classic arts. In response to the current situation, some classical artists have tried nobly to bridge the gap by trying to make the classical music experience more accessible to larger audiences. For example, Yo-Yo Ma, among his other broad activities, has even initiated film projects by established directors, including one by Atom Egoyan, which center around J. S. Bachs Unaccompanied Cello Suites (Sarabande, 1996). On the less pure side, some of the other artists seem to have acquiesced to the laws of entropy of the commercial market (novel attires, popularistic language) to reach a wider audience. Although such an approach might indeed contribute to the relative commercial success of this group, it can also shed an even stronger, but not necessarily well-founded suspicion on the broad acceptance of their works as sudden surges of interest toward the external
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novelties of the arts, rather than an appreciation of the artworks themselves. [Rach. 3 of Shine (1996) serves as a good case in point.] The tendency toward ideological (as well as political and economic) monopolies within minority arts sectors, as subsets of the larger market system, is expected, and this too should be offset by the intervention of informed and impartial entities. In the case of classical music, one such position is the rather recent role of the New Music Advisor in certain musical establishments, such as symphony orchestras. Being relatively new, this role still awaits clarity of definition. It is natural to imagine this position better served by open-minded individuals, or elected boards of diverse backgrounds and specializations, with proven ability to see beyond personal aesthetic preferences.7 An early related, influential case was the role of Leopold Stokowski in the creation of Disneys 1940 Fantasia, a movie that brought such major works as Stravinskys The Rite of Spring (1913) to the mass audiences. [It is also a sad reminder of the vastly unrealized, true artistic potentials and resources of the culture industry.] Interestingly enough, two generations later, Edward Elgars Pomp and Circumstance No. 1 found its way to Fantasia 2000 (1999) after it had seized the attention of a Disney executive, Michael Eisner, at a graduation ceremony. Incidents as such would become a norm if investments in public education were raised; after all, producers were once kids, too. So were the politicians. There will be a difference between the policies of an administration whose members have developed an early appreciation of arts, classical
7
For example, Los Angeles Philharmonic has created such a position, currently assigned to a composer of classical status, besides the music director/conductor himself being an established composer. This seems to have contributed to admirable rejuvenation of the orchestra, the more or less frequent performance of a large body of twentieth century masterworks, and many new commissions. On the other hand, the fact that in the span of a decade, almost none of such commissions have been granted to a Californian concert stage composer could be indicative of the reluctance of this team to go beyond a so-called East Coast politicoaesthetic orientation. Page 17 of 20
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music or other serious genres, and another which lacks such cultivations. It would make a difference, too, if future film directors, TV and radio personalities, as well as writers and journalists were positively exposed to classical music during their academic studies, with an emphasis on and the expansion of music appreciation courses. Finally, adequate efforts in providing audiences with more accurate information, more than the market system would normally allow, could satisfy the pre-requisites for breaking the forcefully imposed, superficial class and demographic associations of all minority arts, including classical music, which would bring the experience of music in general closer to the spirit of an informed democracy. With the supportand criticismof a knowledgeable and diverse audience that possesses true independence and individuality (cf. Adorno, 1963), artifacts could find a better chance to be rated on the basis of their true aesthetic and content values. Accordingly, it could well be the case that the very laws of supply and demand, currently inclined to work against the progress of the arts, would themselves begin to change course for the good of the arts, as the artists would be rewarded more positively for following the inherent needs of their art forms. On the larger scale, cultural transitions would become less conditioned to the momentary impulses of the culture industry. Even then, offsetting the imperfections of the market system, especially the asymmetry of information, seems to be a continuing job for the cultural and artistic institutions of the society.
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Bibliography
1) Adorno, Theodor W.: Culture Industry Reconsidered (1963), tr. Anson G. Rabinbach; from The Adorno Reader (2000), ed. Brian OConnor; orig. from New German Critic, No. 6 (Fall 1975); Blackwell Publishers, Oxford. 2) Duffy, John: Economics, 1993, from the Cliffs Quick Reviews series; Hungry Minds, New York. 3) Friedman, Milton: Capitalism and Freedom, originally published in1962, republished with new prefaces 1982 and 2002; University of Chicago Press, Chicago and London. 4) Kozinn, Allan: Violinist Isaac Stern dies at 81; Led Efforts to Save Carnegie Hall, 2001; New York Times, nytimes.com. 5) Rattalino, Piero: Stravinsky and Picassos Women, 1999; tr. Eric Siegel; Edimedia srl, Italy; Cover Notes to CD album: Stravinsky Conducts Stravinsky, compiled 1999 of Stravinskys 1954-5 recordings with Orchestra della Svizzera Italiana; Edimedia srl, 1999. 6) Rubinstein, Arthur: My Young Years, 1973; Alfred Knopf, New York. 7) Schoenberg, Harold C.: The Great Pianists, From Mozart to the Present; 1963, rev. 1987; Harold C. Schoenberg; Fireside, Simon and Schuster, New York.
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8) Uchitelle, Louis: 3 Americans Awarded Nobel for Economics, 2001; New York Times, nytimes.com.
Referenced Films and CDs:
1) Bulworth, 1998, dir. Warren Beatty; 20th Century Fox. 2) Fantasia, 1940, dir. James Algar, et al; Disney. 3) Fantasia 2000, 1999, dir. James Algar, et al; Disney. 4) Henryk Grecki: Symphony No. 3, Opus 36, 1976; rec. 1992, cond. David Zinman; Elektra Nonesuch. 5) Ingmar Bergman Makes a Movie, 1962, dir. Vilgot Sjman, for the Swedish TV; Criterion 2003. [This is a five-part, 145-minute documentary on the making of Winter Light.] 6) Island of Dr. Moreau, The, 1996, co-dir. John Frankenheimer; New Line Cinema. 7) Minority Report, 2002, dir. Steven Spielberg; 20th Century Fox, et al. 8) Sarabande (Bach Cello Suite #4: Sarabande), 1997, dir. Atom Egoyan; Canada. 9) Shine, 1996, dir. Scott Hicks; Australia. 10) Sister Act, 1992, dir. Emile Ardolin; Touchstone Pictures.
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Musical Culture & Asymmetry of Information in Free Market Systems

A Case for Protective Intervention on Behalf of Minority Arts

By: Payman Akhlaghi

Musicology 260F Prof. Robert Fink UCLA Winter 2004

The Ideal and the Dilemma

Milton Friedman is the 1976 Nobel laureate in economics. Page 4 of 20

Referenced Films and CDs:

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