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Instrumentation engineering is the engineering specialization focused on the principle and operation of measuring instruments which are used in design and configuration of automated systems in electrical, pneumatic domains etc. They typically work for industries with automated processes, such as chemical or manufacturing plants, with the goal of productivity, improving system productivity, reliability, safety, optimization, and stability.
Applications of Instrumentation to Measurement Instrumentation is used to measure many parameters (physical values). These parameters include:
Pressure, Pressure, either differential or static Flow Temperature Levels of liquids etc. Density Viscosity Other mechanical properties of materials Frequency Current
Voltage Inductance Capacitance Resistivity Chemical composition Chemical properties Properties of light Vibration Weight
Instrumentation Engineering
Instrumentation engineering deals with the design of devices to measure physical quantities such as pressure, flow and temperature. temperature. The design of such instrumentation requires a good understanding of physics that often extends beyond electromagnetic theory. For theory. example, thermocouples use the PeltierPeltierSeebeck effect to measure the temperature difference between two points.
Instrumentation Engineering
Often instrumentation is not used by itself, but instead as the sensors of larger electrical systems. For example, a thermocouple might be used to help ensure a furnace's temperature remains constant. For this reason, instrumentation engineering is often viewed as the counterpart of control engineering
Instrumentation engineering
An instrument is a device that measures and/or regulates process variables such as flow, temperature, level, or pressure. Instruments include many varied contrivances which can be as simple as valves and transmitters, and as complex as transmitters, analyzers. analyzers. Instruments often comprise control systems of varied processes such as refineries, factories, and vehicles.
Instrumentation engineering
The control of processes is one of the main branches of applied instrumentation. The control of the parameters in a process or in a particular system, are made possible by using devices such as microprocessors, microcontrollers or PLCs, but their ultimate aim is to control the parameters of a system.
Instrumentation engineering
Output instrumentation includes devices such as solenoids, valves, regulators, solenoids, valves, regulators, circuit breakers, and breakers, relays. relays. These devices control a desired output variable, and provide either remote or automated control capabilities. These are often referred to as final control elements when controlled remotely or system. by a control system. Control Instrumentation plays a significant role in both gathering information from the field and changing the field parameters, and as such are a loops. key part of control loops.
Instrumentation engineering
Transmitters are devices which produce an output signal, often in the form of a 420 mA electrical 4 current signal, although many other options using voltage, frequency, pressure, voltage, frequency, pressure, or ethernet are possible. This signal can be used for informational purposes, or it can be sent to a PLC, DCS, SCADA PLC, DCS, system, or other type of computerized controller, where it can be interpreted into readable values and used to control other devices and processes in the system.
Instrumentation engineering
A programmable logic controller (PLC) or PLC) programmable controller is a digital computer used for automation of electromechanical processes, such as control of machinery on factory assembly lines, lines, amusement rides, or lighting fixtures. Unlike generalgeneralpurpose computers, the PLC is designed for multiple inputs and output arrangements, extended temperature ranges, immunity to electrical noise, and resistance to vibration and impact. Programs to control machine operation are typically stored in battery-backed or non-volatile memory. A batterynonmemory. PLC is an example of a real time system since output results must be produced in response to input conditions within a bounded time, otherwise unintended operation will result.
Instrumentation engineering
Programming PLC programs are typically written in a special application on a personal computer, then downloaded by a direct-connection directcable or over a network to the PLC. The program is stored in the PLC either in battery-backedbattery-backed-up RAM or some other nonnonvolatile flash memory. Often, a single PLC memory. can be programmed to replace thousands of relays. relays.
Instrumentation engineering
IEC 61131-3 currently defines five programming 61131languages for programmable control systems: FBD (Function block diagram), LD (Ladder (Function diagram), (Ladder diagram), diagram), ST (Structured text, similar to the Pascal (Structured text, programming language), IL (Instruction list, similar language), (Instruction list, language) (Sequential to assembly language) and SFC (Sequential function chart). These techniques emphasize chart). logical organization of operations.
While the fundamental concepts of PLC programming are common to all manufacturers, differences in I/O addressing, memory organization and instruction sets mean that PLC programs are never perfectly interchangeable between different makers. Even within the same product line of a single manufacturer, different models may not be directly compatible.
Example: PLC Application - When the water level drops enough so that the Low Level float switch is off (down), the PLC will open the valve to let more water in. Once the water level rises enough so that the High Level switch is on (up), the PLC will shut the inlet to stop the water from overflowing. This rung is an example of sealseal-in (latching) logic. The output is sealed in until some condition breaks the circuit.
Considerations:
An analog system might use a water pressure sensor or a load cell, and an adjustable (throttling) dripping out of the cell, tank, the valve adjusts to slowly drip water back into the tank. In this system, to avoid 'flutter' adjustments that can wear out the valve, many PLCs incorporate "hysteresis" which "hysteresis" essentially creates a "deadband" of activity. A technician "deadband" adjusts this deadband so the valve moves only for a significant change in rate. This will in turn minimize the motion of the valve, and reduce its wear. A real system might combine both approaches, using float switches and simple valves to prevent spills, and a rate sensor and rate valve to optimize refill rates and prevent water hammer. Backup and maintenance methods can make hammer. a real system very complicated.
Instrumentation engineering
A distributed control system (DCS) refers to a control system usually of a manufacturing system, process or any system, system, kind of dynamic system, in which the controller elements are not central in location (like the brain) but are distributed brain) throughout the system with each component sub-system subcontrolled by one or more controllers. The entire system of controllers is connected by networks for communication and monitoring.
DCS is a very broad term used in a variety of industries, to monitor and control distributed equipment: Electrical power grids and electrical generation plants, Environmental control systems, Traffic signals, radio signals, signals, Water management systems, Oil refining plants, Chemical plants, plants, Pharmaceutical manufacturing, Sensor networks, Dry cargo and networks, bulk oil carrier ships
Instrumentation Engineering
SCADA stands for supervisory control and data acquisition. acquisition. It generally refers to industrial control systems: computer systems that monitor and control industrial, infrastructure, or facilityfacility-based processes:
As shown in the Fig.1, the input variables xe ..acting on Fig.1, this system are linked in a self- contained box and selfissued as output variables xa.. and these variables xa.. now act on the energy flow or mass flow to be controlled. Fig 1.1 xe1 xe2 xa1 xe3 xa2
In general: xa = f ( xe )
The term control is often applied to the complete system in which controlling takes place, not only to the control operation itself.
In practice, process control systems can be characterized as one or more of the following forms:
Discrete Found in many manufacturing, motion and packaging applications, discrete process control systems use a device called a programmable logic controller (PLC) to read a set of digital and analog inputs, apply a set of logic statements, and generate a set of outputs. Robotic assembly, such as that found in automotive production, can also be characterized as discrete process control.
In practice, process control systems can be characterized as one or more of the following forms:
Batch Some applications require that specific quantities of raw materials be combined in specific ways for particular duration to produce an intermediate or end result. One example is the production of adhesives and glues, which normally require the mixing of raw materials in a heated vessel for a period of time to form a quantity of end product.
In practice, process control systems can be characterized as one or more of the following forms:
Continuous Often, a physical system is represented though variables that are smooth and uninterrupted in time. The control of the water temperature in a heating jacket, for example, is an example of continuous process control. Hybrid - applications having elements of discrete, batch and continuous process control
What is a Controller?
a component of a system that makes it operate within desired limits. a device that attempts to control the states or outputs of a dynamic system. Generally, it system. accomplishes this using feedback to correct disturbances to the system; known as closed-loop control. closedcontrol.
Example 1.1:
If the output of an air compressor is controlled by the quantity drawn in, then: The opening and closing of the valve is the control operation The valve, whose setting affects the quantity drawn in, is the control element The opening provided by the valve is the controlled variable y. The handwheel with which the valve is actuated is the control device. device. The varying load on the compressed air system caused by the users that affects the control system is the disturbance z. This also applies to speed fluctuations or variations in the degree of efficiency caused by the compressor. On the account of the open action loop of the control system, it is not possible to compensate for such disturbance variables. variables.
Fig. 1.2 shows the block diagram representing an openopenloop control itself together with the system to be controlled. Fig. 1.2
Disturbance z1
Controlled System
Energy/Mass Flow
Controller Output y
Controller
Disturbance z2
Controlled System
Sequence of Actions
Controller Output (Error) y
Controller Controller
Automatic control Process in which the controlled variable is continuously measured and compared with another variable, the command variable, the process being influenced according to the result of this comparison by modifying to match the command variable. variable. The sequence of actions resulting from this takes loop. place in a closed loop, the control loop. The purpose of the closed loop control is to match the value of the controlled variable to the value specified by the command variable even if perfect equalization is not attained under the prevailing circumstances. (according circumstances.
to DIN 19226) 19226)
In this example:
The thermostat acts as the controller which directs the activities of the heater. heater or the air-conditioner is the processor that airwarms or cools the air inside the house. the air coming into the heater or air-conditioner is the airinput. input. the air going out of the heater or air conditioner is its output. output. the air temperature readings inside the house are the feedbacks. feedbacks. and finally, the house is the environment in which the heating/airheating/air-conditioning system operates
What is feedback?
In cybernetics and control theory, feedback is a process whereby some proportion or in general, function, of the output signal of a system is passed (fed back) to the input. Often this is done intentionally, in order to control the dynamic behavior of the system. Feedback may be: negative, which tends to reduce output, or negative, positive, which tends to increase output. positive,
Example 3
Process: cooling a room Desired outcome: reach/ maintain a defined temperature constant over time, say 20 o C Controlled variable: temperature variable: Input variable: temperature, since it is measured by a thermometer and is used to decide whether to cool or not Setpoint: Setpoint: 20 o C Manipulated variable: state of the cooler (the setting of the valve allowing chilled water to flow through it)
Signals
Signals represent information, the representation may refer to the value or the change in values of a physical dimension and may refer to transmission, processing or storage of information. In abstract considerations, signal refers to values or change in value of mathematical quantities.
Types of Signals
Analog information is assigned continuously point by point to a range of values. Digital the range to be considered is divided into a finite number of separate value ranges, and one specific item of information is assigned to each range of values. The digital group includes the binary signal, signal, also known as an on-off signal, representing on- signal, two items of information.
Types of Signals
Digital signals are used more frequently in control engineering and the digital signals are mainly in the form of binary signals. These binary signals are of considerable significance for information processing because they can easily be produced by equipment (e.g. switches) and can also be processed simply. In practice, it is essential to clearly define the relationship between range of values and signal in the case of binary signals
xa1
Xe1 Xe2 = y
Xd = W - X W
Processing Element
Signal Processing
Input Element
Signal input
Hardware breakdown
Signal Flow
Hardware terms:
Actuating mechanism element that has direct effect on a controlled system, moves the final control element when mechanically actuated. Actuating device consists of actuating mechanism and final control element. Signal transducer device transform an input signal as clearly as possible into an associated output signal, where necessary using auxiliary energy. Among others, this group of devices includes amplifiers and signal converters. Signal amplifier device using auxiliary energy for power amplification. Signal Converter devices in which input and output signals have different structure
Actuating Device
Execution of Instruction
Operative part
Signal Output
Transducer
Processing element
Controller
Processing element
Input Element
Signal element
Examples of hardware used for Electrical and Pneumatic Systems Electrical Systems Actuating Mechanism Electric Motor Solenoid Linear motor Power contactors Pneumatic Systems Pneumatic cylinder Air motor
Processing Elements
Directional control valves Non-return valves Pressure control valves Flow Control valves
Input Elements
Ex. Control with the same form of energy for the operative and control part
II I Controlled System Actuating Mechanism Final control element 1.1 1.5 Signal processing
Types of energy for operative and control part By means of suitable devices (signal transformers/ transducers) it is possible to convert one type of energy into signals of another type of energy in control engineering, one can work within the controlled system with different types of energy. In practice however, it is not always easy to select the right control system. Apart from the immediate requirements of the problem, the auxiliary requirements in particular (place of installation, environmental influences, etc.) determine the solution. These auxiliary often conflict with the simple solution to the problem that can make project engineering more difficult.
Types of energy for operative and control part If a system uses different types of energy for the operative and control parts, one refers to a mixed technology which is being used to an increasing extent in control design.
Working Media: -Mechanical -Electrical -Hydraulics -Pneumatics Criteria for system selection: -Force -Displacement -Type of motion -Speed -Physical size -Life -Sensitivity -Working safety
Characteristics of working media: Pneumatics Energy storage presents no problem, limited and slow energy transmission, high energy costs Creation of straight line motion simple and cheap, high working speeds (1-2m/s), stroke length limited (1up to 2m depending on the design, force obtainable is limited up 40000N max., small dimensions. Creation of rotary motion simple and cheap, high operating costs due to poor efficiency, high speeds (up to 500,000m/min), torque obtainable not too high Elements are over-load proof, intrinsically explosionoverexplosionproof, very simple regulation of speed, torque, force.
- Mechanical - Electrical - Electronics - Low pressure pneumatics - Normal pressure pneumatics - Hydraulics
Electronics
Very high, approx speed of sound Practically unlimited Less than 1 ms
Distance w/c can be covered Switching times of elements Reliability Space requirement
Sensitive to envi Very sensitive to Insensitive to envi influences envi influences influences large Very small Digital, analog Electronic valves, transistors Very large digital Directional control valves
Pilot Control
Memory Control
Program Control
Time-schedule control
Sequence control
Pilot Control establishes always a unique relationship between the command variable and output variable.
Examples: 1. Copying on machine tools the movements of the tracer pin are uniquely related to the movement of the cutting tool 2. Brightness control the brightness of the lamp is at all times uniquely related to the position of the resistor or of the transformer.
Differentiating characteristics of controls Memory control after removing or taking back the command variable, the value reached by the output variable is retained until an opposing signal is presented. Example: Switch-on and switch off of an electric motor Switchby means of a pressure switch
Ro OFF b2 ON b1 R S T 3 380 V
c1 Mp
Example: Controlling the advance and return movement of a doubleacting cylinder by manual switch. Here, the condition obtained by the output variable is retained after the command variable has been removed, until the opposing signal is presented.
1.1
1.2
1.3
Differentiating characteristics of controls Time-schedule control Time Command variables are supplied by a time-dependent timeprogram transmitter (program storage device) and a timetime-dependent operating sequence of the program. Centrally stored program; usually compact construction Time-constant program execution; execution Timeinsensitive to disturbing factors and independent/no check of operating sequence, hence no sequence reliability. Disturbances in the operating sequence have no effect on program execution.
Differentiating characteristics of controls Coordinated motion control The command variables are provided by a program transmitter, the output variables of w/c are dependent on the distance covered (displacement or position of a movable part of the controlled system. Program is defined by the arrangement of limit switches/ signal elements, hence the layout is not clearly arranged and is not easy to service Operating sequence reliability is provided by displacementdisplacement-dependent sequence, disturbances in the operating sequence can be registered, program execution maybe interrupted
A program transmitter maybe: - camshaft, cam disk, program belt, punch card/tape, etc. Example: A piano displays the characteristics of a time-schedule control. The program is timecontained in a program transmitter, which in this case maybe a drum and is run through on a time-dependent basis (constant speed timeof program transmitter drive motor)
Example Coordinated motion control Movement of a double-acting pneumatic cylinder: The advance motion is tripped by operating START button 1.2, the return motion being effected by a limit switch1.3 after a certain length of travel, depending on the position of LS 1.3
1.3 1.0
1.1
1.2
1.3
Differentiating characteristics of controls Sequence control The operating sequence program is stored in a program transmitter w/c runs through a step-bystep-bystep program in accordance w/ the condition reached at any one time by the controlled system. Is identified by having a program transmitter and an equipment w/c is capable of interrogating the conditions prevailing in the system, has the advantage of check the momentary machine status (operating sequence reliability and is possible to advance the program transmitter stepstepbyby-step (stepping motor).
Motion diagrams:
Displacement-step diagram The operating sequence Displacementof a working element is represented in a manner such that the displacement is recorded in relation to the various steps or change in condition of any component. If a control has several working elements, each is represented in the same manner and each is drawn one beneath the other.
1 Forward (1) Cylinder A Rear (0) Steps Displacement 2 3 4 5=1
Motion Diagram: Displacement-time diagram The displacement Displacementof a component is drawn in relation to time; the time is drawn linearly and establishes the relationship (motion/displacement) between the individual components.
1 Cylinder A 0 1 Cylinder B 0 Displacement Time t
Control Diagram
In the control diagram, the switching condition of control element is shown in relation to the steps or the times, the switching time itself not being considered, for example the condition of a relay b1 being opened:
1 Open b1 Closed Steps 2 3 4 5 6=1
Condition
Note that relay b1 pulls up at step 2 and drops off again at step 5.
The control diagram shows the conditions of the directional control valves 1.1 which controls cylinder A, 2.1 which controls cylinder B and limit switch 2.2 which is installed at the front end position of cylinder A.
Working out a control problem Possible auxiliary conditions for the functional sequence: Safety conditions:
EMERGENCY STOP: the position of the working elements assumed when this condition applies must be clearly defined EMERGENCY STOP unlocking: the system is again released for re-start and continuance of reoperation
The common types of controllers, with many variations and/ or combinations of which are: Logic controls Pure logic controls were historically implemented by electricians with networks of relays, and designed with a notation logic. called ladder logic. Nowadays, most such systems are constructed with programmable logic controllers. controllers.
Logic Controllers
Logic controllers usually respond to switches or photoelectric cells, and cause the machinery to perform some operation. Logic systems are great for sequencing mechanical operations in places like elevators and factories, but notably poor at managing continuous process controls in such places as oil refineries and steel mills.
Logic Controllers
Logic systems are quite easy to design, and can handle very complex operations. Logic systems may be designed with a system logic. similar to Boolean logic. (Logic gates that are primarily electronically-controlled but electronicallycan also be constructed from electromagnetic relays, electronic diodes, relays, diodes, fluidics, optical or even mechanical fluidics, elements, are commonly employed.
What is PID?
A Proportional-Integral-Derivative controller or Proportional-IntegralPID is a standard feedback loop component in industrial control applications. It measures an applications. "output" of a process and controls an "input", with a goal of maintaining the output at a target value, which is called the "setpoint". An example of a PID "setpoint". application is the control of a process temperature, although it can be used to control any measurable variable which can be affected by manipulating some other process variable. For example, it can be used to control pressure, flow rate, chemical composition, force, speed or a number of other variables.
What is PID?
The basic idea is that the controller reads a sensor. sensor. Then it subtracts the measurement from a desired "setpoint" to determine an "error". The error is then setpoint" treated in three different ways simultaneously:
Proportional - To handle the present, the error is multiplied by a negative proportional constant P, and sent to the output. P represents the band over which a controller's output is proportional to the error of the system. E.g. for a heater, a controller with a proportional band of 10degC and a setpoint of 20deg C would have an output of 100% at 10 deg C, 50% at 15 Deg C and 10% at 1.9 deg C. Adding the change to the output makes the output self-adjusting. For example, if the selfburner were to get dirty, decreasing the heater's efficiency, the baseline output would just drift upwards a bit, and then re-stabilize. re-
What is PID?
Integral - To handle the past, the error is integrated (or averaged, or summed) over a period of time, and then multiplied by a constant I, and added to the proportional output. I represents the steady state error of the system. Using the Proportional term alone it is not possible to reach a steady set point temperature. Real world processes are not perfect and are subject to a number of environmental variables. As these variables are often constant they, can be measured and compensated for.
What is PID?
Using the Proportional example above; at 19.9 deg C the controller output is 1%, at this temperature environmental losses through heat transmission are 3%. In this scenario the system controller will never be able to reach setpoint, setpoint, however it can be corrected by introducing an Integral term, which will attempt to remove errors term, that last for some time. In practice, the Integral term of a controller only considers a relatively short history of the controller.
What is PID?
Derivative - To handle the future, the first derivative of the error (its rate of change) is calculated with respect to time, and multiplied by another constant D, and summed with the proportional and integral terms. The derivative term is used to govern a controller's response to a change in the system. The larger the derivative term the more rapidly the controller will respond to changes in the process value. This is a good thing to reduce when trying to dampen a controller's response to short term changes.
What is PID? The generic transfer function for a PID controller is: H(s) = (Ds2 + Ps + I)/ (s + C); with C being a constant (typically .01 or .001).
Linear or feedback controls Most real feedback loops are concerned about wearing out control machinery like valves, by adjusting them many times per second. Therefore, they often have a deadband, a region around the current deadband, value in which no control action occurs. In commercial controls, the deadband is programmable.
Linear or feedback controls Another common method is to filter the feedback loop. A filter eliminates undesirable frequencies (cycles) from the system under control, which perfectly eliminates oscillations. Many systems oscillate at just one frequency. By filtering out that frequency, one can use very "stiff" feedback and the system can be very responsive without shaking itself apart.