PROCON Level and Flow with

Temperature
38-003

Feedback Instruments Ltd, Park Road, Crowborough, E. Sussex, TN6 2QR, UK.
Telephone: +44 (0) 1892 653322, Fax: +44 (0) 1892 663719.
email: feedback@feedback-instruments.com website: http://www.feedback-instruments.com
Manual produced from software version: v1.3
Date: 9/21/2013 Last Updated: M. Baglione 8/30/2017
Feedback Part No. 1160–38003
 Chapter 2A
Procon Level and Flow with Temperature Level and Flow Rig Introduction

Introduction to Process Control (PROCON)

Process control is a branch of control engineering that deals with the operation of plant in
industries such as petrochemicals, food, steel, glass, paper and energy.

The PROCON 38 Series system is a complete package dealing with all aspects of Process
Control. It will introduce industrial-standard equipment, and cover all aspects of equipment
usage. When all the hardware has been covered, the different methods of modern process
control are explored. These start at the most basic, with On/Off Control, and will lead up to
full Proportional, Integral, and Derivative Control. More advanced control such as Dual
Loop Control can be explored as optional advanced study.

The Basic Process (Level and Flow) Rig

The Basic Process Rig (BPR) primarily consists of a low pressure flowing water circuit
which is completely self contained. The following components are strategically placed within
this circuit:

Sump Tank
Dual Compartment Process Tank
Circulating Pump
Visual Indication Flow Meter
Motorized Flow Gate Valve (Servo valve)
3 Solenoid Valves (SV1, SV2, SV3)
4 Manual Valves (MV1, MV2, MV3, MV4)
Level Sensor Pack (38-400)
Pulse Flow Sensor (38-420)
 Chapter 2A
Procon Level and Flow with Temperature Level and Flow Rig Introduction

A photograph of the Basic Process Rig (Level/Flow) with these components is shown
below:

The Temperature Process Rig

The Temperature Process Rig (TPR) consists of two flow circuits: primary and secondary.

The primary flow circuit is integral to the TPR, while the secondary flow circuit can be
derived from one of two sources depending upon the laboratory configuration. For the
ME352 laboratories, the Temperature Process Rig is used in the standalone configuration,
in which the secondary flow is supplied from the mains water supply which is controlled by
an Optional Auxiliary Valve. The water from the mains is turned on by turning a yellow
manual valve underneath the sink in Room 709.
 Chapter 2A
Procon Level and Flow with Temperature Level and Flow Rig Introduction

Alternatively, one could use the Basic Process Rig (BPR) to supply the secondary flow for
the TPR, however, only one group of students would be able to perform experiments at a
time.

Process Control Concepts – Set Point and Measured Value (Process

Variable)
The term Set Point is used to represent the reference input to the process control system.
The reference represents a desired constant operating point. The set point can be imposed
by turning a knob, typing in a value, or it can be transmitted to a controller from a computer
or another controller.

The term Measured Value represents the output of the measurement system (transmitter,
sensor or transducer). The measurement system produces a signal which is a function of
the actual value of the physical Process Variable being controlled. The signal may be
electrical, pneumatic or mechanical.

The set point is compared to the measured value to produce the deviation, which is simply
the difference between the two. The controller then uses this deviation to make the set point
and the measured value as close as possible.

Safety considerations are always paramount in process control. Therefore, safeguarding

and monitoring systems must be included to deal with cases of equipment failure. All
possible failures must be considered, so that the system is prevented from failing or, if
failure cannot always be avoided, then that it will fail safely.

Control Systems
A control system consists of a controller and a plant. A plant is the machine, vehicle, or
process that is being controlled. The controller is the system that is required to produce
satisfactory results from the plant.

A manual control system is one where the controller is a person. The alternative to this is
an automatic control system, where the controller is a device, usually implemented
electronically, either using analog circuits or a digital computer (microprocessor). Pneumatic
and hydraulic controllers can also be found in industry; these are still legitimate automatic
control systems (as an example, automatic transmissions often use hydraulic controllers).

The interface between the plant and the controller requires actuators (control elements) to
provide the control action. Actuators are commonly electric, pneumatic or hydraulic,
depending on the application and power level required.

In addition, sensors (measurement elements) and instrumentation are needed to provide

information about the plant status to the controller.

The diagram below shows a general control system. This diagram can be applied to all
control situations:
 Chapter 2A
Procon Level and Flow with Temperature Level and Flow Rig Introduction

Measurement devices will range from you deciding if the process is operating as it should
be, to a pulse flow sensor and transmitter arrangement automatically measuring rate of flow
of fluid.

The term transmitter is used to describe the action of the measurement element when it
sends signals that represent the measured values of the system to the controller.

The controller can vary from a simple logic level switching equipment or a universal
microprocessor-based indicator/controller with 300 internal control algorithms.

A control system can be open-loop or closed-loop.

An open-loop control system utilizes a controller, or control actuator, in order to obtain the
desired response, without incorporating feedback. The input-output relationship of the
system is only the cause and effect relationship of the output from the controller and the
plant.

In contrast to an open-loop control system, a closed-loop control system utilizes an

additional measure of the actual output. This is then compared to the desired output
response, or reference input signal. The measure of the output is called the 'feedback
signal'. A feedback control system often uses a prescribed function between the output and
reference input to control the process.

Often the difference between the output of the process under control and the reference
input is amplified and used to control the process, so that the difference is continually
reduced.
 Chapter 2A
Procon Level and Flow with Temperature Level and Flow Rig Introduction

The notion of feedback exists in everyday life. For instance, we use visual feedback to walk.
Feedback not only gives verification of our actions, it allows us to cope with a changing
environment by adjusting our actions in the presence of unforeseen events and changing
conditions.

Feedback has similar advantages when applied to automatic control. Feedback gives an
automatic control system the ability to deal with unexpected disturbances and changes in
the plant behavior.

Process Control and Servo Systems

The one basic difference between a process control system and a servo system is that
generally the emphasis in process control is on the performance of the loop as a Regulator,
i.e. disturbance rejection.

In servo systems the emphasis is on how well the control system can follow changes in the
reference or desired input signal.

This does not mean that process control systems are never subject to changes in reference
values, or that servo systems never receive disturbances. What is true, however, is that in a
typical process control system the reference value will not change frequently. For instance,
the required temperature of a particular product may be constant for days.

The terminology in the process industry is influenced by the fact that quantities are often
treated non-dimensionally, i.e., listed as a percentage figure. For example a valve may be
80% open, a flow is 50% of max, etc.
 Chapter 2A
Procon Level and Flow with Temperature Level and Flow Rig Introduction

Instrument Classification

There are generally two kinds of instruments used in process control. Firstly, instruments
for monitoring process variables such as temperature or pressure and that give an audio or
visual indication of the magnitude of the physical quantity measured. An example is a liquid-
in-glass thermometer.

Secondly, instruments referred to as transmitters in process control engineering are those

incorporated in an automatic control system. They are needed to provide (transmit)
information about the plant status to the controller, and hence their output must be in a
suitable form (electrical, hydraulic, pneumatic) to be accepted by the controller.

The primary component of both types of measurement instrument is a transducer, or a

sensor that converts the measured physical quantity from one form to another.

Other possible components within the instrument are an amplifier, and an output display.

Analog and Digital

Instrumentation can either be analog or digital.

An analog instrument gives an output signal that is a continuous function of the input signal
being measured. An example of an analog instrument is the deflection type pressure
gauge. If an analog instrument is used in a digital control system, an analog-to-digital
converter is needed to convert the analog output signal from the instrument to a digital
form, for processing by the computer.

A digital instrument gives an output that varies in discrete steps. The advantage of using a
digital instrument is that it can be directly connected to a computer so that digital control of
the process can be carried out. The increasing application of digital instruments in
automatic process control greatly increases the ease of computer connection.
 Chapter 2A
Procon Level and Flow with Temperature Level and Flow Rig Introduction

Instrument Characteristics

Knowledge of the various instrument characteristics provides an indication of the possible

degree of measurement errors that can affect the performance of a process control system.

The characteristics of an instrument can be classified as either static or dynamic. Examples

of static characteristics of an instrument are accuracy, tolerance, precision, range, bias,
linearity, sensitivity, drift, hysteresis, and resolution.

Accuracy is a measure of the deviation of a reading from the true value, and is usually
quoted as a percentage of the full-scale reading of the instrument.

Tolerance describes the maximum deviation of a component from a specified value and
can be used in place of accuracy.

Precision describes the extent to which an instrument is free from random errors, these are
errors due to electrical noise, environmental changes etc. A large number of readings of the
same quantity taken by a high precision instrument should differ very little.

Precision and Accuracy

A clear distinction between precision and accuracy must be emphasized, in order to avoid
confusion. High precision does not imply anything about measurement accuracy. A high
precision instrument may have low accuracy. Low accuracy measurements from a high
precision instrument are normally caused by an offset in the instrument and can be
corrected with calibration.

Range or Span defines the range of values of a quantity that an instrument is designed to
measure.

Bias is a constant error that appears in every measurement made by an instrument and is
caused by an offset in the device. It can be removed with calibration.

Linearity describes an instrument whose output reading is linearly proportional to the

quantity being measured, for a large number of measurements.

Non-linearity is the maximum percentage deviation of any of the output readings from a
straight line of best fit through all output readings, displayed graphically.

Sensitivity of Measurement is defined as the ratio of meter deflection to change in input

quantity of the instrument.

The effect that environmental changes (temperature, pressure, etc) have on instruments is
characterized by the 'zero drift' and 'sensitivity drift'.

Zero Drift describes the change in the zero reading of an instrument, due to a change in
ambient conditions.
 Chapter 2A
Procon Level and Flow with Temperature Level and Flow Rig Introduction

Sensitivity Drift specifies any change in the 'sensitivity of measurement' caused by a

change in the ambient conditions.

Dead Space, Hysteresis and Threshold

With reference to the figures below, the following instrument parameters can be illustrated:
dead space, hysteresis, and threshold.

Dead space is the range of input values for which there is no change in the output. Dead
space is also sometimes called Deadband.

The Hysteresis Curve is shown below:

It consists of two curves identical in shape. The upward and downward arrows describe the
way in which the output reading varies as the input quantity to the instrument increases and
decreases respectively.

We can see that the instrument has different output characteristics for low-to-high and for
high-to-low input changes. Hysteresis is the non-coincidence between these two curves.
Threshold is shown below:

Threshold is the minimum input value at which the output begins to change. If the input is
less than this threshold value there will be no corresponding output change to the input
change.
 Chapter 2A
Procon Level and Flow with Temperature Level and Flow Rig Introduction

Resolution, Damping and Cost

Another important characteristic of an instrument is its measurement resolution, which is

the minimum change in the input measured quantity that will produce an observable change
in the instrument output. The resolution is dependent on the subdivision of the output scale.

While the static characteristics of an instrument are concerned only with the steady-state
reading that the instrument reaches, the dynamic characteristics describe the transient
response of the instrument, i.e. its time output response to an input signal before the output
reaches the steady state.

Dynamic characteristics include the time constant, sensitivity, undamped natural frequency,
damping ratio, and steady state error.

The damping ratio controls the shape of the output response. Difficulties arise in choosing
suitable values for the damping factor, since the output response also depends on the type
of input signal applied to the instrument.

In most cases the physical quantities that instruments are required to measure are in the
form of ramps of varying amplitudes and thus a compromise must be reached when
choosing a damping factor for a particular input variable.

Finally, considerations of cost, durability and maintenance must be made when choosing
an instrument for a particular measurement.

Process Instrument Calibration

The accuracy of measurements must be guaranteed by the proper and regular calibration
of the instruments used. Regular calibration is necessary because the characteristics of
any instrument may change (drift) over a period of time, due to the mechanical wear, aging
of components, environmental changes, dirt, dust, etc.

Calibration consists of comparing the output of the process instrument being calibrated
against the output of a standard instrument of known accuracy, when the same input
(measured quantity) is applied to both instruments. During calibration, the process
instrument is tested over its whole range, by repeating the comparison procedure for a
range of inputs.

Calibration guarantees that the accuracy of the output reading in a calibrated instrument will
be at a certain acceptable level, when the instrument is used under the environmental
 Chapter 2A
Procon Level and Flow with Temperature Level and Flow Rig Introduction

conditions (e.g. temperature, humidity, pressure) present during the calibration process.
Outside those conditions the characteristics of the measuring instrument may change.
Hence the accuracy of the instrument will vary to a greater or a lesser extent according to
its susceptibility to the modifying inputs inherent in the new environmental conditions. In
most measurement situations it is usually impossible to control the environmental
conditions to be at the levels specified for calibration, and so correction of the measuring
instrument output reading is necessary.

Measurement Errors
Measurement is important in process control. It can significantly affect the quality of the final
product. In the case of a nuclear power station, for example, it can also be a critical safety
issue. Thus, all process parameters must be measured to known standards of accuracy.

The main aim is to reduce the errors in instrument output readings as much as possible,
and to quantify the remaining error, since it is not always possible or at least cost-effective
to remove all measurement errors.

When there are known errors present, appropriate signal processing of the measurement
signals can be carried out to improve the quality of the measurement data. This is
described in the next theory section.

In order to reduce errors to a minimum, the sources of measurement error must be

considered.

Measurement Errors – Types

There are two types of measurement error: Random and Systematic. Random errors are
small differences in the output readings of an instrument when the same quantity is
measured a number of times. The magnitude and sign of the error is random, so that for a
large number of samples, the positive errors approximately balance the negative errors and
the net error is zero.

A typical example of a possible random error is when measurements are made by human
observation of an analog meter reading. Other sources of random error are electrical noise,
environmental changes (temperature, pressure), dust, friction, vibration etc. As stated
above, random errors can be avoided if the same measurement is repeated a large number
of times and an average is taken.

However, this will only be so if the errors are truly random. In the case of the analog meter
readings taken by a human, if the human observer is persistently reading the meter from
 Chapter 2A
Procon Level and Flow with Temperature Level and Flow Rig Introduction

one side only, then the error induced is not random, but systematic, and averaging over any
number of readings will not eliminate it.

Similarly, errors due to temperature fluctuations will not be random, if instead of both
positive and negative temperature variations about a constant value, there is a net change
in the temperature during the period of time that the readings are taken.

Signal Processing of Measurement Data

In most cases it is neither possible nor cost-effective to remove all measurement errors.
Signal processing techniques are used to improve the quality of the signal at the output of
the measurement system. Operations such as amplification, attenuation, linearization, bias
removal and filtering are common methods of processing measurement signals.

The specific processing depends on the nature of the raw output signals from the
measurement transducers. For example, signal amplification is carried out when the signal
output level of a measurement transducer is very low. Signal linearization may be required
in cases where a measurement transducer has an output which is a non-linear function of
the measured input quantity. Signal filtering is used to remove a particular band of
frequencies within a signal. For example, low pass filtering may be required to remove the
high frequency noise component in a signal.

Signal processing can be either analog or digital. However, some analog signal conditioning
is often necessary prior to digital signal processing.
 Chapter 2A
Procon Level and Flow with Temperature Level and Flow Rig Introduction

Navigating the PROCON Espial Software Interface

The assignment window opens when an assignment is launched. The assignment window
consists of a title bar across the top, an assignment side bar at the right-hand edge, and the
main working area. The side bar contains the Practicals and any additional resources that
are relevant for the selected assignment. An example of an assignment window is shown
below.

Practical windows have icons for the test equipment, together with buttons for Objectives &
Background, Make Connections, and Test Equipment Manuals. Note: If the hardware is
switched off when you open an assignment, communication to the hardware will not
be established (which is indicated by three red dots at the bottom of the right panel).
If you switch on the hardware after the software is opened, it will be necessary to
close the assignment window and open it again to enable communication with the
test equipment.

Make Connections Window

This window shows the wire connections (4mm patch leads) you need to make on the
hardware to make a practical work.

Perform Practical Window

This window contains the instructions for performing the practical, as well as a diagram
showing the parts of the hardware involved in the Practical.
 Chapter 2A
Procon Level and Flow with Temperature Level and Flow Rig Introduction

Level and Flow Rig Familiarization

Objectives

To understand how the Centrifugal Pump works, its effect on the system and location on
the Basic Process Rig (BPR).

To learn about the operation / function of the Servo, Manual, Solenoid valves on the
BPR.

To determine the linearity of the flow rate measurements using a visual flow meter.

To measure the resistance and time constant for the tank level system using various
experimental methods

Block Diagram (Practicals 1-2): Level and Flow PROCON Introduction

The Centrifugal Pump (Practical 1)

The pump on the Basic Process Rig is a submersible, ignition protected pump, fitted at the
bottom of the lower tank.

The task of the pump is to move the water from the lower tank to the upper tank through the
piping network.

An electric dc motor drives the pump on or off and no intermediate value can be set. The
motor is powered by the Process Interface (PI) from the ac (switched or continuous) power
supply outputs on the rear panel of the PI. The rating of the pump is 12v dc, 4 A.
 Chapter 2A
Procon Level and Flow with Temperature Level and Flow Rig Introduction

The pump used is of the centrifugal type as opposed to the positive displacement type that
includes the reciprocating and rotary pumps.

The centrifugal pump accomplishes its pressure boost by imparting kinetic energy to the
fluid. A fluid at low pressure enters the pump assembly at the base of the rotor. The fluid
flows around the cavity and is drawn up through the pump by the rotor action and the cavity
profile.

A centrifugal pump is used in cases where high flows and low-pressure heads are needed.
If flow needs to be cut to zero, the centrifugal pump can be simply valved out by closing the
manual valve MV2.

Special features of this pump include:

A non-airlocking mechanism, which is the number one problem of all centrifugal pumps.

A water-cooled motor, which reduces operating temperatures and so minimizes

overheating, one of the major causes of pump failure.

In this practical you will put the pump into operation and calculate the rate of flow (in litres
per minute) through the interconnected pipes. A typical performance figure of the pump
supplied is 300 liters/hour (5 liters/minute) full flow rate.

Note, however, that the rate of flow will be much lower than the full flow performance of the
pump, because of the small dimensions of the pipes, the resistance to flow incurred by the
inner surface of the pipes, and the pressure head of the water in the upper tank.

Visual Flow Meter and Servo Valve (Practical 2)

In this practical, you will produce a plot of flow rate, in L/min, determined using the Visual
Flow Meter, versus the rate of flow, in %, controlled by the servo valve.
 Chapter 2A
Procon Level and Flow with Temperature Level and Flow Rig Introduction

The Visual Flow Meter

Variable Area Flowmeter

The flow gauge used is a variable area flowmeter. It provides an indication of the flow,
ranging from 0.4 to 4.4 liters/minute, and is only suitable for water. This type of instrument
gives a visual indication of flow rate, and so it is of no use in automatic control systems.
However, it is reliable, cheap and used extensively throughout industry.

The instrument consists of a tapered glass tube containing a float which takes up a stable
position when its submerged weight is balanced by the upthrust of the water. The position
of the float is a measure of the flow passage and hence of the flow rate. The accuracy of
such instruments varies from +/-3 to +/-0.2 per cent.

To ensure full flow, the servo valve should be fully open, therefore turn the Current Source
control fully clockwise.

The Servo Valve

A servo system is an actuator which uses a gate to block the path of the liquid through the
valve and since the gate is in effect lowered down on demand it can take any position
between 100% open and 100% closed. The vertical movement of the gate and stem of the
valve changes the area of the port that is open. The flow rate of the fluid passing through
the port is therefore proportioned or throttled by positioning the valve stem. This can all be
seen in the following diagram. This type of Servo Valve is also known as a Gate Valve.
 Chapter 2A
Procon Level and Flow with Temperature Level and Flow Rig Introduction

The position of the gate is controlled by a 4-20 mA signal, supplied in this Practical by the
PI current source. At 4 mA, the gate is fully lowered, thereby closing off the flow, while a 20
mA signal fully opens the valve.

The servo valve is almost linear, in that the applied current is approximately proportional to
the flow rate. Thus, the servo valve can be used in place of the manual valve. It can also be
used in an automatic control system, unlike the manual valve.

Like any other servo system, a servo valve is characterized by a time constant i.e. it
exhibits a transient response: a sudden change in the loop current will take a finite time to
establish a new flow rate.

An important point to bear in mind when switching off the servo valve is that the gate will be
in the same position when it is next turned on. Therefore, in order to avoid any contribution
of the servo valve in future practicals, always fully open it by setting the current to 20 mA,
just before disconnecting it or switching off the PI.

The Solenoid Valves

A solenoid valve, unlike the manual or servo valve, can only be open or closed, i.e on or off.
It is suitable for automation as it can be controlled remotely. An electrical solenoid coil is the
main element of the valve. The normal state of a solenoid valve is closed and it is opened
by passing a current through the coil.

Since no intermediate setting is possible, no fine variable control can be accomplished, as

with the servo valve, and hence only on/off control can be applied.

There are three solenoid valves supplied with the rig.

They are labeled SV1, SV2, and SV3 and have hole diameters of 5mm, 5mm, and 3mm
respectively.

The electrical connections to these valves are on the right hand side of the rig and the
power to turn them on is supplied by the Process Interface (PI) 24Vdc outputs, either
switched (one on the front panel of the PI), or unswitched (two on the rear panel of the PI).
 Chapter 2A
Procon Level and Flow with Temperature Level and Flow Rig Introduction

Block Diagram (Practical 3): Level and Flow PROCON Introduction

System Time Constant (Practical 3)

In this practical, you will determine the time constant of a liquid-level system through
various experimental methods. First, you will find the time constant using the free response
by emptying the tank from 100% level. Next, you will experimentally determine the
resistance at 50% operating level by determining the steady-state flow rate to maintain 50%
level.

Liquid-Level System Diagram of BPR (Level-Flow Rig)

 Chapter 2A
Procon Level and Flow with Temperature Level and Flow Rig Introduction

Recall from the Systems Engineering, the governing equation for a liquid-level system is:
𝑑𝑑
𝐴 = 𝑞𝑖 − 𝑞𝑜
𝑑𝑑
Where A = cross-sectional area of the tank [m2]
H = head [m]
q i = inlet flow rate [m3/s]
q o = outlet flow rate [m3/s]

The flow through a restriction, such as a solenoid valve (SV), is a function of the head, H.

𝑞 = 𝑓(𝐻)

If the flow through the restriction is linear, we can characterize the fluid flow-head
relationship using the resistance, R .

1
𝑞= ℎ
𝑅

You will learn in Fluid Mechanics, based on the system flow characteristics, that the flow
through SV2 is in the transitional turbulent regime, thus the flow can be characterized with
the non-linear relationship,
𝑞𝑜 = 𝐾√𝐻

where K is the flow coefficient in m2/sec. The following is a plot of the non-linear
relationship between steady-state head versus flow rate:

Head vs. Flow Rate Curve [Source: Ogata, Systems Engineering, 2nd Ed.]
 Chapter 2A
Procon Level and Flow with Temperature Level and Flow Rig Introduction

In the background questions, you will be asked to linearize the non-linear differential
equation representing the liquid-level system dynamics and solve for the linearized
resistance about an operating point.

You should recall that you can graphically linearize a non-linear function by drawing a
tangent line through an operating point and finding the slope, as shown in the
aforementioned Head vs. Flow Rate curve. Recall you can also linearize the non-linear
head vs. flow rate relationship using Taylor-Series expansion and neglecting higher-order
terms:

𝑑𝑑(𝐻)
�) +
𝑞(𝐻) ≅ 𝑞(𝐻 � �)
(𝐻 − 𝐻
𝑑𝑑 𝐻=𝐻�

where 𝐻 � is the nominal head for a nominal flow 𝑄� at steady-state conditions. Follow the
linearization procedure by:

I. Introducing incremental variables representing deviations from the nominal

condition, ℎ = 𝐻 − 𝐻 � and 𝑞 = 𝑞𝑖 − 𝑄� , and linearizing the non-linear function, 𝑞(𝐻),
II. Finding the steady-state nominal operating point where the flow in is equal to the
flow out and the head is not changing, 𝑞𝑖 = 𝑞𝑜 = 𝑄� = 𝐾 �𝐻 �,
III. Inserting the linearized flow function into the non-linear differential equation, and
inserting the steady-state nominal condition.

Simplifying and cancelling terms yields the linearized differential equation that describes the
dynamic behavior about a nominal operating point:

𝑑ℎ 1
𝐴 + ℎ=𝑞
𝑑𝑑 𝑅

You should find that the linearized resistance of an outlet valve in the turbulent flow regime
2𝐻�
is 𝑅 = � , where 𝐻� is the nominal head and 𝑄� is the nominal flow rate. Note you must show
𝑄
all your work in the background questions.

By definition, the time constant, 𝜏, is the time the system takes to reach 63% of steady-
state. The time constant, 𝜏, of a liquid-level system, such as the tank system on the BPR, is
equal to 𝑅𝑅 , where R is the resistance through the outlet solenoid valve (SV2) and A is the
cross-sectional area of the tank.

In this lab practical, you will compare the time constants found using two different
experimental methods: (1) using the free-response, i.e., measuring the time it takes the
tank to empty, and (2) determining the nominal flow rate to maintain 50% level and
calculating the resistance, R, and corresponding time constant for these nominal operating
conditions.
 Chapter 2B
Procon Level and Flow with Temperature Temperature Rig Introduction

Temperature Rig Initialization

Objectives
To learn about the 38-441 Thermistor Temperature Transmitter (TTT), and how to
calibrate it against the 38-490 Digital Display Module (DDM).

To become familiar with the basic response of a thermistor and their various locations
with respect to the Temperature Process Rig.

To learn about the Temperature Process Rig (38-600) which requires a secondary flow of
water. The secondary flow is provided from NYC Water.

To become familiar with the aspect of bleeding air from closed fluid systems, which is
reinforced by bleeding air from the secondary flow.

Calibration of the TTT (Temperature Rig Initialization Practical 1)

The Thermistor Temperature Transmitter, shown below, is a device which takes

temperature information from the thermistors (T1 - T5) and transmits it to the Process
Interface (PI).

The thermistor sensor itself is a small component which has the characteristic of resistance
dependant upon temperature. The Thermistor Temperature Transmitter reads the
resistance value and converts it to a 4-20 mA signal with respect to actual temperature.

By converting to the 4-20 mA current signal format, communication is no longer restricted to

short distances, a concern when dealing with large process plants. Also by using this format
signals and equipment become standardized, removing the need for special interfaces.

Calibration of the Thermistor Temperature Transmitter (TTT)

In this practical you will be shown how to calibrate the output of the TTT. The TTT has a
built in calibration circuit which allows the output to be adjusted to a known value.

This is achieved by using the two buttons on the front of the TTT. As the labels indicate, the
instrument is calibrated for 25o C and 80o C.
Once calibrated using this process, the TTT 4-20 mA output signal will directly represent
actual temperature, with the desired degree of accuracy.
 Chapter 2B
Procon Level and Flow with Temperature Temperature Rig Introduction

Thermistors (Temperature Rig Initialization Practical 1)

A thermistor is a device, the electrical characteristics of which alter in a predictable way with
a change of temperature. The resistance of a thermistor is a function of the temperature
around it, or 'ambient' temperature. This behavior allows the thermistor to be used as an
accurate temperature measuring device.

There are five such devices included with the Temperature Process Rig. They are
positioned to measure the temperature at five points around the primary and secondary
flows.

In the primary flow they are positioned before (T1) and after (T2) the heat exchanger. This
is obviously crucial in observing the cooling effect of the heat transfer.

In the secondary flow they are also positioned before (T3) and after (T4) the heat
exchanger. The fifth device is placed at the output (T5) of the radiator in order to show the
temperature of the flow before and after cooling has taken place.

The thermistors are connected to the Thermistor Temperature Transmitter. The TTT
converts the resistance of the thermistor connected to it into a 4-20mA signal representing
the temperature. The device can be calibrated for 25oC and 80oC by use of the panel
mounted buttons.

Taking Measurements with Thermistors

It is possible to construct a thermister based temperature device by adding a milliammeter

and a voltage source. The milliammeter can be calibrated for temperature by use of boiling
water (100oC) and ice (0oC). The diagram below shows a simple arrangement.
 Chapter 2B
Procon Level and Flow with Temperature Temperature Rig Introduction

The thermistors used in the temperature process rig are known as 'NTC' thermistors. This
abbreviation represents 'negative temperature coefficient'. This refers to the behavior of the
device resistance with respect to temperature.

An NTC thermistor has resistance which decreases with an increase in temperature. A PTC
(Positive Temperature Coefficient) device behaves in the opposite way.
There are many types of thermistor. Most devices consist of a circular, flat section of
resistive material connected to leads. The type in use with the rig are known as 'beads'.
They are mounted in a thermally-conductive holder and surrounded with thermally-
conductive paste for good heat transfer. The device is protected from the liquid flow by a
thin metal film.

Thermistors are usually specified by their resistance at 25o C. Common values are 3k
ohms, 5k ohms, 10k ohms and 100k ohms. Working temperatures range from -80o C to
150o C. Resistance tolerances are usually in the region of +/- 2% across the range.

Bleeding the Secondary Flow (Temperature Rig Initialization Practical 2)

Domestic heating systems often consist of a series of radiators designed to extract energy
from hot water being pumped through them. The situation sometimes occurs whereby one
or more of the radiators is partly filled with air instead of water.

This does not damage the system in any way. It simply means that the system does not
function as efficiently as it should. This is for two reasons. The first is that the air is trapped
in the radiator and the water is therefore not being pumped around. The second, and most
important, reason is that air is not as good a conductor as water. The air does not transfer
heat to the metal of the radiator as effectively as the water.

The cooling radiator supplied as part of the Temperature Process Rig can sometimes fall
victim to the same problem. Air can be introduced into the system in a number of ways
through pumps and joints. This air can find itself trapped in the upper part of the cooling
radiator, where it will remain until bleeding can be carried out.

Bleeding involves the removal of air from a fluid system by whatever method. The type of
domestic system mentioned earlier is usually bled from a small 'tap' on the offending
radiator. Air is pushed out under the system pressure until water begins to be expelled. The
tap is closed and the radiator is free of air.

A similar procedure can be carried out on the temperature rig if air is suspected to be
present in the radiator. Air can usually be detected by a 'gurgle' being emitted from the
 Chapter 2B
Procon Level and Flow with Temperature Temperature Rig Introduction

device while the water is flowing around the system. If this is the case the practical should
be followed to avoid the water in the primary flow becoming too hot too quickly whilst
carrying out later work.

It should be noted that this problem is not encountered only as a result of the temperature
rig design. In an industrial situation, bleeding would be carried out after periodic draining
and cleaning, as well as after prolonged periods of shutdown. Air can easily be introduced
into even the most well sealed of systems.

Temperature Process Rig PROCON Introduction

Objectives
To learn about the operation and linearity of the Servo Valve on the TPR.

To learn about the Pulse Flow Transmitter (PFT) and how to calibrate the PFT so it can
be used to monitor flow rate.

To become familiar with the use of the heat exchanger and its effect on heat transfer.

To become familiar with the cooling radiator and what effect it has on the temperature of
the water in the secondary circuit.

The Pulse Flow Transmitter and Servo Valve (TPR PROCON Introduction
Practical 1)

In this practical, you will produce a plot of flow rate in % using the Pulse Flow Transmitter
versus the servo valve position in %.

The Pulse Flow Transmitter is a device that takes rate of flow information from the Pulse
Flow Sensor in the pipe network and transmits it to the Process Interface.

The sensor is a small water wheel inside a pipe, which is turned by the flow of fluid through
the pipe. The speed of the wheel is proportional to the rate of fluid through it: the faster the
fluid, the faster the wheel.

There is an infra-red sensor across the wheel detecting its movement. When the wheel
turns, its blades will break the beam reducing the output. With the wheel spinning this
produces a pulse waveform, the frequency of which is proportional to rate of rotation (and
so rate of flow).
 Chapter 2B
Procon Level and Flow with Temperature Temperature Rig Introduction

This pulse train will be passed to the transmitter where it is converted into a
4-20 mA current signal, the magnitude of which is dependent on the waveform frequency.
This current signal is then transmitted to the PI.

By converting to the 4-20 mA signal format, communication is no longer restricted to very

short distances, a concern when dealing with large process plants with control rooms
situated away from the measurement devices. Also, by converting to the 4-20 mA signal
format, the signals from the pulse flow sensor are compatible with all other devices. Before
every experiment, the calibration of the PFT should be verified. This can be accomplished
by turning off the pump and verifying that the DDM connected to the PFT reads 4 mA. With
the servo valve completely open, the DDM should read 20 mA.

The Heat Exchanger (TPR PROCON Introduction Practical 2)

Shell and Tube Heat Exchangers

In its most basic form a heat exchanger is a process component for either heating or
cooling process fluids, by means of an isolated heat transfer fluid. Below is a schematic
diagram of a shell-and-tube heat exchanger with one shell pass and one tube pass. The
vertical plates can serve as baffles to change flow direction, supports for the tubes or for
both purposes.

Source: Washington University in St. Louis

(http://classes.engineering.wustl.edu/mase-thermal-lab/me372b5.htm)

The heat exchanger on the Temperature Process Rig is a three-pass shell and tube
exchanger. This means that the cooling fluid follows a path through the exchanger in the
shape of an `S', allowing the fluid to effectively take three passes through the exchanger.
 Chapter 2B
Procon Level and Flow with Temperature Temperature Rig Introduction

This configuration provides better efficiency than a one- or two-pass exchanger. Its function
is to transfer heat between the primary flow and the secondary flow, which is supplied by
the mains city water via the Optional Auxiliary Valve.

The heat exchanger is made up from a number of cupro-nickel tubes through which the
secondary flow fluid makes its three-pass flow, thus allowing heat transfer between the
primary flow passing over the tubes. The body of the heat exchanger consists of a cast
aluminium shell with bronze end plates. The following diagram shows an exploded view of
the device.

It can be seen that the efficiency of the heat exchanger is flow dependent. For example, a
`fast' primary flow would transfer more heat than a `slow' primary flow.

Therefore this shows that the heat in the primary circuit can be controlled simply by
controlling the flow of the secondary circuit. In the same manner the secondary flow heat
absorption could be controlled by the primary flow rate.

In this lab you will change the flow rate through the heat exchanger to determine the effect
on the output water temperature.

Operation of the Cooling Radiator (TPR PROCON Introduction Practical

3)
The cooling radiator on the Temperature Process Rig (TPR) drops the temperature of the
heated return fluid (secondary flow) before it drains to the laboratory sink (or as it would re-
enter the Level and Flow Rig if it were set up in conjunction with the Level and Flow Rig).
This is achieved using a cooling radiator, which consists of a radiator and a fan unit. The
radiator itself comprises an aluminium structure of heat dissipating fins, whereby the fluid to
be cooled passes behind. In order to increase the cooling efficiency, a fan is attached to the
rear of the radiator to draw air through the radiator dissipating the heat from the fins.

It must be noted that cooling radiators of this type can only reduce the temperature to a
minimum degree equal to the ambient air temperature. It is therefore shown that the
 Chapter 2B
Procon Level and Flow with Temperature Temperature Rig Introduction

cooling radiator is only intended to provide a degree of cooling; however, in industrial

applications, a cooling radiator may be the primary source (only source) for cooling a
process, in which case its specification would be critical to the dissipation required.

In this particular case the radiator is switched on to demonstrate its efficiency in cooling the
secondary flow before returning to the sump tank of the BPR or laboratory sink drain.
Therefore, carefully note the temperature drop as it will be relatively small with respect to
the heat exchanger.
 Chapter 3
Procon Level and Flow with Temperature Float Level Transmitter

Float Level Transmitter

Objectives
 To learn about the Float Level Transmitter (FLT) and Float Level Sensor, which are used to
monitor the fluid in the upper tank.

 To learn how to calibrate the Float Level Transmitter so it can be used to monitor tank level
accurately.

Float Level Transmitter (BPR—Practical 1)

The Float Level Transmitter (FLT) is a device that takes level information from the Float
Level Sensor in the tank and transmits it to the Process Interface (PI).

The sensor is a potentiometer (pot) connected across a low voltage supply. The
potentiometer is turned by a floating disk.

As the level of water in the tank changes, the disk turns the potentiometer which changes
the voltage across it. It is this voltage that is passed to the Transmitter.

The FLT will then convert this to a current signal of the 4-20 mA format and transmit it to the
PI. By converting to the 4-20 mA signal format, communication is no longer restricted to
very short distances, a concern when dealing with large process plants whose control
rooms are situated away from the measurement devices.

Also by converting to the 4-20 mA signal format the signals from the sensor are compatible
with other devices. The equipment has become standardized and the set up of the
hardware is more flexible.

The sensor is the first device to actually produce information on the state of the process,
which can then be used to determine the future operation of that process. This, and similar
devices (the Pulse Flow Transmitter which is covered in the next assignment), enables
feedback control to be used.
 Chapter 4
Procon Level and Flow with Temperature PI Familiarization and On/off Control

Process Interface Familiarization

Current Loops in Process Control

Signaling is necessary in controlled installations. Consider a controller situated in a control
room and its transmitter and control valve are mounted locally to a tank. In order for the
controller to get information from the transmitter, and also to be able to affect the position of
the control valve (to alter the flow rate or the level in the tank for example), it is necessary
for the hardware to be able to communicate with each other.

Signaling may either be done pneumatically (e.g., compressed air signaling), hydraulically
(as in the case of automatic transmissions), or electrically (current signaling). A great
advantage with signaling is that standard signals can be used, which means that
instruments can be bought from different suppliers and still remain compatible.

Electrical signals in a control system are usually dc (direct current) signals and can be
divided into current and voltage signals. Current signals are used for signaling over long
distances and voltage signaling is used for shorter distances. Nowadays, computers are
increasingly taking over control room instrumentation and there has been a corresponding
drop in the use of voltage signaling.

Current signaling is very often used between transmitters, controllers and signal
transducers. The following diagram shows a simple signaling arrangement between a
control room and its transmitter.

From an electrical point of view, a transmitter can be regarded as a current generator,

which in our case is powered by the Process Interface (PI), situated in a remote control
room. This means that it is the transmitter that determines the current, independently of the
line resistance.

However, Ohm's law still applies:

I max = E/R

where E is the voltage supplied by the PI (in the control room) and R is the line resistance.

Industry standard current signals are 4-20 mA and 0-20 mA.

Current Loops in Process Control – Signal Transmitter
 Chapter 4
Procon Level and Flow with Temperature PI Familiarization and On/off Control

A transmitter for a 4-20 mA signaling loop works as follows: The transmitter draws about 3
mA in order to work itself. The voltage required at the transmitter's terminals is usually of
the order of 12-15 V.

This diagram shows a typical transmitter arrangement:

The sensing device is converting a physical quantity (e.g level, flow rate, pressure, etc.) into
a current signal. This is compared by the current sensor, with the outgoing current, the
difference is amplified and is used to alter the setting of the current generator.

The current signal changes in proportion to the signal from the sensing device. Signaling
between the transmitter and a number of instruments situated in the control room often
requires a current-to-voltage conversion, that takes place in the instruments by passing the
current through their resistors. This multiple instrument signaling is shown below.

The voltage levels obtained can then used internally within the instruments which are based
on analog electronics.

Voltage signals also occur in computer equipment, where analog signals are processed,
firstly using current-to-voltage conversion and then Analog-to-Digital (A/D) conversion.
The most common signal range is 0-10 V, but 1-5 V and 2-10 V are also used. Voltage
signaling is uncommon between transmitters and controllers within the process industries.
There are exceptions however, particularly in rotational speed control motors, where the
output signal from the tacho-generator is a dc voltage.
 Chapter 4
Procon Level and Flow with Temperature PI Familiarization and On/off Control

Current Loops in Process Control – Advantages and Disadvantages

For signaling using a 0-20 mA loop, the following advantages and disadvantages may be
listed:

Advantages
20 mA resolution
Current signal is independent of lead resistance, however, I max = E/R still applies

Disadvantages
The transmitter must be provided with separate supply. This adds to the installation cost.
It is not possible to provide a transmitter fail-safe system.
It is difficult to calibrate the zero.

Similarly, for signaling using a 4-20 mA loop:

Advantages
2-wire connection system, i.e signaling and power supply in the same leads may be used.
The floating zero point (4 mA) means :
Simple to calibrate zero point because the lowest current can be reduced below 0%.
Simple to provide transmitter fail-safe system.
Current signal is independent of line resistance, however, I max = E/R still applies.

Disadvantages
Resolution of only 16 mA.

Considering the above points, the 4-20 mA current loop is used in the experiments you will
be doing in this package.

Circuit Breaker, Current Loop and Connections

The front panel of the Process Interface (PI) includes a power switch, circuit breaker,
current source and process connections. The Digital Display Module (DDM) can be used to
display the loop current representing the process variable being measured.

The power section in the top left corner of the front panel includes a circuit breaker capable
of providing protection against overcurrent and earth fault currents (earth leakage).
 Chapter 4
Procon Level and Flow with Temperature PI Familiarization and On/off Control

The process interface includes internal circuitry of a current source. A voltage applied at the
input of the current source gives a current at the + and - output terminals, proportional to
the input voltage. The output current can be varied between 4-20 mA, using the black knob.
The controls labelled span and zero will be used to calibrate the devices.

Connectors
There are four general purpose process connections on the front panel of the PI. The fifth
process connection is reserved for the servo valve.

Each process connection consists of a 7-pin DIN socket and a pair of + and - terminals.
These can be either input or output terminals, depending on the circuit configuration. The
associated 7-pin DIN lead carries the power supply and current signals to the auxiliary
devices (transmitters, DDM) on the process rig.

The current signal alone, representing the process variable being measured by an auxiliary
device, can be obtained from the + and - terminals of the process connection and
subsequently distributed to the current-to-voltage (I-V) converters or to the controller.

The Digital Display Module (DDM), when included in the current loop, indicates the value
of current in the loop in mA or as a percentage (%) of the maximum current. Thus, 4 mA
corresponds to 0% and 20 mA to 100%.

Current-Voltage (I-V) Converters

There are two I-V converters in the PI, labeled I 1 ->V 1 and I 2 ->V 2 on the front panel of the
PI. These are used to convert the current in the loop to a voltage across R, a 100 ohm
resistor.
 Chapter 4
Procon Level and Flow with Temperature PI Familiarization and On/off Control

The voltages obtained can be used as inputs to the comparator or logic inputs in the on-off
control section on the front panel of the PI or as inputs to the various relays of the process
controller. In this way, different modes of control can be obtained.

The voltages produced across the terminals G and 0V, or H and 0V, are referenced with
respect to 0V, while the voltages across the corresponding + and - input terminals of the
converters, are not. This ensures that all the voltages are commonly referenced to 0 Volts.

On-Off Level and Temperature Control

Objectives

 To apply inverting and non-inverting on/off control with a Schmitt Trigger to regulate the level in
the BPR tank using inlet and outlet solenoid valves and to regulate temperature on the TPR
using first the heater and then the cooling fan.

 To understand the importance of hysteresis in on/off control.

On-Off Control: Schmitt Triggers

On-Off control is a means of actuating a two-state device to control a process variable. For
example, a valve that can be opened or closed to control the level of in a tank, or a heater
that can be turned on or off to control the temperature of a flow. A Schmitt Trigger is a
device that compares the process variable to a set point, determining whether the process
variable is greater or less than the set point to output the appropriate on or off signal to the
controlled device.

Inverting Schmitt Trigger

The following is a circuit diagram and hysteresis diagram of a comparator for the case of
the reference (V ref ) being connected to the inverting terminal (as indicated by the negative
sign):
 Chapter 4
Procon Level and Flow with Temperature PI Familiarization and On/off Control

Schematic of Inverting Comparator (Left) and Comparator Loop Diagram (Right)

V m = measured process variable (voltage signal from process rig sensor – temperature,
level, etc)
V ref = current source reference input (voltage set point determined by user)
V out = comparator output (Vout = 5V corresponds to ‘on’ and Vout = 0V corresponds to ‘off’)
Vt = hysteresis value

The Schmitt Trigger compares Vm to Vref in order to output a proper control signal to the
controlled device (valve, heater, etc…). When Vm is greater than Vref, this is known as a
positive deviation. Conversely, when Vm is less than Vref, this is known as a negative
deviation.

An inverting comparator outputs an ‘on’ (5V, in this case) signal when it experiences a
negative deviation. Consider the tank in the following figure in which the level of a fluid is
controlled using the inlet solenoid valve (which is Normally Closed; ON signal = OPEN
valve). In this situation, an inverting comparator should be employed so that when the
Float Level Sensor sends the comparator a signal which indicates that the level is below the
desired set point (a negative deviation), the comparator will output an ‘on’ signal to the
valve in order to open it, allowing more water to enter the tank in order to restore the
desired level.

Controlling the fluid level in a tank

 Chapter 4
Procon Level and Flow with Temperature PI Familiarization and On/off Control

A good way of visualizing the inverting control action of the Schmitt Trigger is to use a
comparator loop diagram as shown previously in the figure to the right. Suppose the
measured process voltage (Vm = 3.0 V) is higher than the desired level (Vref = 2.5 V)
indicating a positive deviation. Looking at the input-output curve above, Vm = 3 V
corresponds to Vout = 0 V (an ‘off’ signal).

Now assume that the process voltage is decreasing from 3V, with the reference voltage set
at 2.5 V. According to the input-output curve above, the trigger will not output an ‘on’ signal
until the process voltage gets to 2.3 V or below. The comparator does not trigger as soon
as the process voltage increases or decreases past the reference voltage. Instead, there is
an interval in which the trigger will continue to output the same signal it was before even
when passing the reference point. This interval between the reference point and the trigger
point is known as hysteresis. In the example shown above, the comparator has a
hysteresis value of 0.2 V.

Non-Inverting Schmitt Trigger

The figures below show a comparator for the case of the reference (V ref ) being connected
to the non-inverting terminal (as indicated by the positive sign):

Schematic of Non-Inverting Comparator (Left) and Comparator Loop Diagram (Right)

The non-inverting Schmitt Trigger outputs an ‘on’ signal when it experiences a positive
deviation. An example of when to connect the reference to the non-inverting terminal
configuration would be for using an outlet solenoid valve to control the level of the tank. In
this case, when the Float Level Transmitter outputs a voltage greater than the reference
(indicating that the tank level is too high), the trigger will output an ‘on’ signal to open the
valve and allow water to drain from the tank.

Suppose now that the voltage corresponding to the actual level (Vm = 3.0 V) is higher than
the desired level (Vref = 1.0 V) indicating a positive deviation. The comparator logic now
indicates that Vm = 3.0 V corresponds to Vout = 5 V, an ‘on’ signal to the controlled device.

In this case, the comparator has a hysteresis value of 0.5 V. Thus, the comparator’s trigger
points are at 0.5 and 1.5 V (Vref ± Vt). As the process voltage decreases past 0.5 V, the
deviation goes from positive to negative and the output goes from ‘on’ (5 V) to ‘off’ (0 V).
Similarly, as the process voltage increases past 1.5 V, the comparator will output an ‘on’
signal.
 Chapter 4
Procon Level and Flow with Temperature PI Familiarization and On/off Control

Hysteresis
The hysteresis value should be set wide enough that the comparator is not constantly
turning on and off. This results in a range of acceptable process voltage values for which
the comparator will not change its output.

This feature of hysteresis means that the comparator input-output loop is directionally
sensitive. For example, given a non-inverting Schmitt trigger, the output will continue to
output an off signal as the process voltage increases from Vref – Vt to Vref + Vt.
Conversely, an inverting Schmitt Trigger will continue to output an ‘on’ signal as the process
voltage increases between these two values. This feature should be taken into
consideration when predicting the control output of a Schmitt trigger.
 Chapter 5
Procon Level and Flow with Temperature P-, PI-, and PID-Control

P-, PI-, and PID-Control

Objectives
 Implement P-, PI-, and PID-Control to level, flow, and temperature control systems.

 To learn limitations for each type of control and understand when it is appropriate to use which
particular method.

 To learn that controlling flow is different than controlling level in how the process variable
behaves and that the control algorithm needs to be designed accordingly.

 To learn about the various lags in a temperature control system and how the process range is
limited by the hardware and operating environment.

Process Control and P-Control

Process Controllers
The task of a controller is to maintain the desired system performance despite any
reference changes, disturbances in the system, or changes to the plant dynamics.
Controllers are usually implemented electronically, either using analog circuits or a digital
computer (microprocessor). However, pneumatic and hydraulic controllers are still in use.

A block diagram of a General Process Control System is shown below:

This shows the plant and some means of measuring a process variable. This measured
variable is fed back to the controller to determine how well the system is operating.

With the addition of the feedback loop it has now become a closed loop system. The
controller will compare the measured output and the desired output (the set point) to
determine the control effort.

The ABB CM30 controller on the 38-300 Process Controller can be operated in manual
mode, in which the control law has been disconnected from the process plant and the
system is controlled by the operator only (a manual control system). With the switch in the
automatic position the control law is added to the manual input and this will determine the
 Chapter 5
Procon Level and Flow with Temperature P-, PI-, and PID-Control

behavior of the process. The process can now be controlled automatically given desired
operating levels.

Digital Control Systems

The use of digital computers for the control and monitoring of processes is becoming
increasingly important. Digital computers offer improved performance, better management
of a process, reliability, flexibility, reduced cost and can perform complex calculations that
could not be done by other (analog) means.

Powerful software development tools (programming languages, for instance) that can be
run on digital computers result in reduced development costs for computer-based control
systems. A number of digital single loop controllers can be used (an example of one of
these controllers being the 38-300), each carrying out the feedback control of a single
variable in a multi-variable process. These controllers are called the slave controllers and
are coordinated by a digital controller called the master.

A master controller sends set point information to the slave controllers and receives back
information on the measured variables. This type of control is called set point control. A
major benefit of this type of control is that, even in the event of a master controller failure,
the individual slave controllers will continue to operate and, with these operating, the
process should continue to run.

The other type of computer control is called Direct Digital Control (DDC). DDC, as the name
implies, uses digital controllers to determine the actual control effort applied to the process
or plant. DDC type of control is typical in Building and Heating, Ventilation, and Air-
Conditioning Systems (HVAC) as in those at 41 Cooper Square.

The digital controllers are microprocessor-based, single-loop or multi-loop, controllers that

control a single- or multi-variable plant, in place of the old analog mechanical or pneumatic
controllers.

The other method for the design of digital controllers is to design directly in discrete time.
The drawback of this method is that during discrete time (i.e. during the sample times) very
 Chapter 5
Procon Level and Flow with Temperature P-, PI-, and PID-Control

good control may be achieved, but between samples the controlled variable is effectively in
the open loop condition and may oscillate. Design techniques must be must be accurate
and thorough to encompass such eventualities.

The two block diagrams show the analog and digital discrete time controllers and how they
differ. The control law in the discrete time example is implemented digitally, but the plant is
a continuous analog system. A digital-to-analog converter (DAC) must be included between
the controller output and the plant input, and a corresponding analog-to-digital converter
(ADC) between the plant output and the comparator in the feedback path.

The sampling rate f s of the DAC and ADC will determine how the controller copes with
oscillation and fluctuations. Consequently it must be much faster than the process
dynamics, so that the digital approximation will produce similar results to the conventional
analogue controller.

The controller you are provided with is a single loop, digital controller. The DAC and ADC
are integral parts of the controller and, as such, you do not need to be concerned with them
for these laboratory assignments.

Proportional Control
A simple controller is the proportional controller. The control effort is directly proportional to
the deviation between the measured value and the set point (desired value).

The following diagram shows a general proportional control system:

The output, Y, is fed back along the loop, and the deviation between it and R, the set point,
is found. This error, e, is passed to the control law, where a control effort, U, is produced
which is proportional to this error.

This control effort will then determine how the process reacts in the next time period.

By considering automatic proportional control, the following can be written:

U = Ke
This shows that the control effort, U, is directly proportional to error, e, where K is the gain
or sensitivity of the controller.
 Chapter 5
Procon Level and Flow with Temperature P-, PI-, and PID-Control

Proportional Band
It is usual in industrial controllers to consider gain in terms of a proportional band (PB) or
%PB. The proportional band represents the change in measured value (normally fractional
change) that will generate 100% change in control effort. It can also be represented as the
deviation that will generate 100% change in control effort.

The PB can be further reduced in terms of error, e, and control effort, U. Deviation is the
error e divided by the measurement span, and the fractional change in control effort is the
change in control effort divided by the output span of the controller. Therefore PB is:

Controller gain, K, is just U, the control effort, divided by error. This reduces the equation to;

The above equation shows the relationship between proportional band and controller gain,
which is one of inverse proportionality. The controller output span divided by the
measurement span is the constant of proportionality, A.

A figure for gain alone is meaningless, since it will be dependent on the units used.
Expressing PB as a percentage does have meaning, even if nothing is known about the
process plant.

Proportional control alone is not normally used in process control because steady state
errors exist (for Type-0 systems). Proportional control is a form of deviation correction.
However, without some deviation no corrective action will be produced. Increasing gain will
reduce this deviation, but a large gain increases the chance of oscillation.

Proportional plus Integral (PI) Control

The major problem with proportional control is the inherent offset produced by the
controller. The control effort needed to correct an error is directly proportional to that error
and so the minimum error possible is finite (for Type-0 systems). The way to remove this
error is to use a control action that will produce a control effort for zero error.

This is done by introducing an extra component into the control effort that is the integral of
the error. This continues to change until the error is zero, thus removing the error entirely.
 Chapter 5
Procon Level and Flow with Temperature P-, PI-, and PID-Control

Controllers that employ integral action are described as automatic reset controllers. They
will exhibit a proportional action and an integral action (the integral action is often termed
the reset action).

Integral Control

The amount of integral action is controlled by a constant, T r , which is the reset time or
sometimes referred to as the integral time, T i . The reset term control action, U r , is
described by:

which shows the position of the reset time constant, T r .

The control effort, Uc, can now be determined by the following expression:

This describes the action of an automatic reset controller which is depicted in the diagram
below. The control effort, U c , includes two distinct elements: U r is the reset term and U p is
the proportional term.

The reset time constant, T r , is a very important variable as it controls the contribution of the
integral action to the control effort over a given length of time.

If an integrator is given a step input of fixed duration, its response is a ramp. The slope of
the ramp is controlled by T r : the smaller T r is, the steeper the ramp. With a steep ramp, the
contribution of the integral term will be large in a given time and the time taken to reduce
the error present will be short.

Unfortunately it is not possible to keep reducing T r , increasing the integral action, to remove
all error. As with the proportional band, there will be a minimum level of reset time constant
that makes the system unstable. This should be avoided. At this minimum level, the integral
action will be too large for the system and oscillation will result.
 Chapter 5
Procon Level and Flow with Temperature P-, PI-, and PID-Control

A problem that can occur when using normal (i.e. not extreme) values of T r is Reset
Windup. This is when an increase in control effort does not reduce error. This can be
caused by a fault in the control system, such as a control valve stuck fully open. If this were
to happen, the control effort would build up due to the control action attempting to reduce
the error, but without success.

When the fault is cleared, the error will drop rapidly because of the very high control effort.
The output of the controller, on the other hand, is not able to drop because of the long
persistent reset action that was being exerted. This will remain until the measured value
has been driven beyond the set point, producing the opposite error, for a sufficiently long
time to cancel out this control effort windup. The net result of this action is that there will be
a large overshoot of the measured value and a significant delay before the system is under
complete control again.

Anti-reset windup is a technique incorporated in modern controllers, including the 38-300

that you are using, that limits the integrating action as soon as the controller output
saturates. This will prevent windup of the control effort, which will reduce (hopefully remove)
overshoot and restore control sooner.

Derivative Action and Proportional plus Integral (PID) Control

PID control adds a derivative term which is proportional to the rate of change of error
enabling the controller to respond to a rapidly changing error. PID-Control can be split up
into the following terms:

U c = U p + U r +U d

where U p is the proportional term, U r is the reset term and U d is the derivative term.

The derivative term is described by the following expression:

U d = K T d (de / dt)

where T d is the derivative time.

This derivative time, T d , controls the contribution of the derivative term to the overall control
effort.

The control effort produced by a PID controller is as follows:

The derivative time appears in the numerator but the reset time appears in the
denominator. This means that a zero derivative time will remove any derivative action, but
an infinite reset time is needed to remove all reset action.
 Chapter 5
Procon Level and Flow with Temperature P-, PI-, and PID-Control

As briefly mentioned, the derivative contribution is directly proportional to the rate of change
of deviation between measured value and set point. As a result, the derivative term will be
positive while the deviation is increasing and negative while the deviation is decreasing.

Considering the action of the controller, while the error is increasing the derivative term will
increase the control effort, with the size of the increase determined by the rate of change of
the error. When the error is decreasing the derivative term will reduce the control effort as
the rate of change of the error decreases. Coupled with the proportional action, this
produces a braking effect as the measured value approaches the set point.

The overall effect of the derivative term is to increase the speed of response, to improve
damping of oscillation and to reduce the size of the overshoot. Derivative action will play no
part in removing the offset present in proportional control. This offset is a steady state error,
it has no rate of change since it is not time dependent, and the derivative of this will be
zero.

Unfortunately, derivative action cannot be applied to every control situation, as it is not

suitable for systems with noisy environments. Noisy signals contain high frequency
components, which are amplified by the derivative action. These amplified high frequency
components will appear at the controller output and will cause large changes in the position
of the actuator. While these may not affect the plant to a large extent (since plant dynamics
will usually act as a filter to high frequencies), the rapid changes will almost certainly
shorten the life of the actuator. The high frequencies may also cause fluctuations in the
power supply.

Derivative action is most successfully employed in systems with fast changing variables.
The reaction speed of the level and flow variables in the Level and Flow Rig and
temperature in the Temperature Rig are not sufficiently fast to demonstrate the potential of
derivative action. The servo valve does not allow the flow rate to change fast enough to
require much of the characteristic braking action of the derivative component.

However, there are certain situations where the derivative term is of great use. A servo
motor is designed to respond to input signals relating to speed and direction almost
immediately. If a servo motor were being driven by a square wave of large amplitude the
response of the motor would be similar to the graph below. It can be seen that there is a
large degree of overshoot at the direction changes.
 Chapter 5
Procon Level and Flow with Temperature P-, PI-, and PID-Control

The second graph below illustrates the difference the addition of derivative action could
make to the response of such a servo system. There is still a certain degree of overshoot,
but the braking effect reduces this to a minimum.

It can be seen that the derivative action reduces the response overshoot considerably.

Three-term PID-control can improve the response of processes having large distance-
velocity and transfer lags, and where load changes may be sudden and/or sustained. The
ability to recognize a rapid change in the rate of change of the error in a system is very
important in many situations.

A massive increase in the core temperature of a nuclear reactor, caused by a failure

elsewhere in a plant for example, could result in meltdown. By applying a very large control
effort, the time taken to reverse the direction of the system (towards failure) can be
reduced. Derivation action produces an overcompensation effect for the rapidly changing
error to halt its progress.

But it is not only overcompensation that a derivative action offers to a system. As the
measured value of a system approaches its set point, the rate of change of error will
decrease as the proportional action reduces. This reducing error rate will produce a
negative control contribution from the derivative term, reducing the control effort further.
This applies a braking effect to the control effort, and reduces the chance of overshoot.

The derivative action will pull a system away from failure by producing an overly large
control effort, and slow down its approach to the set point with the aim of preventing
overshoot.
 Chapter 6
Procon Level and Flow with Temperature Tuning PID Controllers

Tuning PID Controllers: Ziegler-Nichols (ZN) Tuning and Autotune

Objectives
 To learn about different Ziegler-Nichols (ZN) tuning methods, including the Continuous Cycling
and Reaction Curve methods, and implement the CM30 Autotune feature.

Tuning PID Controllers

If a model of the plant existed, analytical calculations or simulation could be used to
determine control parameters for a particular operating condition. Unfortunately, a model of
the plant is not always easy to obtain and is approximate at best. Various methods exist to
determine control parameters during 'run-time' of the actual process.

Tuning process controllers is a procedure to select control parameters that will produce a
desired system performance. The desired performance of a system is dependent on that
system, but there are criteria for system performance that can be applied to all systems. For
example, the aim of tuning could be to reduce the overshoot of the process variable to a
minimum while maintaining a fast response

Ziegler-Nichols Continuous Cycling Tuning (Practical 1)

The Ziegler-Nichols (ZN) Continuous Cycling method is widely used in industry. This
method is based on an article published by Ziegler and Nichols in 1942 establishing a set of
empirical rules for tuning controllers.

The aim of continuous cycling is to experimentally find the value of gain (or the value of PB
to be precise) which produces marginal stability. At the point of marginal stability, the value
of proportional band is recorded. This is the critical (or ultimate) proportional band, PB cr .
Also the period of oscillation is recorded. This is the critical period, T cr . Using PB cr and T cr ,
the following table can be used as starting points for proper control parameter settings.

Continuous Cycling Tuning Method

Control
Algorithm
PB (%) Tr Td

P 2 𝑃𝑃𝑐𝑐 - -

𝑇𝑐𝑐
PI 2.2 𝑃𝑃𝑐𝑐 -
1.2
𝑇𝑐𝑐 𝑇𝑐𝑐
PID 1.7 𝑃𝑃𝑐𝑐
2 8

Reaction Curve Tuning (Practical 2)

 Chapter 6
Procon Level and Flow with Temperature Tuning PID Controllers

The Reaction Curve Tuning method is also derived based on marginal stability but it uses
an open-loop test to determine the tuned parameters. It is more suited to slow-reacting
processes, where oscillation gives rise to uncontrollable operation.

Reaction Curve tuning is very simple to carry out. With the controller in Manual mode,
place the process system in a stable operating condition. Manually apply a step change to
the servo valve position (e.g. controller output, OP), and record the response of the system.
This is called the Reaction Curve method because it uses the response, or reaction curve
of the system, to determine the tuned parameter values. An example reaction curve is
shown below. This is a very typical response curve showing the delays that occur with a
dynamically slow process.

The first step is to find the maximum slope of the reaction curve, N, and to draw the tangent
of this point. Next the effective lag (or delay), L, is found. This is the lag between applying
the step change and the point at which the tangent of slope N crosses the line of initial
controller output value.

Using the change in controller output, ∆ u, effective lag, L, and maximum slope, N, the table
of Zeigler-Nichols recommended values can be used to calculate initial tuning parameters.

Reaction Curve Tuning Method

Control
Kp PB (%) Tr Td
Algorithm

∆𝑢 𝑁𝑁
P (100%)
𝑁𝑁 ∆𝑢 - -

PI ∆𝑢 𝑁𝑁 𝐷
0.9 (100%) -
𝑁𝑁 0.9∆𝑢 0.3

PID ∆𝑢 𝑁𝑁 𝐷 𝐷
1.2 (100%)
𝑁𝑁 1.2∆𝑢 0.5 2

u - controller o/p change in % units, e.g., a change in servo valve position from 30% to 35% yields u=5
∆%𝑃𝑃
N - slope of the reaction curve, , where ∆%PV is the change in process variable in % units or the
∆𝑡
change in process variable times the proportionality constant
L- effective lag (or delay)
 Chapter 6
Procon Level and Flow with Temperature Tuning PID Controllers

Reaction Curve Example

Consider the temperature process control system in the following curve:

Source: wustl.edu

The initial process variable is 120° F and at the conclusion of a step change the process
variable is 132.5° F. The process variable measurement span is 0 to 200° F. The response
was created using a controller output step change at t=0 of 20% therefore u = 20%. The
controller output span is 0 to 100%. The calculation of the slope, N, uses the change in
process variable times the constant of proportionality, A (e.g. output span divided by
measurement span) divided by t and proceeds as follows:
100%
∆%𝑃𝑃 (∆𝑃𝑃)(𝐴) 9°𝐹 �200°𝐹 �
𝑁= = = = 0.075 %/𝑠𝑠𝑠
∆𝑡 ∆𝑡 60 𝑠𝑠𝑠
Therefore,
∆𝑢 20%
𝐾𝑝 = = = 3.9
𝑁𝑁 �0.075 % � (68sec)
sec
And,
%
𝑁𝑁 �0.075 sec� (68sec)
𝑃𝑃 = 100% = 100% = 26%
∆𝑢 20%

Note, for the BPR liquid-level system, the controller (e.g. servo valve) span is 0 to 100%
and the measurement span is 0 to 100% level, thus the constant of proportionality, A, is
one. The units of the process variable are in % level, thus the slope has units of % per
second.

For both of Zeigler-Nichols methods discussed, there are expressions for calculating initial
control parameters for all three control algorithms, P, PI, and PID. By considering the
differences between these algorithms it becomes clearer how the controller gains are
determined. Changing from P to PI, the controller gain must be reduced (PB increased)
because the reset action is increasing the risk of oscillation of the system. Changing from PI
 Chapter 6
Procon Level and Flow with Temperature Tuning PID Controllers

to PID, the controller gain can be increased because the derivative action is opposing
changes in the measured variable, reducing the chance of oscillation.

Parameter Implementation and Self-Tuning (Practicals 3 and 4)

In this lab you will implement both Continuous Cycling and Reaction Curve tuning methods
and compare your results to the ABB CM-30 controller Autotune parameters.